# data[].attributes.body
"For example, to learn the word ball, the child would first associate the word ball with the familiar spherical object, the stimulus. Next, the child would produce the word by

imitation, at which time an adult would praise the child for saying ball, thereby

reinforcing the child’s correct verbal response" (Pg. 61)

# data[].attributes.body
Parents reinforce based on if the child gets the meaning of something, not if the grammar is correct

correct observations?

# data[].attributes.body
"From the innatist perspective, children construct grammar through a pro-cess of hypothesis testing" (Pg. 61)

People are born with knowledge already

# data[].attributes.body
"For example, a child may hypothesize the rule that all plural nouns end with an -s. Therefore, when they come to a word such as child, they form the plural as childs, or when they come to the word man, they

say mans for the plural. Gradually, they will revise their hypothesis to accommodate exceptions to the plural rule" (Pg. 61)

# data[].attributes.body
"According to the interactionist position, caregivers play a critical role in adjusting language to facilitate the use of innate capacities for language acquisition" (Pg. 62)

"Interactionists study the language mothers and other caregivers use when

caring for infants and young children, with special attention to modifications they make during these social interactions to assist children in communication" (Pg. 62-63)

Interactions with others shape who we are and our understanding of our world around us

# data[].attributes.body
Child: Birthday cake Megan house.

Mom: We had birthday cake at

Megan’s house.

What else did we do at

Megan’s house?

Child: Megan dolly.

Mom: Megan got a doll for her

birthday, didn’t she?

Pg. 63

The mom is solidifying the daughters experience of what they did that day while also still using "adult language"

# data[].attributes.body
"... in which tape-recorded dialogues are pre-sented for students to memorize, followed by pattern drills for practicing verb

forms and sentence structures" (Pg. 65)

Listen

Speak

Read

Write

Errors corrected on the spot to prevent bad habit

# data[].attributes.body
"... is a procedure for comparing phonological, morphological, and syntactic rules of two languages (the learner's mother tongue and his or her second language) to predict areas of difficulty in a second language development" Pg. 66

# data[].attributes.body
"Spanish creates the plural by adding an -s or -es ending to a noun (e.g., casa,

casas; sociedad, sociedades). This rule is similar to English pluralization. Thus,

by contrastive analysis, it would be predicted that plurals in English will be

fairly easy for native Spanish speakers to learn" Pg. 66

# data[].attributes.body
"They focus on the ways in

which native speakers modify their speech to try to make themselves understood

by English-learning conversational partners" (Pg. 68)

# data[].attributes.body
"As meaning is negotiated, non-native speakers are actually able to ex-ert some control over the communication process during conversations, thereby

causing their partners to provide input that is more comprehensible. They do this

by asking for repetitions or otherwise showing confusion. The listener may then

respond by paraphrasing or by using additional cues to convey meaning, such as

gesturing or drawing" (Pg. 68)

The drawing or gesturing can bring clarification to the non-native speaker

# data[].attributes.body
difference between ACQUIRING and LEARNING

main focus should be communication not accuracy

"Krashen claims (1) that learning cannot

turn into acquisition and (2) that it is only acquired language that is available for

natural, fluent communication" (Pg. 66)

# data[].attributes.body
"Krashen proposes that the formal study of language leads to the development of an internal grammar editor or monitor. As the student produces sentences, the monitor “watches” the output to ensure correct us-age" (Pg 66)

Grammar rules and spelling, etc

Self monitor written language

# data[].attributes.body
"According to the natural order hypothesis,

language learners acquire (rather than learn) the rules of a language in a predictable sequence" (Pg. 67)

# data[].attributes.body
"In other words, comprehensible input is the

causative variable in language acquisition. Three constraints underlie Krashen’s

definition of input: (1) it must be understandable, thus the term comprehensible

input; (2) it must contain grammatical structures that are just a bit beyond the

acquirer’s current linguistic knowledge (abbreviated as i + 1, with i meaning

input and +1 indicating the ideally challenging level); and (3) it must be part

of naturally flowing language used for authentic, purposeful communication" (Pg. 67)

Learners will progress as they comprehend

# data[].attributes.body
"Citing a variety of studies, Krashen concludes that the most important affective variables favoring second language acquisition are a low-anxiety learning environment, student motivation to learn the language, self-confidence, and self-esteem" (Pg. 67)

Emotions affect the ability to learn

Positive and safe environments will be more beneficial to the learners confidence and performance