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According to NASA, the definition of climate change is "a long-term change in the average weather patterns that have come to define Earth’s local, regional and global climates"
Global Warming is synonymous with Climate Change and is the warming of the Earth due to human activities since the pre-industrial period.
The primary cause of these two phenomena is the heat-trapping greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide and methane) in the atmosphere which are due to the burning of fossil fuels.
Global Warming disturbs nature in an extremely harmful and significant way. Temperatures become more severe, causing heat waves and droughts, which cause wildfires and more heat-related illnesses. This means that the ocean begins to warm, ice sheets melt, causing the waters to rise, threatening island communities and wildlife. Multiple species have already felt the effects of global warming, in the ocean, as well as on land. Finally, the effect on humans is already visible, with food shortages due to the extreme weather, and poverty and displacement surely rising in the future. All of these effects are visible and accountable and will get much worse in the future if we continue at the rate we are emitting greenhouse gases by burning fossil fuels.
https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/what-is-climate-change

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The United Nations has taken many steps to address the issue of Climate Change. The members of the U.N. participate in the conference (COP) for the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and in 2015 during this conference, major world leaders signed the Paris Agreement, which is the most well-known international treaty related to climate change. The COP usually meets on an annual basis and is where countries make decisions, implement the Convention, and review scientific reports about the state of climate change and emissions.
https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/supreme-bodies/conference-of-the-parties-cop

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According to the U.N. (https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/cop26) the three top goals are:

1. Not allow the global temperature to reach more than 1.5 degrees Celsius, "through rapid, bold emission cuts and net-zero commitments".

2. Increase the financial capabilities of countries for adaptation of climate change policies

3. Meet the goal of $100 billion provided to underdeveloped countries for protection against climate change impacts and investment in green technologies.

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The Compilation of Scientific Research for Policy-Making

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The Compilation of Scientific Research for Policy-Making

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The IPCC is also a United Nations body, created in 1988 alongside the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), but it is worth studying it more in-depth. The IPCC does scientific reports and assessments to provide policymakers with important information about climate change, including its implications as well as potential solutions and options. However, the IPCC is not a research organization, it simply collects credible information from the scientific community, while also staying neutral and unbiased. It also does not attempt to directly influence the policies of countries but to provide objective facts to the 195 members.  (https://www.ipcc.ch/)

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The Paris Agreement is a very important testament to international cooperation and a breakthrough treaty between 192 Parties. It entered into force on November 4, 2016, and its members have agreed to commitments to monitor and reduce their emissions.
https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement

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The Paris Treaty is full of long-term goals for every participating nation. These include limiting the global average temperature from rising above 2 degrees Celsius and achieving net-zero emissions. It also addresses financial goals and the needs of developing countries to join the effort and have the technology. There are provisions to review the progress of the countries involved in five-year cycles and make sure they work with each other while adapting to the changes that come with the issue of global warming.
The Paris Agreement works as a framework with an end goal of net-zero emissions and also achieving what the U.N. calls their "Sustainable Development Goals".
https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement

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The authoritative information on the status of approval, acceptance, accession and ratification of the Agreement is provided by the Secretary-General of the United Nations, on the respective internet page of the United Nations Treaty Depositary under: Paris Agreement.

The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change. It was adopted by 195 Parties at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris, France, on 12 December 2015. It entered into force on 4 November 2016. Currently, as of 27 January 2026, there are 194 Parties to the Paris Agreement.

Its overarching goal is to hold "the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels" and pursue efforts "to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels."

However, in recent years, world leaders have stressed the need to limit global warming to 1.5°C by the end of this century.

That's because the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change indicates that crossing the 1.5°C threshold risks unleashing far more severe climate change impacts, including more frequent and severe droughts, heatwaves and rainfall.

To limit global warming to 1.5°C, greenhouse gas emissions must peak before 2025 at the latest and decline 43% by 2030.

The Paris Agreement is a landmark in the multilateral climate change process because, for the first time, a binding agreement brings all nations together to combat climate change and adapt to its effects.

How does the Paris Agreement work?

Implementation of the Paris Agreement requires economic and social transformation, based on the best available science. The Paris Agreement works on a five-year cycle of increasingly ambitious climate action -- or, ratcheting up -- carried out by countries. Since 2020, countries have been submitting their national climate action plans, known as nationally determined contributions (NDCs). Each successive NDC is meant to reflect an increasingly higher degree of ambition compared to the previous version.

Recognizing that accelerated action is required to limit global warming to 1.5°C, the COP27 cover decision requests Parties to revisit and strengthen the 2030 targets in their NDCs to align with the Paris Agreement temperature goal by the end of 2023, taking into account different national circumstances.

Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)

In their NDCs, countries communicate actions they will take to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in order to reach the goals of the Paris Agreement. Countries also communicate in their NDCs actions they will take to build resilience to adapt to the impacts of climate change.

Long-Term Strategies

To better frame the efforts towards the long-term goal, the Paris Agreement invites countries to formulate and submit long-term low greenhouse gas emission development strategies (LT-LEDS).

LT-LEDS provide the long-term horizon to the NDCs. Unlike NDCs, they are not mandatory. Nevertheless, they place the NDCs into the context of countries' long-term planning and development priorities, providing a vision and direction for future development.

How are countries supporting one another?

The Paris Agreement provides a framework for financial, technical and capacity building support to those countries who need it.

Finance

The Paris Agreement reaffirms that developed countries should take the lead in providing financial assistance to countries that are less endowed and more vulnerable, while for the first time also encouraging voluntary contributions by other Parties. Climate finance is needed for mitigation, because large-scale investments are required to significantly reduce emissions. Climate finance is equally important for adaptation, as significant financial resources are needed to adapt to the adverse effects and reduce the impacts of a changing climate.

Technology

The Paris Agreement speaks of the vision of fully realizing technology development and transfer for both improving resilience to climate change and reducing GHG emissions. It establishes a technology framework to provide overarching guidance to the well-functioning Technology Mechanism. The mechanism is accelerating technology development and transfer through its policy and implementation arms.

Capacity-Building

Not all developing countries have sufficient capacities to deal with many of the challenges brought by climate change. As a result, the Paris Agreement places great emphasis on climate-related capacity-building for developing countries and requests all developed countries to enhance support for capacity-building actions in developing countries.

How are we tracking progress?

With the Paris Agreement, countries established an enhanced transparency framework (ETF). Under ETF, starting in 2024, countries will report transparently on actions taken and progress in climate change mitigation, adaptation measures and support provided or received. It also provides for international procedures for the review of the submitted reports.

The information gathered through the ETF will feed into the Global stocktake which will assess the collective progress towards the long-term climate goals.

This will lead to recommendations for countries to set more ambitious plans in the next round.

What have we achieved so far?

Although climate change action needs to be massively increased to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement, the years since its entry into force have already sparked low-carbon solutions and new markets. More and more countries, regions, cities and companies are establishing carbon neutrality targets. Zero-carbon solutions are becoming competitive across economic sectors representing 25% of emissions. This trend is most noticeable in the power and transport sectors and has created many new business opportunities for early movers.

By 2030, zero-carbon solutions could be competitive in sectors representing over 70% of global emissions.

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The authoritative information on the status of approval, acceptance, accession and ratification of the Agreement is provided by the Secretary-General of the United Nations, on the respective internet page of the United Nations Treaty Depositary under: Paris Agreement. The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change.

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The Kyoto Protocol is another international treaty under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, with 192 parties currently in membership (but the US has not ratified). It was adopted in 1997, but due to strenuous ratification, it was not entered into force until February 2005.

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Global Warming and Climate Change are influencing the Earth in a way that does not discriminate by country, or race, or anything else. Every single country contributes to the warming of the Earth, though some more than others, and every country is affected by the consequences.
Since the 1970s, with the first UN conference on the environment, and the establishment of UNEP, the problems with the environment have become known and countries slowly began to interact with the goal of taking action against it. Since then, many IGOs, treaties, and conferences have been established to try and combat climate change and hold countries and corporations responsible for poor care of the environment. It has now become a household topic and issue, and the more the public becomes aware, the more they will push their respective governments to take action and hold themselves and other accountable.

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The United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP, was established in 1972 to be the "global authority", working within the United Nations for implementation of programs and setting environmental agenda. UNEP works with the 193 states that are members of the U.N. to provide leadership, as well as education to address environmental issues. They do this through the UN Environment Assembly, "the world’s highest-level decision-making body on the environment." By promoting environmental science and developing international agreements, UNEP also comes up with solutions to pass on to participating Member States.

https://www.unep.org/about-un-environment

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UN Environment Assembly and Governing Council

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UN Environment Assembly and Governing Council

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The UN Environment assembly meets every two years to establish what are the priorities in international environmental policies and to develop global international law. It is "the world’s highest-level decision-making body on the environment." The UNEA was created in 2012 after the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (RIO+20).
The aim of the Assembly is to give as much importance and attention in the international community as is given to issues such as world peace,poverty, hunger, and health.
The Committee of Permanent Representatives, which are Representatives from UNEP, is the intergovernmental body for the Assembly, and accounts for 118 members.
https://www.unep.org/environmentassembly/about-united-nations-environment-assembly?_ga=2.240966917.763181779.1633334104-825198589.1628667604

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The United Nations Environment Assembly is the world's highest-level decision-making body on the environment. It addresses the critical environmental challenges facing the world today. Understanding these challenges and preserving and rehabilitating our environment is at the heart of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

The Environment Assembly meets biennially to set priorities for global environmental policies and develop international environmental law. Through its resolutions and calls to action, the Assembly provides leadership and catalyses intergovernmental action on the environment. Decision-making requires broad participation, which is why the Assembly provides an opportunity for all peoples to help design solutions for our planet's health.

History of the United Nations Environment Assembly

The United Nations Environment Assembly was created in June 2012, when world leaders called for UN Environment to be strengthened and upgraded during the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, also referred to as RIO+20. The Environment Assembly embodies a new era in which the environment is at the centre of the international community's focus and is given the same level of prominence as issues such as peace, poverty, health and security. The establishment of the Environment Assembly was the culmination of decades of international efforts, initiated at the UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972 and aimed at creating a coherent system of international environmental governance. Read more on the Assembly sessions

Governance of the United Nations Environment Assembly

United Nations Environment Assembly Bureau

The Environment Assembly sets the global environmental agenda in cooperation with UN institutions and Multilateral Environmental Agreements.

The meetings of the Assembly are governed by its Rules of Procedure.

The Assembly is led by a Bureau and its President. The UN Environment Assembly Bureau assists the President in the general conduct of business of the UN Environment Assembly. The Bureau is composed of ten Ministers of the Environment for a term of two years, and follows geographical rotations.

The Assembly is the governing body of the UN Environment Programme (UN Environment) and the successor of its Governing Council, which was composed of 58 member States. The UN Environment Assembly, with a universal membership, is now composed of 193 Member States.

Committee of Permanent Representatives

The Committee of Permanent Representatives is the inter-sessional intergovernmental body of the Assembly. The Committee is led by accredited Permanent Representatives to the UN Environment Programme, which account for 118 members. The Committee of Permanent Representatives was formally established as a subsidiary organ of the Governing Council (now the UN Environment Assembly) in May 1985. The Committee meets on a quarterly basis led by a five-member Bureau elected for a period of two years.

Throughout the year, Member States engage in formal preparatory discussions under the framework of the Open-ended meetings of the Committee of Permanent Representatives. The Committee contributes to the preparation of the agenda of the UN Environment Assembly, provides advice to the Assembly on policy matters, prepares decisions for adoption by the UN Environment Assembly and oversees their implementation. The outcomes of the most important preparatory meetings of the Committee of Permanent Representatives are available in the documents section.

A model of joint cooperation

To reach decisions on matters pertaining to the Assembly, joint sessions are convened with the Bureau of the UN Environment Assembly and the Committee of Permanent Representatives. The Joint Bureaux meetings enhance cooperation and transparency on the development and functioning of the Assembly. It is also during these preparatory meetings that the agenda and the structure of the Assembly are defined and adopted.

Summaries of the meetings of the Bureaux (United Nations Environment Assembly Bureau, Committee of Permanent Representatives and Joint Bureaux meetings) can be found here.

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About the United Nations Environment Assembly

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UN Environment Assembly and Governing Council The United Nations Environment Assembly is the world's highest-level decision-making body on the environment. It addresses the critical environmental challenges facing the world today. Understanding these challenges and preserving and rehabilitating our environment is at the heart of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

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The Kyoto Protocol is really important in the discussion about Climate Change as an international agreement because the agreeing parties are set to mandatory targets to reduce emissions and they are held to those limits and reductions. There is also an expectation to report on the policies they adopt and their progress within the allotted time periods. "The Kyoto Protocol sets binding emission reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries and economies in transition and the European Union. Overall, these targets add up to an average 5 per cent emission reduction compared to 1990 levels over the first five year period 2008–2012"
https://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol

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NASA: Facts, Causes, Effects, and Solutions

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NASA: Facts, Causes, Effects, and Solutions

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https://climate.nasa.gov/

NASA, as a respected independent agency of the United States, also has a lot of information about Climate Change and Global Warming. Many other states follow suit with that the United States does, because it is an influential world power with unique resources. Though there are many ways in which the United States could do better with environmental policy, including ratifying Treaties such as the Kyoto Protocol and being a permanent member of the Paris Agreement, there are a lot of independent organizations that lead the information streams about the effects of Climate Change.
With their resources, utilizing aerospace and other technologies, NASA has found direct evidence of the Earth's climate and temperature change. They have observed phenomena on and off the surface of Earth and have concluded that human activities are the biggest contributing factor.
Primarily, the burning of fossil fuels has increased greenhouse gases that are causing the warming of the Earth. Without any human intervention, and after stopping these problematic activities, the Earth would naturally go into a cooling period. With the current rate that states and corporations are adding to this problem, the effects will be felt for decades to come and be detrimental for the next generations.
NASA makes all of their findings available on a global scale, as an expert in Climate Change, as well as providing possible solutions for more sustainability. These include, as noted on their website:
"-increase energy efficiency;
-increase the use of renewable energy;
-measure, report, and reduce NASA's direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions;
-conserve and protect water resources through efficiency, reuse, and stormwater management;
-eliminate waste, prevent pollution, and increase recycling;
-leverage agency acquisitions to foster markets for sustainable technologies and environmentally preferable materials, products, and services;
-design, construct, maintain, and operate high-performance sustainable buildings;
-utilize power management options and reduce the number of agency data centers;
-support economic growth and livability of the communities where NASA conducts business;
-evaluate agency climate change risks and vulnerabilities and develop mitigation and adaptation measures to manage both the short-and long-term effects of climate change on the agency's mission and operations;
-raise employee awareness and encourage each individual in the NASA community to apply the concepts of sustainability to every aspect of their daily work to achieve these goals;
-maintain compliance with all applicable federal, state, local or territorial law and regulations related to energy security, a healthy environment, and environmentally-sound operations; and
-comply with internal NASA requirements and agreements with other entities." (https://climate.nasa.gov/solutions/resources/)

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Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet

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Home - Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet

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Vital Signs of the Planet: Global Climate Change and Global Warming. Current news and data streams about global warming and climate change from NASA.

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Amnesty International has found that the most impacted groups by climate change are developing and underdeveloped nations, such as small island-states, poorer communities in large states, such as the ones in North America, that have to breathe toxic air from power plants and large industrial plants, women, and girls more than men because they are more likely to be marginalized and denied financial stability, future generations, and indigenous communities, who have a closer relationship to the natural world.
https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/climate-change/

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Who is impacted most by climate change?

Climate change is and will continue to harm all of us unless governments take action. But its effects are likely to be much more pronounced for certain communities and groups, as well as those who are generally already disadvantaged and subject to discrimination. This includes, but is not limited to:

People in developing nations, especially coastal countries and small island states

At a national level, those in less wealthy countries, especially low-lying, small island states and less developed countries, will be and are already among those worst affected by climate change. Often it's those who contribute the least to climate change that are most impacted.

This is due not only to their exposure to climate-related disasters, but also to underlying political and socio-economic factors that amplify the impacts of those events. In particular, the lasting consequences of colonialism, and its legacy of unequal distribution of resources among countries, have reduced the ability of lower-income countries to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change.

Pakistan, which has accounted for 0.4% of historic emissions since 1959, is listed as one of the most climate vulnerable places in the world, according to joint findings by the World Bank and Asian Development Bank. The 2022 floods alone have caused at least 1,600 deaths and cost the country USD 10 billion.

Communities suffering from environmental racism

The effects of climate change and fossil fuel-related pollution also run along ethnicity lines when environmental policy-making discriminates against people of colour and other communities facing ethnic, religious and linguistic discrimination, or excludes them from leadership roles in the environmental movement.

In North America, it is largely poorer communities of colour who are forced to breathe toxic air because their neighbourhoods are more likely to be situated next to power plants and refineries. They experience markedly higher rates of respiratory illnesses and cancers. African Americans are three times more likely to die of airborne pollution than the overall US population.

Marginalized women and girls

Women and girls are often confined to roles and jobs that make them more reliant on natural resources. Because they face barriers in accessing financial or technical resources or are denied land ownership, they are less able to adapt to climate change. This means that they are more at risk from the impacts of climate-related events as they are less able to protect themselves against it and will find it harder to recover.

Children

Children and young people are already suffering due to their specific metabolism, physiology and developmental needs. This means, for example, that the forced displacement experienced by communities impacting a whole range of rights - from water, sanitation and food to adequate housing, health, education and development - is likely to be particularly harmful to children.

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Why is climate change a human rights issue?

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It's easy to take our planet for granted until we see the human cost of its degradation.

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According to the Climate Change Performance Index 2022, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway are leading in climate protection achievements, while Egypt, the European Union, and the Philippines  have the least. With that being said, many countries, including Denmark and Sweden, do not have explicit strategies for achieving net-zero emissions anytime soon.
https://www.statista.com/statistics/266138/climate-change-the-countries-with-the-highest-achievements/

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Climate change achievements by country 2021 | Statista

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Based on the 2021 Climate Change Performance Index, Sweden was ranked as the country with the highest achievement in climate protection.

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What did I learn from this research? (6a)

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What did I learn from this research? (6a)

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Learning more about the international cooperation around a topic that affects everybody, like climate change, makes me hopeful, because I want to be optimistic that states will hold themselves and each other responsible. With that being said, there is still so much to achieve to make a long-lasting difference and make sure Earth is livable and sustainable for future generation. At the rate that states, corporations, and civilians are emitting greenhouse gases, it will not.
The Treaties and Organizations, mainly all of the efforts of the United Nations, are so important to uphold and continue. The only way to solve this detrimental problem is for everyone to work together. Every single person should become educated on this topic and make sure to let their voices be heard, holding their states accountable and making sure to do their own part to protect the environment.

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Challenges and Achievements of International Law and Cooperation in addressing Climate Change (6b&c)

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Challenges and Achievements of International Law and Cooperation in addressing Climate Change (6b&c)

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The main challenge in addressing this global issue is that there is a lot of information and evidence to support it, but not clear strategies on how to combat it, and not a lot of agreement in the international community. Frankly, we do not have many other choices besides using fossil fuels, and the sustainable and environmentally friendly options are expensive and will take time to implement completely. Corporations who benefit from the industrialized way they have been operating for a long time would rather not lose money now to protect the Earth for the generations that will leave after we are all gone. Greed, misinformation, and indifference are proving to be huge obstacles to implementing policies.

The achievements are not to be ignored. Just the fact that there are so many multilateral treaties and international organizations that have active members is an accomplishment, but this has to be just the beginning point. States mostly agree on the science, because it is irrefutable at this point, but point fingers at each other, arguing who is the more responsible party and how to set goals.

Intergovernmental organizations have the role to educate, unite, hold responsible, advise, and come up with solutions for participating members to each go back to their own states and do their part in setting goals and policies. As is shown in the research, there are many of these IGOs and agreements that fall under the scope of already established global organizations, like the United Nations. The UN especially has a lot of authority and leverage over its member states to participate in these initiatives.

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As scholars, we need to be open-minded and rational about the information we receive on a daily basis. Climate change, in the United States especially, has become a political topic and something that people say is not deserving of attention or effort. In fact, right now we can clearly see the consequences that global warming has on the Earth, the temperature change, the natural phenomena, the loss of species, the poverty and food shortages, and countless other things. Climate Change is a global issue just as important as poverty, hunger, health, and security because frankly, it affects every one of those things in every state. I would recommend for anyone to do their own research if they still have doubts and more importantly, keep talking about this, because if politicians and governments all around the world see that their constituents care about this, they might try to make a change and become more active in these IGOs and the goals they have set. Though most of these emissions, fossil fuel burning, and environmental crimes are done by huge corporations, every individual can make small changes in their lives to also keep their own personal environment and the Earth as a whole safe.