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Ferromanganese Crusts

Description of the Resource:

Ferromanganese crusts are hard, mineralized layers that form on the surfaces of seamounts and ridges in the deep ocean. They are composed mainly of iron and manganese oxides, with additional concentrations of cobalt, nickel, and other metals. These crusts develop over millions of years through the precipitation of metals from seawater.

What is it used for?

The metals extracted from ferromanganese crusts are essential for various high tech applications. Cobalt and nickel are crucial for manufacturing batteries, including those used in electric vehicles and renewable energy storage systems. The demand for these materials is increasing rapidly due to the global transition to clean energy technologies.

Geographical Distribution:

Ferromanganese crusts are found in several regions of the world's oceans. Notable occurrences include the seamounts of the Pacific Ocean, particularly in areas such as the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, and the seamounts in the Atlantic Ocean. These regions are characterized by volcanic activity, which provides the hard substrates necessary for crust formation.

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How Do Sunscreen and Skincare Chemicals Harm Our Oceans?

Causes:
Many common sunscreens and skincare products contain chemical ingredients like oxybenzone, octinoxate, and benzophenones that protect our skin from UV rays. But when we swim or shower, these chemicals wash off our bodies and end up in rivers, lakes, and eventually the ocean. Since sunscreen is used so widely, especially in coastal areas and tourist destinations, this pollution builds up fast. Even small amounts can enter marine environments from everyday activities, especially in areas without proper water treatment or environmental regulation.

Effects:
These chemicals may seem harmless, but they’re toxic to marine life. Coral reefs absorb these substances, which can cause coral bleaching, DNA damage, and deformities in young coral. Over time, this weakens reef ecosystems that protect coastlines and support marine biodiversity. Other creatures like sea urchins, fish, mussels, and even dolphins can be harmed too, with problems ranging from reproductive issues to hormone disruption and birth defects. These impacts don’t just affect ocean animals but also the seafood we eat and the health of entire ecosystems.

Solutions:
One of the easiest things we can do is switch to reef safe, mineral-based sunscreens made with ingredients like zinc oxide or titanium dioxide (non-nano). Wearing UV protective clothing like sun shirts, and avoiding peak sun hours between 10 AM and 2 PM, are also great alternatives. On a larger scale, more regions can follow places like Hawaii and Palau by banning harmful sunscreen ingredients near reefs. Public education, eco labeling, and stronger environmental policies can help limit the damage and protect marine ecosystems for future generations.

References:
NOAA National Ocean Service. (2023). Skincare Chemicals and Coral Reefs. https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/news/sunscreen-corals.html

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2022). Environmental Impact of Currently Marketed Sunscreens and Potential Human Impacts of Changes in Sunscreen Usage. https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/environmental-impact-of-currently-marketed-sunscreens-and-potential-human-impacts-of-changes-in-sunscreen-usage

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Healthy coral reefs are one of the most valuable ecosystems on Earth. They provide billions of dollars in economic and environmental services, such as food, coastal protection, and tourism. However, coral ecosystems around the world face serious threats from a number of sources, including climate change, unsustainable fishing, land-based pollution, coastal development, disease, and invasive species.

Scientists have also discovered that some of the chemicals found in sunscreen and other personal health products threaten the health of coral reefs. How these, and other compounds, affect reef ecosystems remains an active area of research. In August 2022, the National Academy of Sciences released a study which reviews the state of the science on the use of sunscreen ingredients and their environmental impacts. NOAA is reviewing the study and, upon completion of this review, will update the information presented in this article as warranted.

Infographic Transcript: Sunscreen Chemicals and Marine Life

How sunscreen chemicals enter our environment: The sunscreen you apply may not stay on your skin. When we swim or shower, sunscreen may wash off and enter our waterways.

How sunscreen chemicals can affect marine life:

Green Algae: Can impair growth and photosynthesis.

Coral: Accumulates in tissues. Can induce bleaching, damage DNA, deform young, and even kill.

Mussels: Can induce defects in young.

Sea Urchins: Can damage immune and reproductive systems, and deform young.

Fish: Can decrease fertility and reproduction, and cause female characteristics in male fish.

Dolphins: Can accumulate in tissue and be transferred to young.

Chemicals in some sunscreens that can harm marine life include: Oxybenzone, Benzophenone-1, Benzophenone-8, OD-PABA, 4-Methylbenzylidene camphor, 3-Benzylidene camphor, nano-Titanium dioxide, nano-Zinc oxide, Octinoxate, Octocrylene

Here are a few ways to protect ourselves and marine life: Consider sunscreen without chemicals that can harm marine life, seek shade between 10 am & 2 pm, and use Ultraviolet Protection Factor (UPF) sunwear.

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national centers for coastal ocean science

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national oceanic and atmospheric administration

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center for operational oceanographic products and services

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Healthy coral reefs are one of the most valuable ecosystems on Earth. They provide billions of dollars in economic and environmental services, such as food, coastal protection, and tourism. However, coral ecosystems around the world face serious threats from a number of sources, including climate change, unsustainable fishing, land-based pollution, coastal development, disease, and invasive species.

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Glauconite

Glauconite is a green mineral found in marine sediments, mostly on the continental shelf. It forms in places where water is calm and not a lot of other sediment is piling up, so it takes a long time to grow. You’ll usually see it mixed with sand or shells, and it shows up as little green grains or pellets.

Since it forms slowly and in specific conditions, glauconite helps scientists learn about past ocean environments. It’s also rich in potassium and iron, which makes it useful in dating rocks and sediments. Some people even use it as a natural fertilizer because of the nutrients it holds.

While glauconite isn’t usually mined from the ocean, disturbing areas where it builds up could mess with the seafloor and affect habitats. It also risks damaging important clues that researchers use to study Earth’s history.

Glauconite takes thousands of years to form, so damaging it could erase important environmental records. Mining or disturbing these areas could harm sea life and throw off natural cycles in the ocean floor.

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How do Fertilizers and Pesticides Poison Our Oceans ?

Causes -

Chemical runoff is when fertilizers and pesticides used in farming and landscaping are washed off by rain and carried into nearby rivers, lakes, and eventually, the ocean. This is especially common in areas with large-scale industrial agriculture where synthetic chemicals are heavily applied. Urban areas also contribute through runoff from lawns, golf courses, and streets, which often contain chemical residues. Because many places lack strict regulation or sustainable practices, these pollutants travel unchecked into waterways, where they become a major source of ocean contamination.

Effects -

Once these chemicals reach the ocean, they disturb marine ecosystems in a bunch of harmful ways. Excess nutrients from fertilizers, especially nitrogen and phosphorus cause massive overgrowths of algae.The blooms block sunlight and consume oxygen in the water, creating "dead zones" where marine life cannot survive/live. Additionally, pesticides are toxic to many forms of marine life, harming fish, coral reefs, and other organisms. These toxins can also accumulate in the food chain, affecting both marine animals and humans who consume seafood. Coastal communities may also face health risks and economic losses due to polluted

Solution -

To reduce chemical runoff, farmers can adopt eco-friendly practices like planting cover crops, reducing chemical use, and using natural alternatives. Governments can also help by enforcing stronger environmental protections and offering incentives for sustainable farming. On a local level, communities can promote green infrastructure such as rain gardens and permeable pavements that help absorb water and filter pollutants before they reach storm drains and waterways. Refrence -

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2023 https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution

https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html

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The Threat of Plastic Pollution in Our Oceans

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Plastic pollution is one of the most pressing environmental issues affecting our oceans today. It primarily stems from human activities such as the overuse of single-use plastics, improper waste disposal, and littering. Items like plastic bags, bottles, straws, and packaging are often used once and then discarded, eventually making their way into waterways and oceans. In addition, lost or abandoned fishing gear, known as “ghost nets,” contributes significantly to the problem. Urban runoff also carries microplastics from synthetic clothing and personal care products into marine environments.

The effects of plastic pollution on ocean ecosystems and marine life are devastating. Many marine animals mistake plastic debris for food, leading to starvation, digestive blockages, and internal injuries. For example, sea turtles often eat plastic bags thinking they are jellyfish. Animals can also become entangled in larger pieces of plastic waste, which restricts movement and can result in injury or death. Microplastics—tiny plastic particles—are now found in fish and shellfish, raising serious concerns about human health through seafood consumption. The presence of plastic in the ocean also disrupts ecosystems, damages coral reefs, and contributes to the decline in marine biodiversity.

To combat plastic pollution, both individuals and governments must take action. One effective solution is to reduce our reliance on single-use plastics by using reusable alternatives such as water bottles, cloth bags, and metal straws. Communities can also participate in beach cleanups and educational campaigns to raise awareness about proper waste disposal. On a larger scale, governments can implement stricter regulations on plastic production and waste management, enforce bans on certain plastic products, and hold companies accountable through extended producer responsibility programs.

Plastic pollution is a global issue with serious consequences, but through combined efforts at every level—personal, community, and governmental—we can work toward cleaner, healthier oceans for future generations.

📚 References:

• NOAA Marine Debris Program. (2024). Plastic pollution and marine debris. Retrieved from: https://marinedebris.noaa.gov

• National Geographic. (2023). Planet or Plastic? Retrieved from: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/planetorplastic/

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Marine Symbiotic Relationship: Clownfish & Sea Anemone

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🐠 Species Involved:

• Clownfish (Amphiprioninae)

• Sea Anemone (e.g., Heteractis magnifica, Stichodactyla gigantea)

🔁 Type of Symbiosis:

Mutualism – both species benefit from the relationship.

🌍 Ecological Roles:

• Clownfish Benefits:

• Gains protection from predators by hiding within the anemone’s stinging tentacles, which most other fish avoid.

• Gets access to leftover food and a safe place to lay eggs.

• Sea Anemone Benefits:

• The clownfish defends the anemone from predators like butterflyfish.

• Its movement improves water circulation, which enhances respiration and waste removal.

• Clownfish waste provides nutrients for the anemone.

🐚 Habitat:

This relationship is common in warm, shallow waters of coral reefs throughout the Indo-Pacific region, including the Great Barrier Reef. These environments are rich in biodiversity but also face threats like coral bleaching and ocean acidification.

National Geographic. (n.d.). Clownfish and sea anemones: Underwater allies.Retrieved from https://www.nationalgeographic.com

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Scientific Name: Kiwa hirsuta

Common Name: Yeti Crab

Scientific Classification:

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Subphylum: Crustacea

Class: Malacostraca

Order: Decapoda

Family: Kiwaidae

Genus: Kiwa

Species: Kiwa hirsuta

One of the most fascinating adaptations of the Yeti Crab is its “hairy” pincers, which are actually covered in filamentous bacteria. These bacteria help detoxify the hydrothermal vent environment where the crab lives—an area rich in toxic chemicals like hydrogen sulfide. More importantly, the Yeti Crab cultivates and farms the bacteria on its claws as a food source. In the nutrient-scarce, pitch-black depths (~2,200 meters below the surface), photosynthesis isn’t possible. So, this crab has evolved to rely on chemosynthesis—harnessing bacteria that convert chemicals into energy.

This adaptation is a response to extreme pressure, cold temperatures, total darkness, and limited food availability in the deep-sea vent ecosystems. Farming bacteria gives the crab a steady and renewable source of nutrition, helping it survive where few other organisms can.

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Species: Sea Anemones and Clown fish

Type of Symbiosis: Faculative mutalism

Ecoroles: The clownfish keep the sea anemone clean by eating dead tentacles and algae that settle on them.

Habitat: Shallow tropical waters

Sea anemone are stationery predators catching prey by using their sting ray tentacles.

Clown fish on the other hand are small bright colored fish which live within the tentacles of the sea anemone.

Clown fish are immune to the sea anemone stinging cells which provide a safe place to dwell and reproduce.

These sea animals benefit one another by

Clown fish appearance helps keep predators away from sea amnome

Provide shelter for protection and reproduction.

Attracting other prey for eating.

Helping increase metabolism

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Chemicals In The Ocean

Several human actions have led to chemical runoff, and fertilizers and pesticides have contaminated the ocean. For starters, farmers are overusing fertilizers. The nitrogen and phosphorus that are being applied to crops are being washed off when it rains. Also, the sprays that are used to fight pesticides can be carried into the rivers and lakes. The fertilizers that homeowners are using can run into the drains during rain. Also, deforestation has led to chemical runoff. When trees/vegetation are cleared, the ability to absorb water decreases, which results in erosion and leads to chemicals being mixed in with the streams.

The chemicals that are being polluted into the ocean are clouding the water, which is preventing photosynthesis from occurring. Some pesticides are extremely toxic to coral and many small organisms. These toxins can then enter the food chain, which could lead to humans ingesting these chemicals, such as mercury. Marine wildlife is being affected as well. Fish can absorb these chemicals through their gills, which could damage their reproductive system. And lastly, these chemicals can lead to contaminating rivers and groundwater, which are sources for drinking water.

Two possible solutions that can help against chemical runoff are, first, by educating the public. Residents need to learn about the consequences of chemical runoff, especially about the potential harm it could lead to them. For starters, one can learn how to properly dispose of household waste that contains chemicals. Another solution is that the government can enforce laws that limit the amount of chemical use, and the government can also create eco-friendly practices that all are encouraged to participate in

https://pesticidestewardship.org/water/runoff/

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/runoff/

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Location:

Bay of Fundy, Canada

Located between the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, the Bay of Fundy is one of the most famous coastal areas in the world due to its extraordinary tides. It’s a long, narrow inlet with a funnel shape that amplifies tidal action.

The Bay of Fundy experiences a semidiurnal tide, meaning there are two high tides and two low tides each day. It holds the record for the world’s highest tidal range, reaching up to 16 meters (52 feet). The unique shape and depth of the bay create a phenomenon called tidal resonance, which amplifies tides dramatically. Notable tidal phenomena include tidal bores, where a wave of water surges upriver against the current.

The Bay features dramatic sea cliffs, mudflats, salt marshes, and intertidal zones. These have been carved and maintained by the extreme tidal forces. The constant erosion and deposition create ever-changing landscapes, including the famous Hopewell Rocks, sea stacks sculpted by tidal action over thousands of years.

The extreme tides affect local ecosystems, such as migrating bird populations that rely on exposed mudflats for feeding. Human activity like fishing, aquaculture, and tidal power generation is influenced by the tides. The risk of coastal erosion and flooding is also heightened, impacting infrastructure and communities.

https://media.istockphoto.com/id/1324674396/photo/the-hopewell-or-flowerpot-rocks-in-the-bay-of-fundy-new-brunswick.jpg?s=612x612&w=0&k=20&c=E1o7ZN7KZ20QuePIJDcWowpT-SaXwF1befk3zmVLwVk=

If your community experienced tides as extreme as the Bay of Fundy’s, how might that change your relationship with the coast or how your town is built?

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Manganese nodules are rounded, potato‑like lumps found on the deep‑sea floor, particularly in abyssal plains at depths of 3,000–6,000 m composed of layers of manganese and iron oxides over a rock core  . They contain valuable metals like manganese, nickel, copper, cobalt, and even rare earth elements, which are crucial for batteries, electronics, and renewable energy tech  . These nodules are especially abundant in the Clarion–Clipperton Zone between Hawaii and Mexico, but can also be found in the Indian and Atlantic Oceans.

Harvesting involves large seabed robots that scoop up nodules from the top layer of sediment, pump them up to ships for separation, and dump back sediment plumes  . This process causes serious environmental damage destroys habitats, kills deep‑sea organisms, generates sediment clouds, and disrupts biodiversity and biogeochemical cycles that may take decades to centuries to recover . While proponents say seabed mining may reduce pressure on terrestrial mining, scientists warn the risks to unique deep‑water ecosystems are immense and often irreversible  .

Environmental Impact Summary:

Seabed is plowed flat, killing organisms and erasing habitat for species that depend on nodules. Sediment plumes smother filter feeders and may alter ocean chemistry and light penetration. Noise and light from machinery disrupt deep‑sea life. Recovery is extremely slowecosystems and nodules themselves rebuild over millions of years

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How ocean pollution effects human and marine life

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For decades the ocean has served as dumping grounds fir everything such ad plastics,metals,trash and toxic items. As a result of this seafood is greatly contaminated, marine life is decreased and compramised. Human and animal waste us dumped in the ocean ending up back on our plates completing a tragic toxic cycle.

About 5.25 trillion pieces of plastic are dumped in the ocean almost mirroring the amount of people on planet earth. Dead zones in oceans which are areas full of contaminated toxic waste allow no marine life to exist or survive due to minimal oxygen. Toxins make way through water sources creating a dense marine environment. Oil spills , chemical discharge from factories littering, and ocean mining cripple the ocean ecosystem wreaking havoc on not only marine life but human life as well. Ocean pollution now referred to as a pandemic allow marine species to suffer and humans to ingest fish contaminated with toxic metals and plastics. Though ocean pollution is indeed a very complex issue we should protect our marine ocean life as it effects us as well.

https://sentientmedia.org/ocean-pollution/

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Scientific Classification:

KINGDOM: ANIMALIA

PHYLUM: CHORDATA

CLASS: ACTINOPTERYGII

ORDER: PERCIFORMES

FAMILY: SCORPAENIDAE

GENUS: MONOTYPIC

SPECIES: TAENIANOTUS TRIACANTHUS

ADAPTATION

The Leaf Scorpion Fish growing to about 10m long dwells in the East Afican and tropical oceans in the Indo Pacific Regions. With the apperance as flat as a leaf its skin gives it an opportunity to enhance its camouflage effect by way of gentle sideways movements. It is a deep zone fish inhibiting oceans at approximately 200m in depth. This oppertunistic fish has a diet of small fish, krill, shrimps,and smells. It's diverse eating habits allows balance in the marine eco systems.

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Noise Pollution in the Ocean

Causes:

Noise pollution in the ocean is primarily caused by human activities and exploration in the ocean. First, cargo ships, tankers, and cruise ships cause low-frequency noise through their engines. Second, oil and gas exploration use seismic air guns to map the ocean floor for fossil fuel removal making loud blasts which cause problems for the ecosystems. Next, naval sonar systems, which is military use of mid- and low-frequency sonar which upsets marine environments. Also, construction activities, building underwater structures like wind farms, pipelines, or bridges introduces heavy machinery noises into marine habitats. This causes disruption to the environment. Lastly, speedboats and recreational vessels even though small and fast these boats can create disruptive noise near coastal ecosystems.

Effects:

The many causes have many effects. One is marine life and ecosystems getting hearing damage and stress. Many marine animals use sound to navigate the ocean, hunt for food, and communicate. Excessive noise can damage their hearing, can cause stress and make it difficult to communicate to one another. Another is disrupted communication for Whales, dolphins, and other species that use echolocation. This creates a struggle to find food, mates, or their pods. These noises affect the ability for certain species to stay together and survive. A third effect is habitat displacement. Some species leave noisy areas, leading to changes in migration patterns or loss of balanced habitats. If a species leaves their habitat, they may now have to find a new source of food and habitat which then throws off the balance of the ecosystem. Lastly, stranding and death or whales, dolphins and sharks. Powerful sonar and unexpected loud noises have been linked to whale and other species strandings and deaths. These marine animals can get beached because of the lack of ability to understand where they may be. There are also some effects to humans from noise pollution. There are impacts on fishing and tourism. Disruptions to marine ecosystems can reduce fish populations and biodiversity, affecting livelihood. As humans impact these areas this affects the ocean as a whole because then there is a lack of balance within the food chain.
Also, scientific research has challenges. Noise makes it harder to monitor marine animals or conduct underwater research. Noise pollution also affects humans' ability to understand more about the ocean and the living environments in it.

Solutions:

Three solutions to combat noise pollution are having policy and regulation, technological innovations and public awareness. Governments can apply stricter noise limits for ships and offshore construction. Also, establish “quiet zones” in environmentally sensitive marine areas where noise-generating activities are restricted. Technological innovations can be encouraging the use of quieter ship engines. Another could be promoting noise-dampening technologies during underwater construction. Lastly, public awareness and support which could be supporting marine conservation organizations. There could also be promoting sustainable seafood and ocean-friendly tourism practices that reduce traffic in sensitive zones.

References

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Ocean Noise and Marine Life. https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ocean-noise.html

Marine Conservation Institute. Ocean Noise Pollution.https://marine-conservation.org/what-we-do/program-areas/ocean-noise/

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Type of Symbiotic relationship: Mutualistic Relationship. Commensal species.

Species involved: Sea Cucumber and Emperor Shrimp.

Ecological Roles: Emperor shrimps use sea cucumbers for transportation, gripping tightly to clean parasites. They benefit from their commensal relationship by riding on their backs, accessing feeding grounds, and avoiding predators. The cucumber experiences no harm or benefit, while the shrimp gain free food and cleaning services.

Habitat: Emperor shrimp are typically found in the Indo-Pacific region inhabiting coral reefs and rocky crevices at depths ranging from shallow waters to over 60 feet. They prefer areas with ample hiding places and often form mutualistic relationships with larger invertebrates like the sea cucumbers.

References:

https://murexresorts.com/symbiosis-marine-north-sulawesi/#:~:text=Sea%20Cucumbers%20and%20Emperor%20Shrimps&text=Commensal%20species%20form%20a%20relationship,cucumber%20as%20it%20moves%20along.

https://oceaninfo.com/animals/emperor-shrimp/#:~:text=Emperor%20shrimp%20are%20typically%20found,%2C%20nudibranchs%2C%20and%20sea%20urchins.

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How does pollution affect marine life?

Causes:

Marine garbage, primarily from land sources like ports, marinas, and landfills, accounts for 88% of the total, while the remaining 20% comes from ocean-based sources like abandoned fishing gear and ship overboard discharges.

Food containers and packaging contribute significantly to public solid waste, generating 31.7%) and causing global marine debris, highlighting the unsustainable use of precious resources.

Effects:

Plastic pollution in the ocean kills fish, seabirds, and marine mammals, affecting 267 species globally, including sea turtles, seabirds, and mammals, causing ingestion, starvation, infection, drowning, and entanglement.

In 2010, a California grey whale washed up dead with over 20 plastic bags, towels, duct tape, and surgical gloves in its stomach. Seabirds, particularly adult ones, are prone to ingesting plastic debris, affecting chick growth and survival.

Solutions:

Ocean Cleanup, a Dutch nonprofit, aims to eliminate 90% of floating plastic pollution in the ocean. Their current collection system has successfully removed 220,000 pounds of plastic from the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Though successful in cleaning up garbage, there are concerns for harming marine life due to the fossil fuel-powered ships towing the barriers that emit 660 tons of carbon dioxide per month of cleanup. While much of the plastic floating around in the gyres has been found to be decades old, it turns out that more of the recently produced plastic stays near shorelines, a number of organizations regularly arrange beach cleanups for volunteers

Scientists discovered 1,000 global rivers contribute to 80% of plastic pollution in the ocean. Ocean Cleanup uses Interceptors, solar-powered vessels, to clean polluted rivers. Ocean plastic reduction requires systemic change, including banning single-use plastics, promoting recycling or repair products, and increasing recycling infrastructure, rather than relying on individual cleanup technologies.

References:

https://cleanwater.org/problem-marine-plastic-pollution

https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2022/10/13/how-do-we-clean-up-all-that-ocean-plastic/

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Photo credit: © Shane Gross/Shutterstock

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How Plastic Pollution Harms Our Oceans and What We Can Do

Causes

Plastic pollution in the ocean mostly originates on land. About 80% of it comes from land-based sources. Plastic waste placed in the bin instead of being recycled ends up in landfills. Because plastic is lightweight it can blow away and end up in rivers and then the ocean. Littering on the street also leads to ocean pollution especially when rain and wind carry the trash into drains and waterways. Another cause is flushing certain products down the toilet. Wet wipes, cotton buds, and even microfibers from washing clothes can enter the ocean this way (WWF, n.d.).

Fishing activity is another cause. About 20% of ocean plastic comes from fishing gear and waste from the fishing industry (Fava, 2022). Industrial and urban runoff adds plastic through storm drains and rivers. This includes packaging, dust from roads, and leftover chemicals (Segar, 2024). Plastic use has increased worldwide, but recycling levels remain low (Fava, 2022).

Effects

Plastic harms ocean ecosystems in many ways. It breaks into microplastics, which do not decay and are nearly impossible to remove. These particles can be eaten by marine animals. This can cause internal injuries, blockages, and starvation. Toxic chemicals in plastic can also harm marine animals' nerves and organs (Marine Conservation Society, n.d.).

Many species face significant risks due to plastic pollution. Sea turtles often mistake plastic bags for jellyfish. This leads to a false sense of fullness that can result in starvation. Whales, dolphins and seabirds also eat plastic by accident. Baleen whales consume microplastics while feeding. Seabirds have been observed feeding plastic fragments to their chicks. Coral reefs are also affected. Plastic can block sunlight or bring bacteria that cause disease (Marine Conservation Society, n.d.).

Plastic pollution harms humans too. Microplastics have been found in seafood, salt, water, and soil. These plastics can carry toxins, which may cause cancer or damage the body’s hormone system. Plastic pollution also harms the economy. It affects tourism, fishing, and clean-up costs. These costs may reach $19 billion per year (Fava, 2022).

Solutions

One way to reduce plastic pollution is to cut back on single-use plastics. These include plastic bags, water bottles, straws, cups, utensils, and take-out containers. They are all plastic items used once and then thrown away. The best way to do this is to refuse single-use plastics and carry reusable versions. You can also support businesses that offer plastic-free alternatives (Oceanic Society, 2023).

Another way to help is to support stronger laws and policies. Governments can ban single-use plastics. They can also make companies take responsibility for their plastic waste. International agreements like the United Nations global plastics treaty can set rules to reduce plastic pollution worldwide. Communities can also help by organizing or joining beach and river cleanups to stop plastic from reaching the ocean (Oceanic Society, 2023).

References

Marine Conservation Society. (n.d.). The impact of plastic pollution on marine life. https://www.mcsuk.org/ocean-emergency/ocean-pollution/plastics/plastic-pollution-on-marine-life/

Oceanic Society. (2023, February 24). 7 solutions to ocean plastic pollution. https://www.oceanicsociety.org/resources/7-ways-to-reduce-ocean-plastic-pollution-today/

Segar, D. A. (2024). Introduction to ocean sciences (5th ed.). Reefimages. https://reefimages.com/oceansci.php

Fava, M. (2022, May 9). Ocean plastic pollution an overview: Data and statistics. UNESCO. https://oceanliteracy.unesco.org/plastic-pollution-ocean/

WWF. (n.d.). How does plastic end up in the ocean? https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/how-does-plastic-end-ocean

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Ocean Acidification or "Climate Changes Equally Evil Twin"

Causes:

- Carbon Dioxide Emissions: fossil fuels are constantly releasing carbon dioxide or CO2 and that in turn is absorbed into the water

-Industrial: Businesses. manufacturing, forms of transportation and even deforestation all lead to higher carbon dioxide levels

-Global Warming: with our climate and world constantly changing which can cause elevated carbon dioxide in the air which increases the oceans uptake and makes acidification worse

Effects:

-Marine Life: Shells and skeletons of certain organisms, coral, plankton and even shellfish are all weakened when water is acidic

-Ecosystems: ecosystems are left unbalanced with coral reefs being damaged because they are the homes for many which can affect food chains

Economy: Coral reefs are known tourist attractions with them being destroyed in ocean acidification many fisheries and tourist sites are threatened

-Humans: Marine biodiversity going down would reduce fishes and other ocean species some people rely on for diets and nutrition and led to other sources being used up or other animals in turn

Solutions:

-Reducing Carbon Emissions: using renewable energy, supporting policies and groups who advocate reducing emissions and improving our energy efficiency all help reduce carbon emissions

-Protected Areas: Protecting areas that are/might become too acidic helps them recover and adapt

-Education: Educating those on ocean acidification can help encourage different eco-friendly supplies and practices and overall help people know the causes and how we can prevent it

-Research: Supporting different mitigation studies like any technology that capture and keep track of carbon or restoration technology can help

References:

Notes from the Field - Sampling the Global Ocean and a Note on Ocean Acidification

Home - NOAA Ocean Acidification Program

Ocean Acidification | Smithsonian Ocean

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Why We Need to Stop Plastic Pollution in Our Oceans FOR GOOD | Oceana

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Plastic Pollution in Oceans

Causes:

·      Industrial production processes with improper waste disposal and littering on land and at sea.

·      Spills of plastic pellets, the raw material used to make plastics, can release huge amounts of plastic into the ocean during shipping losses.

·      Insufficient waste management in some countries or places of the world,

·      Economic systems that didn't consider the environmental costs.

·      Urban runoff carrying plastic into rivers that drain into oceans.

·      Fishing waste

Effects:

·      Marine life: Animals ingest plastic or become tangled, often leading to injury, starvation, or death. For example, sea turtles confuse plastic bags for jellyfish.

·      Ecosystems: Coral reefs are damaged by debris. Microplastics disrupt the marine food chain and reduce biodiversity.

·      Humans: Microplastics have been found in seafood, salt, and even drinking water, raising concerns about long-term health effects. Polluted beaches also impact tourism and local economies.

·      Microplastics are now found in deep-sea sediment, Arctic ice, and the bodies of marine animals. They can bioaccumulate in the food chain and are difficult to remove from the environment.

Solutions:

·       Support of innovative research: Share and promote scientific discoveries and innovative technologies that tackle plastic pollution, such as biodegradable plastics, plastic-eating bacteria, and advanced recycling methods. Engaging with communities and spreading solutions.

·       Government action: Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) laws and recycling mandates, Investment in waste infrastructure, and enforcement of anti-dumping regulations.

·       Promote programs of community education about this concern, especially those that are most direct, such as waste management.

·       Business Responsibility and Industry Initiatives: Addressing economic and policy gaps to tackle the upstream cause of ocean plastic pollution, such as The Alliance to End Plastic Waste. The idea is that industry should take financial responsibility for the waste it produces.

·       Microbial biodegradation: Encourage funding and development of bacteria and fungi (e.g., Ideonella sakaiensis) that naturally break down plastic. These microbes offer promising eco-friendly solutions to long-term plastic waste.

References:

Could plastic-eating microbes take a bite out of the recycling problem? (2025, May 29). Science | AAAS. https://www.science.org/content/article/could-plastic-eating-microbes-take-bite-out-recycling-problem

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2022, June 21). Global Plastics Outlook. https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/policy-scenarios-for-eliminating-plastic-pollution-by-2040_76400890-en.html

National Geographic Society. (n.d.). Plastic Pollution. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/plastic-pollution

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (n.d.). What is Marine Debris? https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/discover-issue

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2021). From Pollution to Solution: A Global Assessment of Marine Litter and Plastic Pollution. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/speech/final-push-end-plastic-pollution

Waste360. (2024). Alliance to End Plastic Waste Projects (Karidis, A.). https://www.waste360.com/plastics/alliance-to-end-plastic-waste-funds-plastic-recycling-around-the-world

Yale University. (2020). Why Bioplastics Will Not Solve the Plastics Problem.https://e360.yale.edu/features/why-bioplastics-will-not-solve-the-worlds-plastics-problem#:~:text=role%20in%20its%20recycling%20and,reuse

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POWERFUL VIDEO: Why We Need to Stop Plastic Pollution in Our Oceans FOR GOOD

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Title: “Feeding Our Greed, Starving the Sea”

Causes:
Overfishing happens when we take too many fish out of the ocean faster than they can reproduce. It’s mostly caused by commercial fishing companies using huge nets and advanced tech to catch large numbers of fish all at once. A lot of times, they don’t just catch the fish they’re targeting they also catch dolphins, turtles, and other sea animals by accident (called bycatch). On top of that, some countries don’t have strict rules about how much can be caught, or the rules aren’t enforced well, so it keeps happening over and over.

Effects:
When we take too many fish, their populations drop so low that they can’t bounce back, and that causes big problems. Predators who rely on those fish for food start to suffer too, which messes up the whole marine food chain. Coral reefs get affected too, since some fish help keep reefs clean and balanced. For humans, it also means seafood gets more expensive or hard to find, and fishing communities lose their jobs and ways of living. In the long run, it affects the economy and our food supply.

Solutions:

1. Governments can set stronger fishing limits and create protected ocean zones where fishing isn’t allowed, so fish populations can grow again.

2. People can try to eat more sustainable seafood. Some apps and labels tell you which fish are okay to eat without hurting the ocean too much. Choosing local and seasonal seafood helps too.

References:

https://www.seafoodwatch.org/seafood-basics/sustainable-solutions/avoid-overfishing

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1. Species Involved: The clownfish (genus Amphiprion) and sea anemones (family Actiniidae).

2. Type of Symbiosis: This relationship is mutualism, where both species benefit from the interaction.

3. Ecological Roles:
- Clownfish: They gain protection from predators by living among the stinging tentacles of the sea anemone. The clownfish also helps to keep the anemone clean by removing debris and parasites.
- Sea Anemones: They benefit from the clownfish by receiving nutrients from the clownfish's waste and increased water circulation from the clownfish's movements, which helps the anemone breathe and feed.

4. Habitat: This symbiotic relationship typically occurs in warm, shallow waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, particularly in coral reefs where both species are commonly found.

Reference: Clown Anemonefish. (n.d.). Discover Fishes. https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/clown-anemonefish/

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Corals and Algae

Species Involved

Reef-building corals have a symbiotic relationship with microscopic algae called dinoflagellates. These algae are often known as zooxanthellae or by their scientific name, Symbiodinium (Monteiro, 2012).

Type of Symbiosis

This relationship is mutualism. Both the coral and the algae benefit from the association (Zandonella, 2016).

Ecological Roles

The algae live inside the coral’s tissue. They use sunlight to make energy-rich carbon compounds. The coral uses these compounds for growth and energy (Segar, 2024). The coral also gives the algae carbon dioxide and waste nutrients like nitrogen (Monteiro, 2012). This exchange helps both organisms survive in nutrient-poor water (Zandonella, 2016). When algae are lost, corals cannot get enough energy. This causes coral bleaching, which can be deadly if it lasts too long (Monteiro, 2012). Some corals can start the symbiosis again, even if the algae cannot photosynthesize at first. This may help them recover after bleaching (Ober, 2022).

Habitat

The coral–algae relationship takes place in shallow, sunlit ocean water. These waters are often low in nutrients but support coral reefs. Most coral reefs are found in warm, tropical seas (Segar, 2024). The coral and algae need light for photosynthesis, so they live within the photic zone. It is the uppermost layer of the ocean where sunlight can reach (Zandonella, 2016).

References

Monteiro, J. (2012, October 3). Living in harmony, but stress can kill. Khaled bin Sultan Living Oceans Foundation. https://www.livingoceansfoundation.org/living-in-harmony-but-stress-can-kill/

Ober, H. (2022, May 2). Discovery about coral-algal symbiosis could help coral reefs recover after bleaching events. UC Riverside. https://news.ucr.edu/articles/2022/05/02/discovery-about-coral-algal-symbiosis-could-help-coral-reefs-recover-after

Segar, D. A. (2024). Introduction to ocean sciences (5th ed.). Reefimages. https://reefimages.com/oceansci.php

Zandonella, C. (2016, November 2). When corals met algae: Symbiotic relationship crucial to reef survival dates to the Triassic. Princeton University. https://www.princeton.edu/news/2016/11/02/when-corals-met-algae-symbiotic-relationship-crucial-reef-survival-dates-triassic

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Species: Barnacle and Mud Crab

Type: Parasitism

Ecological Roles: The barnacle plants itself onto the mud crabs. The mud crab becomes the host. The barnacle would then gain nutrients and form a reproductive sac on the crab's body. This would destroy its genitalia. The mud crab becomes sterile and is unable to reproduce, eventually becoming weak over time.

Habitat: The barnacle and the mudcrab primarily inhabit areas where oyster reefs and mud flats are common. These can be found in bats and tidal creeks, and are native to the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean.

Reference: https://serc.si.edu/node/38646

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Hawaiian Bobtail Squid (Euprymna scolopes) & Bioluminescent Bacteria (Vibrio fischeri)

Type of Symbiosis:
Mutualism because both species benefit from the interaction.

Ecological Roles:

Hawaiian Bobtail Squid Benefits

Houses the bacteria in a specialized light organ. The bacteria emits light that matches the intensity of the ocean surface, helping the squid avoid predators by eliminating its shadow during nocturnal activities which is known as counter-illumination.

Bioluminescent Bacteria Benefits

Receives a nutrient-rich and safe environment within the squid's light organ, allowing them to thrive and reproduce.

This mutualistic relationship is established shortly after the squid hatches, as it acquires the bacteria from the surrounding seawater. The squid's light organ provides a hospitable environment, and in return, the bacteria helps with the squid's camouflage.

Habitat:

This symbiosis occurs in the shallow coastal waters of the Hawaiian Islands, where the Hawaiian bobtail squid lives in sandy seafloor habitats.

References:

https://biologyinsights.com/hawaiian-bobtail-squid-and-bioluminescent-bacteria-a-radiant-bond/

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-021-00567-y

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/this-squids-glowing-microbes-can-reprogram-its-eyes-from-afar/

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Glowing Microbes Reprogram Squid Eyes From Afar | NOVA | PBS

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A squid’s eye view of its own microbes shows the intimate link between a nocturnal sea-dweller and its cache of bioluminescent bacteria.

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Oceanic Whitetip Sharks & Pilot Fish

Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism

Habitat: Pilot fish are not limited to one specific area and can be found in most tropical waters. Their preferred partners, the Oceanic Whitetip Shark, also frequents warmer waters, and is found between 45'N and 43'S latitude.

Ecological Roles: Pilot fish swim alongside sharks in order to consume parasites off of the shark's skin, in addition to eating any scraps that the shark may leave behind. This prevents additional waste from accumulating in the ocean, and the amount of prey both the shark and pilot fish need to consume. It has also been thought that pilot fish guide sharks to prey, but this may be more of an inadvertent result of their relationship. Indeed, pilot fish are more likely to survive in the presence of a shark than vice versa, as they are protected from their predators that will not risk an encounter with a shark. Sharks are also unlikely to consume them, so their primary ecological role can be summarized as ensuring that sharks remain healthy and can maintain their status within the food chain.

Reference: What is the relationship between sharks and pilot fish? - The Environmental Literacy Council

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One remarkable marine symbiotic relationship occurs between cleaner wrasses and a variety of reef fish.

The species involved are the cleaner wrasse, a small, brightly colored fish, and numerous client fish species such as groupers, parrotfish, and moray eels. The cleaner wrasse establishes "cleaning stations" on coral reefs, where client fish visit and allow the wrasse to remove parasites, dead skin, and mucus from their bodies and even inside their mouths and gills.

This relationship is an example of mutualism, as both species benefit. The cleaner wrasse gains a food source in the form of parasites and dead tissue, while the client fish enjoy improved health and hygiene, reducing disease and increasing their chances of survival.

Cleaner wrasses and their client fish are most commonly found in coral reef habitats throughout the Indo-Pacific region, including areas such as the Great Barrier Reef. These environments provide the complex structures and biodiversity necessary to support numerous fish species and their intricate interactions.

Below is an image illustrating this

Reference:

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3210676/

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Abstract

Cleaning behaviour is considered to be a classical example of mutualism. However, no studies, to our knowledge, have measured the benefits to clients in terms of growth. In the longest experimental study of its kind, over an 8 year period, cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus were consistently removed from seven patch reefs (61-285 m ²) and left undisturbed on nine control reefs, and the growth and parasite load of the damselfish Pomacentrus moluccensis determined. After 8 years, growth was reduced and parasitic copepod abundance was higher on fish from removal reefs compared with controls, but only in larger individuals. Behavioural observations revealed that P. moluccensis cleaned by L. dimidiatus were 27 per cent larger than nearby conspecifics. The selective cleaning by L. dimidiatus probably explains why only larger P. moluccensis individuals benefited from cleaning. This is the first demonstration, to our knowledge, that cleaners affect the growth rate of client individuals; a greater size for a given age should result in increased fecundity at a given time. The effect of the removal of so few small fish on the size of another fish species is unprecedented on coral reefs.

Keywords: symbiosis, cooperation, coral reef ecology, fish behaviour, Labridae, parasitism

1. Introduction

Mutualisms play a significant role in the diversity and stability of ecosystems [ 1]. Therefore, determining the benefits to participants is essential for understanding the selective processes involved in the evolution of such key interactions. Alas, this information is often not available, particularly in marine systems [ 2]. One of the most common interactions among coral reef fishes is cleaning behaviour, where cleaners benefit from removing and eating ectoparasites from clients and presumably control client parasite loads [ 2]. Cleaning behaviour of Labroides dimidiatus is currently used to test general theories about cooperation (e.g. [ 3]), under the assumption that both partners benefit. However, while the diets of obligate cleaner fishes [ 4], and hence the benefits to cleaners, are well known, no studies, to our knowledge, have examined the effect of cleaning on client growth.

Previous experimental studies involving the removal of cleaner fish to examine their effect on client parasites show conflicting results. Early studies lasting six months to 2 years [ 5, 6] found no detectable effects; by contrast, for caged, relatively large, Hemigymnus melapterus clients, the absence of L. dimidiatus cleaners increased the abundance of parasitic isopods over 24 h and 12 days [ 7, 8]. Whether cleaners affect the parasite load of small species remains unclear. Clients with natural cleaner access had higher body condition and a lower antibody response than those without, suggesting that cleaner access decreases the need for active immunity, releasing resources allocated to somatic growth [ 9]. Cleaner absence for 8.5 years reduced fish length in two damselfishes, but fish growth was not measured [ 10]. These conflicting results raised questions about the proximate and ultimate causes of cleaning behaviour in clients [ 6].

Therefore, we examined the effects of 8 years of L. dimidiatus absence on the growth and parasites of the small, common, site-attached damselfish Pomacentrus moluccensis, and whether the size of individual P. moluccensis affects their likelihood of being cleaned, as there may be an interaction between the benefits of cleaning and client size. No studies, to our knowledge, have examined the effects of cleaner fish presence on parasite loads over the long term (greater than 2 years). Therefore, this study was conducted on reefs where cleaner presence was experimentally manipulated for 8 years.

2. Material and methods

This study is a continuation of an experiment conducted off Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef, at two sites, Casuarina Beach and the Lagoon (see Grutter et al. [ 11] for reef distributions and sample sizes). All L. dimidiatus (one to five adults, zero to three juveniles/reef) were removed from seven, randomly selected, patch reefs in September 2000 and left undisturbed on nine controls; removal reefs were inspected every few months for L. dimidiatus recruits and these were again removed (29% of reef inspections, 81% involving one to two individuals per reef, usually juveniles, electronic supplementary material, table S1).

Pomacentrus moluccensis live up to 6 years at Lizard Island (S. L. Bray 2009, personal communication); therefore, most individuals probably experienced experimental conditions for their entire lives. Pomacentrus moluccensis ( n = 10 per reef) were collected from 9 October until 26 October 2008 and the parasites were quantified (see the electronic supplementary material). Fish growth was measured using fish standard length (SL) and by estimating fish age, using otolith annual rings [ 12] or daily rings [ 13] for fish less than 1 year. To determine how client size affects how often they are cleaned, cleaning interactions between P. moluccensis and L. dimidiatus were observed by SCUBA divers between 29 August and 4 September 2009 on control reefs, except Reef 1. A L. dimidiatus was haphazardly selected, its size was estimated (40-86 mm total length), and behaviour was observed until it had engaged in one cleaning interaction (any physical contact between cleaner and client, or greater than 1 s inspection by the cleaner) with P. moluccensis. This location on the reef was marked with a small, labelled weight. The SL of the cleaned P. moluccensis, and conspecifics within a 1 m radius of the marker, were estimated. For client size estimation and statistical analyses, see the electronic supplementary material.

3. Results

There was a significant interaction between cleaner presence and fish age (linear mixed-effects model, F 1,135 = 4.15, p = 0.0435), indicating that the slope of the relationship between response log fish SL and covariate log age differed with cleaner presence ( figure 1). Examination of figure 1 suggested that the difference in size between the cleaned and uncleaned fish were greater for older than younger fish. To test this, fish were separated into less than 1 year and greater than or equal to 1 year and data pooled across reefs and analysed as above; this revealed that the interaction between cleaner presence and fish age was not significant for fish of less than 1 year ( F 1,20 = 0.2626, p = 0.6139) but was significant for fish greater than or equal to 1 year ( F 1,121 = 5.2578, p = 0.0236) supporting the above interpretation. Thus, for example, for 3 or 4 year old fish, the estimated average size (SL, 95% CI) of fish on reefs with and without cleaners was 42.7, 40.6-44.9 and 40.0, 38.1-42.0 or 46.8, 43.9-49.8 and 42.9, 40.4-45.6 mm, an average decrease of 7 per cent and 9 per cent, respectively. All other interactions were not significant ( p ≥ 0.1332). There was a significant effect of site ( F 1,12 = 16.82, p = 0.0015), owing to fish being smaller at Casuarina Beach ( figure 1).

Figure 1.

Fish growth of P. moluccensis, derived from the regression of log fish standard length (SL) and log age, from reefs with (black circles, solid line) and without (white circles, dashed line) cleaner fish L. dimidiatus. Annual ages were jittered to reveal underlying data. Arrows indicate outliers omitted. Sample sizes in brackets.

Pomacentrus moluccensis were mainly infected with parasitic copepods (electronic supplementary material, figure S1), identified as juveniles (G. Boxshall 2010, personal communication). There was an interaction between cleaner presence and mean fish SL per reef on the abundance of juvenile copepods (generalized linear model with a quasi-Poisson distribution: F 1,12 = 5.5189, p = 0.0368; figure 2); examination of this interaction revealed that on reefs without cleaners, copepod numbers increased with fish size (Spearman rank correlation: r s = 0.82, n = 7, p = 0.025), while on control reefs, this relationship was not significant ( r s = 0.08, n = 9, p = 0.84; figure 2). Copepod length (median, 25-75th quantiles) did not vary between reefs with (0.86, 0.8-0.9 mm) and without (0.77, 0.6-1.0 mm) cleaners (Wilcoxan test Z = 1.19, p = 0.234). Other parasites were a turbellarian worm, Transversotrema sp. (Digenea) worm, and female Hatschekia crenulata copepod; all on separate fish from control reefs.

Figure 2.

Parasitic copepod juveniles on P. moluccensis, summed across 10 fish sampled per reef, compared with mean fish SL per reef on reefs with (black circles) and without (white circles) cleaner fish L. dimidiatus.

Pomacentrus moluccensis that were cleaned were significantly larger than the average conspecific within a 1 m radius of the cleaning interaction ( F 1,99 = 149.09, p < 0.0001). The overall mean SL ± s.e. of the mean SL per reef of cleaned P. moluccensis and individuals within a 1 m radius were 32.4 ± 0.9 mm and 25.7 ± 0.8 mm, respectively. On average, this difference per reef was 27% ± 2; the covariate, cleaner size, was not significant ( F 1,91 = 0.18, p = 0.670).

4. Discussion

The removal of one to five L. dimidiatus cleaners per reef decreased the growth and increased the parasitic copepod load of damselfish P. moluccensis; however, only larger individuals were affected. In support of this finding, L. dimidiatus appeared to selectively clean larger P. moluccensis compared with conspecifics in the vicinity. This study shows that individuals of a small relatively infrequently cleaned client species [ 14] benefit from cleaning, and provides, to our knowledge, the first confirmation that cleaner fish affect the growth of client reef fish.

On reefs with cleaner fish, older fish were larger for a given age compared with reefs without cleaner fish. This difference in growth probably affects the fecundity of clients at a given time as female size and fecundity are highly correlated in many fishes [ 15], and suggests an increased reproductive output of P. moluccensis individuals on reefs with cleaner fish.

This is, to our knowledge, the first study to show an effect of cleaner fish on parasitic copepod abundance. The abundance of parasitic copepod larvae was positively correlated with P. moluccensis size on reefs without cleaner fish, while no such relationship was observed on reefs with cleaners present. This pattern suggests that cleaners may remove parasites more often from larger P. moluccensis than smaller individuals, a conclusion supported by our behavioural observations. Parasites can affect damselfish in many ways, including causing higher metabolism and slower growth [ 16- 18]. Our result differs from a previous six month study [ 5] at the same location, which found no effect of L. dimidiatus presence on copepod abundance on P. moluccensis. Labroides dimidiatus mostly eats gnathiid isopods and few parasitic copepods [ 19]. Despite this low feeding rate on copepods, this parasite was still affected by cleaner fish presence. The patterns are unlikely owing to fish movement patterns as P. moluccensis are sedentary; of 700 tagged individuals, recaptured two to four times per year for 6 years, only two moved greater than 10 m [ 20].

Pomacentrus moluccensis individuals cleaned by L. dimidiatus tended to be 27 per cent larger than the conspecifics present within a 1 m radius of the fish being cleaned. Both cleaners and clients can initiate cleaning behaviour [ 21]; however, L. dimidiatus prefer large over small model clients [ 22]. This may explain why parasite loads of larger, but not smaller, individual clients were affected by the presence of cleaner fish. Parasite load is also known to affect the tendency of a client to seek L. dimidiatus [ 23]. Thus, the higher parasite load of larger fishes suggests that parasite removal may be a proximate cause of cleaning and could also explain why such fish ultimately benefited from cleaning. These findings agree with theoretical predictions that net outcomes of mutualistic interactions can be related to partner size [ 24].

Pomacentrus moluccensis are cleaned relatively infrequently (1.6 s per inspection, 23 inspections per day) [ 14], yet benefited from cleaning. Since larger species are cleaned more frequently (e.g. H. melapterus, 6.8 s per inspection, 113 inspections per day), they may benefit even more. Thus, it is relatively safe to conclude that larger client species probably also obtain such benefits. This study reveals the impacts of parasites and cleaners on individual fish growth. A small amount of cleaning of small organisms (parasitic copepods) can have a serious and significant consequent effect on individual body size.

Acknowledgements

This research was approved by the University of Queensland Animal Ethics Committee.

We thank Lizard Island Research Station, many field volunteers, G. Boxshall for parasite identification, L. Dong for otolith analyses, S. Blomberg for statistical advice and the Australian Research Council and The University of Queensland for funding.

References

2. Grutter A. S., Irving A. D. 2007. Positive interactions in marine communities. In Marine ecology (eds Connell S. D., Gillanders B. M.), pp. 110-137 Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press [Google Scholar]

3. Bshary R., Grutter A. S. 2006. Image scoring and cooperation in a cleaner fish mutualism. Nature 441, 975-978 10.1038/nature04755 (doi:10.1038/nature04755) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

4. Grutter A. S. 1997. Spatiotemporal variation and feeding selectivity in the diet of the cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus. Copeia 1997, 346-355 10.2307/1447754 (doi:10.2307/1447754) [DOI] [Google Scholar]

5. Grutter A. S. 1996. Experimental demonstration of no effect by the cleaner wrasse Labroides dimidiatus (Cuvier and Valenciennes) on the host fish Pomacentrus moluccensis (Bleeker). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 196, 285-298 10.1016/0022-0981(95)00135-2 (doi:10.1016/0022-0981(95)00135-2) [DOI] [Google Scholar]

6. Gorlick D. L., Atkins P. D., Losey G. S. 1987. Effect of cleaning by Labroides dimidiatus (Labridae) on an ectoparasite population infecting Pomacentrus vaiuli (Pomacentridae) at Enewetak Atoll. Copeia 1987, 41-45 10.2307/1446035 (doi:10.2307/1446035) [DOI] [Google Scholar]

8. Grutter A. S., Lester R. J. G. 2002. Cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus reduce 'temporary' parasitic corallanid isopods on the coral reef fish Hemigymnus melapterus. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 234, 247-255 10.3354/meps234247 (doi:10.3354/meps234247) [DOI] [Google Scholar]

9. Ros A. F. H., Lusa J., Meyer M., Soares M., Oliveira R. F., Brossard M., Bshary R. 2011. Does access to the bluestreak cleaner wrasse Labroides dimidiatus affect indicators of stress and health in resident reef fishes in the Red Sea? Horm. Behav. 59, 151-158 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.11.006 (doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.11.006) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

10. Waldie P. A., Blomberg S. P., Cheney K. L., Goldizen A. W., Grutter A. S. In press Long-term effects of the cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus on coral reef fish communities. PLoS ONE. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

11. Grutter A. S., Murphy J. M., Choat J. H. 2003. Cleaner fish drives local fish diversity on coral reefs. Curr. Biol. 13, 64-67 10.1016/S0960-9822(02)01393-3 (doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(02)01393-3) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

16. Adlard R. D., Lester R. J. G. 1994. Dynamics of the interaction between the parasitic isopod, Anilocra pomacentri, and the coral reef fish, Chromis nitida. Parasitology 109, 311-324 10.1017/S0031182000078343 (doi:10.1017/S0031182000078343) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

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23. Grutter A. S. 2001. Parasite infection rather than tactile stimulation is the proximate cause of cleaning behaviour in reef fish. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 268, 1361-1365 10.1098/rspb.2001.1658 (doi:10.1098/rspb.2001.1658) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Biology Letters are provided here courtesy of The Royal Society

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Long-term cleaner fish presence affects growth of a coral reef fish

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Cleaning behaviour is considered to be a classical example of mutualism. However, no studies, to our knowledge, have measured the benefits to clients in terms of growth. In the longest experimental study of its kind, over an 8 year period, cleaner ...

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Pearlfish & Sea Cucumber

Species Involved:
Pearlfish and Sea Cucumbers

Type of Symbiosis:
Parasitism

Ecological Roles:
The pearlfish literally lives inside the butt (cloaca) of the sea cucumber. Yeah, not joking. It sneaks in and hides there during the day to stay safe from predators. Some pearlfish are chill and just use it for shelter , but others are rude and start eating the cucumber’s internal organs. Sea cucumber doesn’t get much say in the matter.

Habitat:
Tropical and subtropical oceans with shallow sandy bottoms or coral reef areas where both species can blend in.

Fun fact:
Some sea cucumbers can eject their internal organs as a defense, so sometimes the pearlfish gets kicked out.

Refrences:

https://www.livescience.com/animals/fish/pearlfish-the-eel-like-fish-that-lives-up-a-sea-cucumber-s-butt

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Species Involved:

Gobies( Gobiidae): smaller fish that tend to stay near burrows

Pistol Shrimp (Alpheidae): shrimp that are best known for their snapping claws and burrowing

Type of Symbiosis:

Mutualism: both the gobies and the pistol shrimp benefit

Ecological Roles:

The Gobies help provide protection for the shrimp by using its body to put a warning that predators are approaching while pistol shrimps make and maintain the borrows that both species have a shelter.

The gobies excellent vision and alertness is what helps the shrimp most since pistol shrimps are known to have bad vision

Habitat:

This symbiotic relationship tends to be found near coral reefs and either sandy or muddy ocean floors near and in the Indo Pacific region

References:

https://www.scuba.com/blog/the-fascinating-symbiotic-relationship-between-gobies-and-shrimp/?srsltid=AfmBOopQUVi-Xo-smANyhbOfx3J2zaG5MDAr1qnF_NEKnWRIP1vGliot

https://www.tfhmagazine.com/articles/saltwater/pistol-shrimps-and-gobies-perfect-partners-full-article

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Species Involved

Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas) – called Honu in Hawaiian culture.

Cleaner fish involved in this symbiosis include the Hawaiian cleaner wrasse (Labroides phthirophagus), the yellow tang (Zebrasoma flavescens), and/or the convict tang (Acanthurus triostegus).

Type of Symbiosis

This is mutualism, which means both animals benefit.

Ecological role

This mutualistic relationship maintaining the health of marine organisms and reef ecosystems.

For sea turtles, this interaction offers vital cleaning services: cleaner fish eliminate algae, dead skin, and external parasites from the turtle’s shell and body. This not only lowers the risk of infection for the turtle but may also lead to more efficient swimming.

For the cleaner fish, the turtle acts as a mobile feeding platform. These fish benefit by consuming the organic material and ectoparasites they remove, which serves as a reliable food source.

This wonderful symbiosis boosts biodiversity by enhancing the health of various species and strengthening the behavioral networks at reef “cleaning stations” in the beautiful Hawaiian marine ecosystem.

Habitat

This symbiotic relationship happens in the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary, especially around coral reefs. Turtles often visit “cleaning stations” where fish gather to help them out.

References:

NOAA National Marine Sanctuaries (2025).
Sanctuary Symbioses: A Match Made in the Ocean.
https://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/news/2025/sanctuary-symbioses.html

Michael, J. A., & Jobsis, P. (2024). Observations at a green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas, cleaning station identify three cleaning fish symbionts. Marine Biodiversity, 54(4), 58-. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12526-024-01452-6

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Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and melon-headed whales (Peponocephala electra

Symbiotic hunting partnership

During Hawaii's squid spawning season (July-October), a complex, mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship exists between bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and melon-headed whales (Peponocephala electra). The dolphins use the whales' deep-diving skills to locate prey, while the whales use the dolphins' echolocation to drive squid - increasing hunting efficiency by 43% while reducing energy expenditure by 28-35%. Their coordinated vocalizations (125kHz bursts for the dolphins, 6-12kHz squeaks for the whales) facilitate this partnership, although 35% of hunts fail when vessel noise exceeds 120 dB.

Ecological dynamics

In thermocline waters (50-300 m deep) at 24-27°C, the relationship exhibits reciprocal altruism - 31% of successful hunts involve sharing prey. The dolphins sound shark alarms, and the whales help people access the deep sea. However, climate change is altering squid migrations, threatening this balance (NOAA, 2023).

Scientific Significance

This case study, documented in Marine Mammal Science (BCI=0.78), reveals how interspecies communication evolves under ecological pressure. Conservation requires quieter ships and habitat protection to preserve this remarkable behavioral adaptation.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mms.12872

https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/48748

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Clownfish and Sea Anemone: A Mutual Relationship Underwater

Species Involved:

Clownfish

Sea Anemone

Type of Symbiosis:
Mutualism – both the clownfish and the sea anemone benefit from living together.

Ecological Roles:
The clownfish finds a safe home among the anemone’s stinging tentacles, which scare off most predators. In return, the clownfish helps the anemone by cleaning it and scaring away fish that might try to nibble on its tentacles. The clownfish’s waste also provides nutrients for the anemone.

Habitat:
This relationship usually takes place in shallow waters of coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific region, including areas like the Great Barrier Reef.

Reference:

Monterey Bay Aquarium. (n.d.). Clown anemonefish. Retrieved from:
https://www.montereybayaquarium.org/animal-guide/fishes/clown-anemonefish

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Nematodes and Flukes

types of symbolism: Parasitic Worms

Nematodes are parasitic worms found in the ocean usually found on every continent. there are about a million different they feed on bacteria fungi and microscopic species.

Flukes also a types of parasite that are generally harmful to fish. its form is similar to a physical bubble. They attach themselves to the scales or gills of the fish , feeding off of it and as a result causing infection. symptoms include cloudy eyes and causing the fish to have trouble breathing. fish also may scratch themself against the fish tank and dart around trying to pry these parasites off of their bodies.

both of these species serve the ocean and are an important part of the ocean life cycle.

https://www.saltyunderground.com/article/77-flukes?srsltid=AfmBOor2uC7HV7BJfzuj7kfYzA1bVRXkTMUzBvgO6f8dtex4T_RNDWlu

https://nematology.ucr.edu/about/what-are-nematodes

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The symbiotic relationship I chose is between the tongue-eating louse and its host fish, which is a type of snapper. This is an example of parasitism, where one organism benefits and the other is harmed.

The tongue eating louse enters the fish through its gills and attaches to the fish’s tongue. Over time, it causes the tongue to wither up and die, then replaces it by latching onto the stub of whatevers left and functions as a new tongue. The louse feeds on the fish’s blood and mucus. While the fish can still survive and even eat, this parasitic relationship harms the fish.

This unique relationship occurs in warm coastal waters, mostly in the Gulf of California and other parts of the eastern Pacific Ocean.

https://oceanconservancy.org/blog/2022/04/28/tongue-eating-louse-eats-tongues/

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There are a lot of ocean animals out there that make you think, " what the heck ... ?" You have the hagfish with its slime that is 100,000 times softer than Jell-O. You have the deep-sea lizardfish which is a big-toothed, sex-switching, stealth-attacking predator. You even have the gulper eel which goes from "regular looking eel" to "nightmare fuel" in a matter of seconds.

But perhaps no one takes the "weird and wild" cake like the tongue-eating louse. The name speaks for itself: this pesky parasite makes its way in the world by eating other animals' tongues.

You may have gone your entire life without knowing about the wonders of the tongue-eating louse, but that ends today. So buckle up, clamp your jaws shut and read on to learn more about this unusual isopod.

What is the tongue-eating louse?

The tongue-eating louse ( Cymothoa exigua) is an isopod, or type of crustacean, found in the Cymothoidae family. They are parasites, meaning their survival depends on, and is detrimental to, another "host" organism. They're also not the only parasites at the Cymothoidae family reunion-cymoithoids are all ectoparasites, meaning they live on the outside of the host rather than the inside, and mostly target fish as hosts.

The tongue-eating louse is found in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and only grows to about an inch in length. They are protandrous hermaphrodites, meaning they start out as males then switch to females later in life. Naturally, that means that females are larger than males. It also turns out that it's the female that gives the parasite its iconic name.

Here's how it works: a juvenile louse will sneak in through a fish's gills, where it will wait for another louse to show up. Once there are two or more, one of them will grow and change into a female. The female will crawl out of the gills, up through the throat to the mouth where it will clamp down its strong legs onto the fish's tongue. Each leg has a specially evolved sharp appendage that allows it to secure itself tightly.

Now the fun begins (for the isopod, not so much for the fish). The female stays put and cuts the blood vessels in the tongue. Without blood flowing to the organ, the tongue will eventually wither away and fall off, leaving only the parasite in its stead. The female will then continue to feast off the fish's blood and mucus, happy as a vampiric clam.

Once she is established, the remaining male in the gills will mate with the much-larger female, who will then spew many tiny new parasites out of the fish. These fresh bundles of terror will drift along until they can also secure themselves in the gills of another unsuspecting host.

What happens to the fish?

Believe it or not, this highly invasive activity does not kill the fish. It's not a good time, to be sure, but the fish is able to use the parasite like a prosthetic organ. They occupy multiple species of fish, including menhaden, snapper and other commonly-caught species (so keep an eye out the next time you're fishing on vacation).

If you're worried that you might lose your tongue after a quick dip in the ocean, don't be. The tongue-eating louse doesn't infect humans (although if you really want to keep yourself up at night, feel free to read more about mouth parasites humans can get). However, they might be in the fish you order from the seafood market-so always look your non-gift fish in the mouth!

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Tongue-Eating Louse Actually Eats Tongues - Ocean Conservancy

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There are a lot of ocean animals out there that make you think, " what the heck ... ?" You have the hagfish with its slime that is 100,000 times softer than Jell-O. You have the deep-sea lizardfish which is a big-toothed, sex-switching, stealth-attacking predator.

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Location - Bay Of Fundy, Canada

Bay of Fundy is located between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia in eastern Canada. It is well known for having the highest tidal range in the world. The area is surrounded by huge cliffs and coastal landscapes which are shaped by the tides.

Characteristics - It experiences a semidiurnal tide, which is when there is two high,huge tides and two low tides each day. The tide can reach up to 16 meters. A unique feature here is the tidal bore, which is where incoming tides create waves that travel upstream in rivers.

Coastal Features - The tidal forces have created many coastal landforms. Some of those are sea cliffs, sea caves, mudflats, and salt marshes. The cliffs and caves are formed because of erosion, while the mudflats and marshes build up from the sediment carried in by the tides. The area also has tidal rapids and whirlpools.

Our Human impact - Tides in this area affect both the environment and human activity. The tidal waters support fishing places, especially for shellfish. Shipping is also important, depending on the tidal timing. Flooding and coastal erosion are issues in some of the areas, and tides are a key factor in people coming to these places. People enjoy coming to watch the water levels change.

Discussion - How do you think huge tides like these in the Bay of Fundy can affect long term coastal development and climate change planning?

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Clownfish and Sea Anemone

Type of Symbiosis: Mutualism

Ecological Roles:

The clownfish uses the sea anemone's venomous tentacles to live and hide from predators, and the Sea Anemone lives off the clownfish's waste. The clownfish may also help keep the anemone clean by eating parasites or debris.

Habitat:

This mutualistic relationship is most commonly found in warm, shallow waters of coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific region. In perfect conditions, these two thrive off of each other

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/clownfish

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/sea-anemones

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The Sea Cucumber

Scientific Classification:
* Common Name: Sea Cucumber
* Scientific Name: Holothuroidea
* Taxonomic Classification:
* Kingdom: Animalia
* Phylum: Echinodermata
* Class: Holothuroidea
* Order: (Varies depending on species, e.g., Aspidochirotida)
* Family: (Varies depending on species, e.g., Holothuriidae)
* Genus: (Varies depending on species, e.g., Holothuria)
* Species: (Varies depending on species, e.g., Holothuria forskali)

Description of the Adaptation: Evisceration
One remarkable adaptation of sea cucumbers is their ability to eviscerate, which means they expel some of their internal organs. This is primarily a defense mechanism.

* What it is: When threatened by a predator, the sea cucumber forcefully ejects its Cuvierian tubules (sticky threads), respiratory system, and even parts of its digestive tract out of its anus.
* How it works: The process is rapid and startling. The expelled organs are sticky and/or toxic, which can entangle or deter the predator.
* Why it evolved: This adaptation evolved as a response to intense predation pressure in the marine environment. Sea cucumbers are slow-moving and lack strong physical defenses, making them vulnerable. Evisceration provides a crucial distraction, giving the sea cucumber a chance to escape.

Connections to the Marine Environment:
* Predation: In marine environments, sea cucumbers face threats from fish, crabs, and other marine invertebrates.
* Survival: Evisceration increases the sea cucumber's chances of survival in a high-predation environment.
* Regeneration: The sea cucumber can regenerate the lost organs over time, allowing it to recover from the drastic defense mechanism.

This adaptation highlights the intense selective pressures in the marine environment, where survival often depends on unique and sometimes extreme strategies.

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The Pacific Blackdragon

Scientific Classification include:

Common name: The Pacific Blackdragon

Scientific name: Idiacanthus antrostomus

Kingdom: Animalia

Description of the Adaptation:

The Pacific blackdragon lives in the Pacific Ocean's mesopelagic zone. This species of fish has the black pigment melanin. Melanin is stored in unique structures called melanosomes. Due to this, they can absorb bioluminescent light which allows them to attack on their prey unexpectedly. Pacific Blackdragons are ambush predators, females are more superior because the males do not have teeth or stomachs. They are much smaller and unable to feed. They have a separate light organ at the end of the long barbel that hangs down from the chin. This organ is used as a lure to attract prey toward their teeth-filled mouths. Adults reach approximately two feet, are skinny and eel-like, but are not closely related to true eels. Males only live long enough to mate, soon after which they die.

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Ocean Sunfish engaging in the lateral feeding technique

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Ocean Sunfish

Scientific Name: Mola mola

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Actinopterygii

Order: Tetraodontiformes

Family: Molidae

Genus: Mola

Species: Mola mola

The Ocean Sunfish is one of the largest bony fish species in the world, and is known for its unusual anatomy, including its vertical fins, flattened shape, lack of a swim bladder, and a mucus lining in its stomach that resists the stinging tentacles of jellyfish.

Together, these features mean that Ocean Sunfish are optimized to engage in lateral feeding, where they lay horizontally across the surface of the ocean and wait for small prey such as jellyfish and plankton to pass. Although Ocean Sunfish are capable of hunting at greater depths, their rigid beaks prevent them from opening their mouths past a certain point, so there is a limit to the size of prey they can actively capture. In addition, the act of laying across the surface may be a means of restoring the Ocean Sunfish's base temperature after spending time in colder waters. Ocean Sunfish cannot survive in waters below 54'F for long, and thus horizontal basking not only ensures their survival, but prevents them from having to risk feeding in these temperatures more than necessary.

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Name: The Dumbo Octopus

Scientific name: Grimpoteuthis spp

Classifications:

Family - Opisthoteuthidae

Genus - Grimpoteuthis

Species - It can be different types so it varies

Order - Octopoda

Class - Cephalopoda

Phylum - Mollusca

Kingdom - Animalia

The dumbo octopus has two big fins on its head that look like ears. Those fins help them go through the water very slowly but gently. This helps them live in the deep ocean which is very cold and dark and has high pressure. The octopus uses their fins to save their energy.

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Common Name: Yeti Crab
Scientific Name: Kiwa hirsuta
Taxonomy:

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Malacostraca

Order: Decapoda

Family: Kiwaidae

Genus: Kiwa

Species: Kiwa hirsuta

Adaptation:

What makes the Yeti Crab stand out is the “hairy” claws covered in soft bristles, called setae. These aren’t just for show, they’re actually where bacteria grow. The crab lives near hydrothermal vents deep in the ocean, where there’s no sunlight and very few food sources. Instead of hunting, the Yeti Crab grows its own food. It waves its claws over the vent water, where bacteria use chemicals like hydrogen sulfide to survive (this process is called chemosynthesis). Later, the crab eats the bacteria.

This adaptation is both behavioral and physical. The crab knows to stay near the vents and keep its claws moving in the right spot for the bacteria to grow. The bristles are the perfect place for the bacteria to attach and thrive. This helps the crab stay alive in an environment that’s pitch dark, full of pressure, and low on food. It also helps them avoid predators since they don’t need to travel around looking for meals.

How It Connects to the Environment
The Yeti Crab lives thousands of feet under the ocean, near hydrothermal vents where it’s freezing cold unless you're right next to boiling-hot vent water. It’s pitch black and the pressure is intense. There are no plants and almost nothing to eat. By farming bacteria right on its own claws, the crab is able to live in one of the most extreme environments on the planet.

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Gulper Eel

Common names: Gulper eel, Eurypharynx pelecanoides, or pelican eel

Scientific Classification:

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Actinopterygii

Order: Saccopharyngiformes

Family: Eurypharyngidae

Genus: Eurypharynx

Species: Eurypharynx pelecanoides

Adaptation:

The gulper eel has a big mouth that can stretch very wide to catch large food and often has eaten food bigger than itself. Its long, thin body helps it move easily through the dark ocean depths and Its tail can also glow which helps it attract food in the dark. This gulper eel is known to live deep in the ocean where there isn’t much to eat, so this helps it survive. It is also shown to have an expandable stomach, even though it doesn’t really seem that way judging by the way it looks with its long thin body. This gulper eel also has very small eyes because it lives in the darkness and doesn’t really rely on sight because it uses its other senses to catch its food.

How it works?

The gulper eel has a long, skinny body that helps it swim without making much noise. Its tail can glow like a light, which might help bring in other animals to eat. Because its eyes are small, it probably uses other ways to sense movement in the water. It is shown that it doesn’t chase food it usually just waits quietly and grabs it when it gets close. The gulper eel is made to live in the deep ocean by eating big meals, staying quiet, and using its glowing tail to help it hunt.

Why did it evolve?

The gulper eel has evolved and changed over time to be able to live and survive in the deep ocean. Over time, it developed special features, like a huge mouth to catch big prey, a glowing tail to attract food, and a stretchy body to hold and store large meals.These changes help it live in the dark, deep sea where food is hard to find and most animals are barely able to survive.

Reproduction:

Scientists believe that gulper eels are likely reproduce only once in their life. The male and female will come together to mate, and it is believed that after that, they probably die. After mating the female gulper eel would lay its eggs in the water, and the baby eels hatch and float near the surface before going deep into the ocean as they grow.

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Photo credit: © Takashi Murai/The New York Times Syndicate/Redux

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Turritopsis Dohrnii

Scientific Classification

• Common Name: Immortal jellyfish

• Scientific Name: Turritopsis dohrnii

• Kingdom: Animalia

• Phylum: Cnidaria

• Class: Hydrozoa

• Order: Anthoathecata

• Family: Oceaniidae

• Genus: Turritopsis

• Species: T. dohrnii

Description of the Adaptation

Turritopsis dohrnii has a unique physiological adaptation to survive in coastal and harbor waters. This adaptation allows it to reverse its aging process. It works by transforming its adult medusa cells back into polyp cells. The biological process is called transdifferentiation. It occurs when the jellyfish faces stress, damage, chilling, or other harsh conditions.

The trait developed to help it survive hard or changing marine environments. These include food shortage or sudden drops in temperature. By reverting to its polyp stage, the jellyfish can get through the stress and likely reduce the chance of being eaten. It can later reproduce when conditions improve. The ocean provides stable temperatures, but changes in food, salinity, or other factors still create problems for marine life.

This ability gives the jellyfish a flexible life strategy. It is important in an environment where survival often depends on quick adaptation. Other jellyfish in the Turritopsis genus may have similar abilities. Turritopsis dohrnii is among the few animals known to fully reverse its life cycle after reaching sexual maturity. The trait gives the jellyfish a kind of biological immortality, though it can still be eaten or die from disease. This rare marine adaptation makes Turritopsis dohrnii one of the most interesting marine organisms.

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Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes)

Order: Gobiiformes

Family: Gobiidae (gobies)

Subfamily: Oxudercinae (mudskippers)

Genus: Periophthalmus

Species: Periophthalmus barbarus

Adaptation: Mudskippers live in intertidal zones, where they receive plenty of sunlight. Their environment can get hot during the day and cool at night. They can breathe air through their skin and the lining of their mouth and throat. Mudskippers can walk and climb, and survive out of the water for extended periods of time.

How it works: Mudskippers breathe oxygen through their skin and through their gill chambers while keeping their gills wet by using their fins. They retain bubbles of water in their gills, which allows them to breathe while on land.

Why does it evolve: Mudskippers live in areas that are submerged during high tide and exposed during low tide. When the tide goes out, they become stranded in regions with low oxygen levels. Breathing oxygen allowed them to escape from aquatic predators and have more food sources. This adaptation enables mudskippers to wait out unfavorable conditions until the high tide returns.

Reproduction: They are known to dig burrows in the mud. Being that they can survive out of the water during low tides, they can survive in thier remain in their burrows and create a breeding site.

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Scientific Classification:

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Actinopterygii

Order: Gymnotiformes

Family: Gymnotidae

Genus: Electrophorus

Species: E. electricus

Adaptation: The electric eel (Electrophorus electricus) generates up to 600 volts of electricity through specialized electrocyte cells, using high-voltage shocks to hunt prey and deter predators while employing low-voltage pulses for navigation in the dark, murky waters of the Amazon.

What It Is

The electric eel produces high-voltage electric shocks (up to 600 volts) using specialized cells called electrocytes. It also uses low-voltage pulses for navigation and communication (electrolocation).

How It Works

Electrocytes: Thousands of stacked cells in three abdominal organs (Main, Hunter’s, and Sach’s organs) act like biological batteries. Hunting: Shocks paralyze prey (fish, crustaceans) by disrupting their nervous system. Defense: Zaps predators (caimans, jaguars) with enough voltage to deter them. Navigation: Emits weak pulses to sense surroundings in murky Amazon waters (like sonar).

Why It Evolved

Environment: Lives in oxygen-poor, muddy rivers where vision is useless.

Survival: Electricity replaces sight, allowing it to hunt and avoid threats in complete darkness. Energy Efficiency: Only uses high-voltage shocks when needed (conserves energy).

Connection to Marine Biology

Though electric eels live in freshwater, their adaptations mirror deep-sea creatures that rely on electrogenesis (e.g., some rays) or bioluminescence for communication/predation in low-light environments.

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electric eel (Electrophorus electricus) 

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Sea Cucumber

Scientific Breakdown:

Common Name: Sea Cucumber

Scientific Name: Apostichopus japonicus

Taxonomic Classification:

- Kingdom: Animalia

- Phylum: Echinodermata

- Class: Holothuroidea

- Order: Aspidochirotida

- Family: Stichopodidae

- Genus: Apostichopus

- Species: A. japonicus

Adaptation:

One of the coolest tricks up the sea cucumber's sleeve is its ability to spit out its own guts when in danger. This wild move, called evisceration, helps it fend off predators in the ocean. When a threat looms, the sea cucumber can chuck parts of its insides, like its digestive system, out of its rear end. This surprise tactic can really throw off predators, giving the sea cucumber a chance to make a getaway. What's even more impressive is that it can grow back the lost organs, bouncing back to normal in time.This nifty skill probably came about as a way to survive in the predator-heavy seas. By letting go of some expendable parts, the sea cucumber boosts its odds of dodging danger. Plus, those tossed-out organs can serve as a decoy, steering predators' attention away from the sea cucumber itself.

This cool trick probably came about as a way for sea cucumbers to stay alive in the ocean, where there are lots of predators. By letting go of parts of its body that it can afford to lose, the sea cucumber boosts its odds of getting away from predators. Plus, the stuff it spits out can distract predators, pulling their focus away from the sea cucumber itself.

In the ocean, where there's a lot of pressure from predators, this trick is super handy for dodging danger. Being able to grow back lost parts is also a big plus in a place where getting hurt by predators or other things is pretty common. On top of that, sea cucumbers can handle different ocean conditions, like changes in salt levels and pressure, which makes their whole "spit and regrow" tactic even more effective.

So, all in all, the sea cucumber's amazing ability to eject and regrow parts shows just how clever sea creatures can be when it comes to surviving and thriving in the tough and varied ocean world.

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Male lumpsucker (lumpfish), its underside, the pelvic fins form a suction cup. (Image: Judith Oakley)

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Lumpsucker (Cyclopterus lumpus)

Taxonomy:

Common name: Lumpsucker or Lumpfish

Scientific name: Cyclopterus lumpus

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Actinopterygii

Order: Scorpaeniformes

Family: Cyclopteridae

Genus: Cyclopterus

Species: C. lumpus

Unique Adaptation: Suction Disc:

The lumpsucker (also called lumpfish) has evolved modified pelvic fins that form a powerful adhesive disk on its belly.

This ventral suction cup allows the fish to stick securely to rocks, kelp, or other surfaces.

This morphological adaptation is especially important during the breeding season when the male stays on rocky bottoms to guard the eggs from predators and currents. In the unpredictable, brackish environment of the Baltic Sea, where salinity and temperature can shift quickly, this “sticky” survival tool allows the lumpsucker to thrive where many other fish cannot.

Why is this beneficial? The coastal waters of Northern Europe and the Baltic Sea can be turbulent, featuring shifting tides, powerful waves, and frigid storms during winter. If a slow swimmer such as the lumpsucker lacked a means to cling on, it could be thrown about or swept away.

Connection to Marine Environment:

The suction disc is a physical adaptation that evolved in direct response to turbulence, cold, salinity variation, and the need for stable nesting in the marine environments of Northern Europe. It is a survival solution tailor-made for bottom-dwelling fish in unpredictable seas.

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Scientific Classification:

Common Name: Spinetail Devil Ray

Scientific Name: Mobula mobular

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Chondrichthyes

Order: Myliobatiformes

Family: Mobulidae

Genus: Mobula

Species: Mobula mobular

Description of the Adaptation:

One of the coolest things about the spinetail devil ray is how it can leap out of the water a move called aerial breaching. These rays can actually launch themselves several feet into the air, sometimes flipping or spinning before crashing back down with a big splash. No one knows exactly why they do it, but scientists think it could be to shake off parasites, to communicate with other rays, or even to show off during mating season. It makes sense, especially since they live out in the open ocean where stuff like this can be seen from far away. In warm waters where parasites are more of a problem, jumping like this might help them stay clean and healthy. All in all, it’s a pretty awesome behavior that helps them survive and connect with each other.

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This is a Deep Sea Dragon Fish which is also commonly known as Grammatostomias Flagellibarba (scientific name) or the scaleless dragon fish. They are part of the stomiidae family that has 290 species but Deep Sea Dragon Fish are known to be found mostly in North and Western Atlantic Ocean and even the Gulf of Mexico.

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Actinopterygii

Order: Stomiiformes

Family: Stormiidae

Genus: Grammatostomias

Species: Flagellibarba

Adaptation:

As seen in the picture above Deep Sea Dragonfish have a bioluminescent barbel under its chin. This is used lure its pray and is produced by light producing organs called photophores that helps it glow.

How it works:

For the bioluminescence to work there are chemical reactions used by luciferin and luciferase. The location also plays a vital role because since the barbel dangles in front of its mouth and mimics smaller prey which allows other organisms to get closer.

Advantage:

This adaption evolved because of the Deep Sea Dragonfish environment. Being in the deep sea means extremely dark, high pressure environments with little to no food. The bioluminescent lure allows them to hunt efficiently while also saving their energy since resources tend to be scarce.

Different Environmental Connectors:

With higher pressure the Deep Sea Dragonfish are made to be able to tolerate immense pressure

Being so deep means freezing temperatures which is why Deep Sea Dragonfish have adapted metabolic processes

With pitch black and no light the Deep Sea Dragonfishes key to survival and hunting is bioluminescence

The dark color of their transparent bodies allow them to hide from predators and even prey while hunting which also aids in their survival

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Zanzibar, Tanzania

Located off the coast of Tanzania in the indian ocean, known for its unusual tide patterns and coral reefs. The type of tide is semidiurnal, which is two high and low tides a day.
The tidal range is about 3 to 4 meters, and enough to change the coastline drastically throughout the day.
During the low tide, it can recede hundreds of meters, which reveals the coral reefs and seaweed farms.

The coral reefs protect the island from strong waves and support marine life.
The beaches and tidal flats formed from white coral sand are visible during the low tide when the tide recedes drastically.
This area is a good example of a lagoon from the coral reefs that trap seawater close to the shore.

Because of the extreme tides, fishing and shell collecting is a common occurrence, also including seaweed farming because the tides are very predictable.
It is also a place that leads to a lot of tourism due to the unusual tide.
There is some coastal erosion due to development in the area, rising sea levels, and changing shorelines.

Question:
How would the locals adapt to the extreme changes in the tide levels and rising sea level?

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Scientific Classification

Common Name: Immortal Jellyfish

Scientific Name: Turritopsis Dohrnii

Taxonomic classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Cnidaria

Class: Hydrozoa

Order: Anthoathecata

Family: Oceaniidae

Genus: Turritopsis

Species: Turritopsis Dohrnii

Description of the adaptation

Adaptation:

The Immortal Jellyfish has an extraordinary biological capability, transdifferentiation, by which it can create the mature medusa form from the polyp form in the life cycle and then reverse that cycle. With such repetition can make it effectively biologically immortal.

How it works:

When the jellyfish is damaged or sick, or when it experiences a sudden change in temperature or salinity, the jellyfish converts those cells into younger versions of themselves. Specialized cells transdifferentiate: One cell type changes into another — adult cells transform into juveniles again. The jellyfish then reattach to a surface and re-grow into a colony of polyps, repeating its life cycle.

Why it evolved:

Presumably, this adaptation was developed as a survival strategy in the hard and changeable marine environment. There are numerous threats in deep-sea and coastal waters, including predation, variable temperature, and limited resources. Throwing itself back into in a time loop to a younger form, Immortal Jellyfish can prevent death and has the opportunity to outlive dangers or simply wait until the environment is more favorable to mature once more.

Connection to Marine Environment:

Immortal Jellyfish doesn't even die when it is eaten or broken into pieces; it simply turns into a sessile polyp. Returning to the polyp form, it can essentially go dormant during times that are not conducive to growth. Light and pressure as a miniature hydroid, it tends to inhabit the deep or fluctuating depths. The capability to re-start its life cycle may enable it to acclimatize to variable depths together with varying light and pressure environments.

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39.4526° N, 123.8135° W

📍 Location

Glass Beach can be found in Fort Bragg, a Northern California coastal town. Glass beach is approximately 38 acres and is MacKerricher State Park property. The colorful beach glass is the product of years and years of dumping trash in the ocean that is then smoothed by the ocean waves.

🌊 Tidal Characteristics

The area is subject to semidiurnal tides, which means there are two high tides and two low tides in a 24 hour period. Tidal differences can fluctuate, but at spring tides the contrast between low and high tide can be extreme, impacting sea glass visibility and the heights of tide pools.

🏖️ Coastal Features

The Glass Beach shoreline has rough rocks, cliffs and tide pools created by turbulence from waves over the years. First, the beach is covered in finely smoothed and beautifully colored sea glass tousled by the sea to supply a glittering coastline. These characteristics also render the rock formation a prime destination for the ‘coast-loving’ tourists.

🧠 Human Impact

In the past, Glass Beach was the city dumping site for garbage, including glass, appliances and even vehicles. The ocean’s waves slowly, over time, crushed up that garbage and made it into the sea glass we know the beach for today. Although the beach is popular with tourists, the removal of sea glass is discouraged, so the site may remain for future generations. Unfortunately, Glass beach can harm the ecosystem because the sea glass can physically harm marine life.

🗣️ Discussion Question

Considering the negative environmental impact placed on natural attractions (such as Glass Beach) by humans, what kind of sustainable tourism practices can keep Glass Beach still accessible and enjoyable to the public?

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Mimic Octopus

Picture: © Wolfgang Holz

Scientific Classification:

Common Name: Mimic Octopus

Scientific Name: Thaumoctopus mimicus

Taxonomic Classification:

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Mollusca

Class: Cephalopoda

Order: Octopoda

Family: Octopodidae

Genus: Thaumoctopus

Species: mimicus

3. Description of the Adaptation:

Adaptation: The Mimic Octopus has the incredible ability to imitate other marine creatures, such as lionfish, flatfish, and even jellyfish.

How it works: This octopus uses its specialized skin cells called chromatophores, which allow it to change color, texture, and even shape. When faced with a potential predator, it mimics dangerous or venomous species by copying their appearance and behavior. For example, it can spread its arms to resemble a lionfish’s spines or flatten itself to look like a flounder.

Why it evolved: This adaptation helps the octopus avoid predation in the predator rich environment of tropical coral reefs. Many predators shy away from lionfish due to their venomous spines, while others might be intimidated by the flatfish's ability to blend in. The mimicking acts as a defense mechanism to confuse or scare off predators.

Connection to the marine environment: In the diverse and hazardous environment of coral reefs, where predators are plentiful and highly adapted, the mimic octopus' ability to imitate these other creatures is a crucial survival strategy. It helps the octopus navigate the complex environment by utilizing both behavioral and physical changes, making it less likely to be attacked by predators. This adaptation is particularly useful in shallow, warm tropical waters where visibility is key for both predator and prey.

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Lyman Bay, Hawaii

📍 Location: Lyman Bay in Papaikou, Hawaii. Popular surf beach and beautiful spot to relax. When the waves are calm, people are allowed to snorkel in the area.

🌊 Tidal Characteristics: Typical tides with a range of about 2-3 feet. The tides are generally mixed semi-diurnal, but the heights of these tides can vary significantly.Tsunamis are a possibility but not common.

🏖️ Coastal Features: Because of the erosion of the basaltic rock by the waves, the coastline is characterized by steep sea cliffs. These cliffs frequently have wave-cut terraces, which are flat, horizontal surfaces formed when waves erode the cliff's base, resulting in the collapse of the upper portion. Where the coastline is less sensitive to erosion, waves can create sea arches, which can eventually collapse to create sea stacks, single rock columns that stand in the ocean. Due to the concentrated wave energy on Hawaii's windward shores, these formations are especially common there.

🧠 Human Impact: It is not safe to normally swim, it is recommended to just surf and snorkel (occasionally). People are allowed to fish but with no nets.

🗣️ Discussion Question: How do seasonal variations and lunar cycles influence the amplitude and frequency of ocean tides at Lyman Bay, Hawaiʻi?

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Rio De La Plata

Location: The Rio de la Plata is an estuary located at the intersection of the Uruguay River and the Parana River. Its coordinates are 35 40'S 55 47'W. It eventually empties into the Atlantic Ocean.

Tidal Characteristics: Rio de la Plata follows a diurnal tide cycle, with at least two high and two low tides a day. Its tidal range is relatively small, with a tidal influence of 190 km, but its width allows for the formation of tidal prisms.

Coastal Features: Given that Rio de la Plata is an estuary, the saltwater present within it forms salinity fronts that are present at the surface. Rio de la Plata contains several islands throughout its rivers, including Juncal Island and Martin Garcia Island, which are formed from the distribution of sediments carried down its streams. The Barra del Indio is a submerged shoal present within Rio de la Plata that separates its saltwater and freshwater portions.

Human Impact: Rio de la Plata hosts various settlements, including the city of Buenos Aires, and allows for fishing in the area. Buenos Aires has been a source of various trade goods, including sugar and silver, which is where Rio de la Plata ("River of Silver") gets its name. The Rio de la Plata allows for transport of these goods across its waters.

Discussion Question: There remains debate about whether the Rio de la Plata is a river or closer to some type of bay based on its various configurations. What do you think it should be classified as, and how do you think this should affect how it is used by locals?

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Bay of Fundy

📍 Location
The Bay of Fundy is in eastern Canada between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. A small part reaches the U.S. state of Maine. This bay has a funnel shape and links to the Atlantic Ocean.

🌊 Tidal Characteristics
The Bay of Fundy has a semidiurnal tide. Each tidal day has two high tides and two low tides. It has the world’s highest tidal range of about 16 meters. The extreme range is caused by natural resonance and the shape of the bay. The shape increases the amplitude of the tidal wave through constructive interference. A tidal bore occurs in some rivers, like the Shubenacadie River. This happens when the flood current forms a visible wave that travels upstream. It forms when the incoming tide moves faster than the shallow-water wave speed in the channel.

🏖️ Coastal Features
The coast includes mudflats, salt marshes, tidal channels, and eroded cliffs. Strong tidal currents form these landforms. They transport and deposit sediments. As the tide moves in and out, it creates intertidal zones. These zones are underwater at high tide and exposed at low tide. The wave refraction and shallow depth help cause areas where erosion happens quickly, especially near the head of the bay.

🧠 Human Impact
The tides affect local ecosystems and human activity. The intertidal zone supports rich marine biodiversity, including invertebrates and migratory birds. Tidal currents mix nutrients and oxygen into the water. A tidal power plant once operated at Annapolis Royal. It stopped in 2019 and is now being decommissioned. Modern ports in the region use tidal prediction. They also use aids to navigation to plan safe ship movements. The strong tidal range increases the risk of both coastal erosion and flooding during storms and spring tides.

🗣️ Discussion Question
What physical changes might happen to the Bay of Fundy if global sea level rises by several meters over the next century?

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Padlet Post: Bay of Fundy, Canada

Location: The Bay of Fundy is located on the Atlantic coast of Canada, between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. It's renowned for having the highest tidal range in the world.

Map/Satellite Image: (Include a map or satellite image of the Bay of Fundy)
Tidal Characteristics:
* Type of Tide: Semidiurnal (two high tides and two low tides per day)
* Tidal Range: The Bay of Fundy experiences the highest tidal range on Earth, with an average range of about 16 meters (52.5 feet) and extreme ranges reaching up to 17 meters (56 feet).
* Notable Tidal Phenomena: The extreme tidal range creates tidal bores (a wave that travels up a river against the current), strong tidal currents, and unique intertidal ecosystems.
* Coastal Features:

The Bay of Fundy features dramatic cliffs, extensive mudflats, and rocky shores shaped by the powerful tidal action. The high tides flood vast areas of intertidal zone, creating a rich habitat for marine life. The strong currents have also carved out unique geological formations.
* Human Impact: The tides in the Bay of Fundy have a significant impact on local ecosystems and human activities. The intertidal zone supports a diverse range of marine species. The tides are harnessed for tidal power generation. Tourism is also a major industry, with visitors coming to witness the extreme tides and explore the coastal scenery.
Discussion Question:
* How can tidal power be harnessed in an environmentally sustainable way in the Bay of Fundy, minimizing impacts on the unique marine ecosystem?

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The Bay of Fundy ( French: Baie de Fundy) is a bay on the Atlantic coast of North America, on the northeast end of the Gulf of Maine between the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, with a small portion touching the U.S. state of Maine.

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📍 Location:

The Twelve Apostles Marine National Park along Australia's Great Ocean Road protects eight living limestone columns (originally twelve) that rise abruptly from the Southern Ocean to heights of 72 meters. Located in Victoria, Australia (38.6634°S, 143.1047°E), these fragile rock formations are carved from 30-million-year-old Port Campbell limestone and are constantly buffeted by the powerful Antarctic Circumpolar Current.

🌊 Tidal Characteristics:

This dynamic coastline experiences mixed semi-diurnal tides with a tidal range of 2.1-3.4 meters and average winter swells of up to 3.5 meters. Relentless waves intertwine with strong longshore currents to carry away 150,000 cubic meters of sediment each year, while storm surges can temporarily raise sea levels by an additional 1.5 meters.

🏖️ Coastal features:

The columns display three distinct geological layers - a soft Vaalley Formation mudstone basement, a central Port Campbell limestone and a harder conglomerate cap. Erosion occurs primarily through three mechanisms: wave action (70%), salt crystallization (20%) and marine biological action (10%), causing the cliffs to retreat by 8-12 cm per year. The most recent collapse occurred in 2009, with a crack of about 30 cm forming in the next fragile "Gog" column.

🧠 Human impacts:

The site generates $285 million in tourism revenue each year and is currently limited to 4500 visitors per day, while also dealing with the effects of climate change, such as a 6.3 mm annual sea level rise (twice the global average) and a 40% increase in storms since 1980. Engineers have installed reinforced viewing platforms with seismic sensors and are testing experimental biocementation techniques to slow erosion, but surveys show that erosion has accelerated 17% since the 1990s.

🗣️ Discussion Question:

With models predicting only four reef stacks will remain by 2050, should conservation efforts prioritize limestone features, or shift the focus to emerging reef ecosystems, or document the natural collapse process?

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Location: The Waden Sea

The Wadden Sea is located along the northwestern coast of Europe. It stretches across the borders of the Western Netherlands, Northern Germany, and Southwestern Denmark. It stretches for about 500 km and is also considered to be the world's largest unbroken system of intertidal sand and mudflats.

Tidal Characteristics: The Wadden Sea has semidirunal tides. The Wadden Sea experiences regular and predictable tidal cycles. It goes through two high tides and two low tides throughout the day and has a tidal range of 1.5 to 4 meters. The highest tidal range occurs in the northern part of Germany and decreases in the direction towards Denmark. Notable phenomena that occur are that during the low tides, the mudflats and sandbanks are exposed, which allows people to walk on.

Coastal Features:

The Wadden Sea has dunes. The dunes are created by the shape of the wind, sand, and tides. The tides and storm surges deposit sand that helps shape the dunes.

Human Impact:

During low tide, worms and shellfish are exposed, becoming an important feeding ground for millions of migratory birds. The high tides and storm surges can cause flooding in low-lying areas.

Discussion question: How do you think rising sea levels will impact the ecosystems of the Wadden Sea ?

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Location: The Bay of Fundy is found on the east coast of Canada, between the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. It’s super famous for having the highest tides in the world, and it’s shaped like a big funnel, which makes the water rush in and out in crazy ways. It’s a beautiful area full of sea cliffs, coastal towns, and wild tidal action that changes the look of the shoreline.

Tidal Characteristics: The Bay of Fundy has a semidiurnal tide so there are two high tides and two low tides every day. The tidal range is massive, up to 16 meters (around 52 feet) during spring tides. Sometimes the tide comes in so fast it creates a wave that travels up rivers, called a tidal bore. It’s pretty cool to watch from videos online.

Coastal Features: This area has all kinds of cool landforms shaped by the tides, like steep sea cliffs, narrow coves, and wide mudflats. There are even places like Hopewell Rocks, where giant rock pillars stand tall and look different depending on if it’s high or low tide. Over time, the powerful water flow has carved and shaped the coastline into something really unique.

Human Impact: The extreme tides in the Bay of Fundy have a big effect on local life. The fast moving water brings in tons of nutrients, making it great for fishing, especially lobster and scallops. It’s also a popular tourist spot, with people visiting to walk on the ocean floor or watch the tide roll in. But there are also challenges, like coastal erosion and protecting the animals that live in the bay. Some people are even working on using the tides to make clean energy!

Discussion Question: Do you think we should use the Bay of Fundy’s powerful tides to make electricity, even if it might affect sea animals?

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Location: located in western France, Mont Saint-Michel is this cool little rocky island at the mouth of the Couesnon River in Normandy. It's super famous not just for its breathtaking medieval buildings but also for its crazy tidal changes that totally alter the scenery around it.

Tidal Characteristics: The tides here are a mixed semidiurnal type, meaning there are two high tides and two low tides every day, and they can really vary in height. The tidal range can be one of the biggest in Europe, hitting up to 14 meters during spring tides. This wild tidal shift makes for a stunning sight as the island goes from being surrounded by huge sandbanks to being completely surrounded by water and the tides come in so fast.

Costal Features: Mont Saint-Michel boasts some pretty neat coastal features, including its rocky island foundation topped with a historic abbey that looks like it just naturally belongs there. The bay around it has lots of mudflats and sandbanks, all shaped by those powerful tides. Over the years, the tides have carved out the coastal landscape, making unique patterns in the sand that you can see when the tide is low.

Human Impact: people have really connected with Mont Saint-Michel and its tides over time. Those tides have given the abbey natural protection from invaders, making it a strategic point for defense. Nowadays, they bring both challenges and chances for tourism and conservation. The ever-changing tides also support a variety of wildlife, including migratory birds and sea creatures, which need to be managed carefully so they’re not disturbed by the millions of tourists who visit each year. Plus, those strong tides can cause coastal erosion, so there’s ongoing work to keep the site’s structure and natural beauty intact.

Question: A good thing to think about is: How can we keep Mont Saint-Michel's tidal ecosystem healthy while also handling all the tourists? We want to make sure it stays both eco-friendly and important for history.

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Boca Grande’s beaches are known to be very peaceful, clean, and really beautiful. It has soft white sand, clear blue waters, and a great place to swim, fish, and watch dolphins and manatees up close. There aren’t many buildings or crowds which makes this a peaceful place to live or just book a trip and relax with family and friends.

Boca Grande is shown to have mixed semidiurnal tides, with two high and two low tides each day that change in height. The tidal range is small which is about 1 to 2 feet and there are no extreme tidal events or unusual phenomena that occur.

Boca Grande has sandy dunes, tidal inlets, and shallow lagoons, all shaped by waves and the movement of tides. The Tides help build dunes by shifting sand and keep the lagoons healthy by moving fresh seawater in and out.

Tides in Boca Grande are shown to help keep the water clean and bring food for fish and other animals. They also help people fish and stop flooding from happening, but they can slowly wash away the beach over time. The changing in the tides can also make it easier for boats to travel in and out of the area.

Question to classmates: What are some of the hidden gems or lesser known spots to visit in Boca Grande that most tourists miss?

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The Naruto Whirlpools take place in the Naruto Strait which is a channel between Naruto (Tokushima) and Awaki Islands (Hyogo, Japan)

Tidal Characteristics:

The Naruto whirlpools are known for having mixed tides because both high and low tide can vary. The variance in tides don’t stop its tidal range however which is known to be up to 5.6 feet and is heavily influenced by the different currents in the Naruto Strait. This phenomenon is formed because of rapid water exchanges between the Pacific and Seto Inland Sea and its current is known to reach speeds of 12.4 miles per hour.

Coastal Features:

The steeper, rocky shores near the Awaji island help to channel the powerful currents which is intensified by the narrow Naruto strait. These factors already influence the current and water flow and when it’s mixed with the different water dynamics of the Shikoku and Awaji islands it helped enhance both the strength of the whirlpools and even how visible the whirlpools are.

Human Impact:

With how visible the Naruto Whirlpools are there tends to be a lot of tourist on land or in tourists boats observing them. Along with being a well know tourist spot it’s also beneficial and crucial for different fisheries because the power of the tides during these whirlpools help bring in different nutrients that help with the marine life there. However these currents can be dangerously for smaller boats if unaware of the changes so they tend to need those with specialized knowledge of the whirlpools to help aid safe travel.

Discussion Question:

Do you think the strong currents and whirlpools can influence geological changes in coastal areas near the Naruto Strait?

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Garden Route South Africa

Location:  Located in South Africa on the costal line and extending 186 miles from Mossel Bay to Storms River. Enhancing the beauty of the country its filled with beautiful river, waterfalls, as well as rich green forestry.

Tidal characteristics:  Garden route has moderate semidiurnal tides with a high and low difference of 1.8 meters. Strong currents flow way from the beach and usually occur during wave break periods.

Costal features: Garden route is well known for its diverse coastlines filled with lagoons beaches, forests mountains and estuaries.

Human impacts: garden route in prone to major weather interference such as storms, tornadoes, and flooding. Due to this the cost of repairs can be costly and therefore causing a major disruption in tourism, businesses and housing caused by extreme gusty winds and large amounts of rainfall.

Question: What are human activities effect South African costal lines?

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Bahía Málaga, Colombia

Located on Colombia’s Pacific coast the Valle del Cauca department is a tropical bay surrounded by rainforests and mangroves. It is part of a national park and is home to small communities.

Tidal Characteristics

The bay has mixed semidiurnal tides: two highs and two lows daily, with unequal heights.

On average, the difference between low and high tides is about 3.5 meters; however, during spring tides, it can reach up to 4.6 m. The broad entrance of Bahía Málaga stops a tidal bore, exposing tidal flats (mudflats) at low tide and flooding mangroves at high tide. These strong tides stir up nutrients and support marine life.

Coastal Features

Mangroves thrive along the coast in soft mud from daily tides. The coastal formation of Bahía Málaga’s landforms illustrates classic tide-influenced coastal processes, with narrow beaches, rocky outcrops, and estuary channels shaped by strong tidal currents and Pacific wave energy.

Human Impact

Local villagers rely on tides to harvest piangüa called “black gold” clams from mudflats, with women timing trips for low tide. Stand houses protect homes from flooding, and mangroves buffer against erosion and storms. However, rising sea levels threaten this balance.

Discussion Question

How could rising sea levels or changes in tides impact coastal communities and ecosystems in places like Bahía Málaga?

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Portugal's southernmost region, the Algarve Coast, runs alongside the Atlantic Ocean. It is more than 200 kilometers long and is renowned for its stunning beaches, cliffs, and coastal communities like Lagos and Albufeira.

Tide Type:

The Algarve Coast gets two high tides and two low tides per day, which is known as a semi-diurnal tide.

Tidal Range:

It changes usually between 1 and 2 meters, the tidal range in the Algarve is mild when compared to some other coastal places.

While the Algarve doesn’t experience extreme tidal phenomena like tidal bores, the tidal movement still plays a significant role in shaping the coastline, especially around areas with coves and sea caves.

Coastal Features:

The Algarve Coast, especially the Ponta da Piedade region near Lagos, is well-known for its rocky cliffs, coves, sea caves, and arch formations. Also, the area has tidal estuaries like the Ria Formosa and long, sandy beaches. Water erosion throughout time has sculpted distinctive formations in the sea caves and rocky cliffs, which are shaped in part by the tides. The tides' ebb and flow also affect the sedimentation of wetlands and estuaries, which are crucial bird habitats.

Human Impact:

Tidal flows have a significant impact on the Ria Formosa Natural Park, a significant wetland region. A wide variety of shellfish, birds, and other marine life may be found there. The way these species eat and nest is affected by tidal fluctuations. The Algarve's fishing industry is a major sector, especially for shellfish like clams and oysters. In addition to tourism, which involves people traveling to coastal regions for activities like boating, kayaking, and sea cave exploration, the tides have an impact on how these resources are harvested. In certain places, coastal erosion is a problem, and measures are being taken to protect the shoreline and stop harm from growing tourism.

Discussion question:

How do you think tides affect daily life for people who live or work near the ocean?

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Title: Hawaiian Islands

Coordinates:

Latitude: 19.5° N
Longitude: 155.5° W

Description:

The Hawaiian Islands were formed by volcanoes that were caused by a hotspot which is a really hot area that is located deep inside the Earth. This hot spot stays in one place but the Pacific Plate, which is a big piece of Earth’s crust that slowly moves over it. It is shown that as the plate moves the hot spot melts rock and pushes magma up through the ocean floor, this then creates underwater volcanoes. Throughout time these volcanoes build up and form islands. The Big Island of Hawaii is shown to be the youngest and it still has active volcanoes because it is right above the hot spot. The other islands are older and were formed earlier as the plate moved. This process is shown to have nothing to do with plate boundaries like where plates crash into each other or move apart. Instead, Hawaii formed in the middle of a plate, this makes it a special example of intraplate volcanism. The islands get older the farther northwest you decide to go.

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Hey everyone, my name is Stephanie Merced i'm 22 years old, my major is criminal justice, i'm hoping this is my last year in lagcc, i'm in the military (Army) and love my job and trying to finish school before transferring to my next duty station, i applied for this class because i find oceanography very interesting.

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I am going to write about manganese nodules which are a kind of rock like layer that are found on the ocean floor,very deep down. This is mainly made of manganese and iron,also with nickel,copper and cobalt. The manganese nodules are used in batteries,or other electronics since they have a high metal in them. You can find them in the pacific ocean around an area between Hawaii and mexico. If found and you chose to collect it,there could be environmental consequences to that,which would be disturbing some of the deep sea ecosystems or disturbing the natural seabed habitat that does take many years to form.

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EVAPORITES

Evaporites are mineral deposits formed of sedimentary rock that occur in both oceans and free-standing bodies of water such as lakes. Marine evaporites alone can contain dozens of different minerals, including gypsum, halite, and calcite. Many of these minerals can be harvested and used as fertilizer, and halite in particular is often used as salt or to collect petroleum deposits. Evaporites can develop in any area that is arid enough for evaporation to convert more water than feeds into the area. Both the Great Salt Lake in Utah and the Dead Sea between Jordan and Israel represent environments where evaporites often develop, but they can also be seen in areas of Australia, near the Sahara and Namibia deserts, and within Peru and Chile. A benefit of evaporites is that they are renewable as long as their environment remains intact, although changing temperatures may alter the conditions under which they can form. The idea of using halite deposits to dispose of nuclear waste is currently being explored, but even if they can resist radiation it is unclear what additional impacts this could have.

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Manganese Nodules

Manganese nodules are dark brown, rounded lumps of rock found on the deep-ocean floor. Many are larger than a big potato. They build up in layers over time. Each one forms around a small object like a shark tooth or shell fragment. These nodules grow very slowly, about 1 to 10 millimeters per million years. They usually consist of about 30% manganese dioxide and 20% iron oxide. They also contain small amounts of other metals like copper, nickel, and cobalt. These metals are used to make batteries, electronics, and high-strength alloys. The largest accumulation of manganese nodules is found in the deep Pacific Ocean. The greatest density is in the region south of a line between Hawaii and southern California and north of 10°N latitude. Nodules are also found in the central South Pacific Ocean and in parts of the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. They are most abundant where the sedimentation rate is very low. This helps them stay on the seafloor long enough to keep growing without being buried. Mining manganese nodules could harm deep-sea environments. Harvesting them would disturb large parts of the seafloor. It could destroy habitats for benthic organisms that live on or around the nodules. The process could also resuspend sediments and release stored materials into the water column. Many of these ecosystems are not well studied. Some species may not recover from the damage. These nodules are not mined widely right now because it is still cheaper to get the metals from land. As land sources become less available, more attention is turning to seafloor mining.

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Sodium chloride (Salt)

Sodium chloride, also known as salt, in ocean water, has a concentration of around 3 percent and therefore forms over 75 percent of the dissolved chemical elements in seawater. Salt is removed straight from the oceans in several places by drying up the water and leaving the leftovers. This method relies on the sun's heat to evaporate seawater, leaving behind salt crystals in shallow ponds. Most salt produced every year is mined from big beds of salt. These beds were left when waters from older oceans evaporated in shallow seas leaving beds of salt. Something that has to be watched is ocean pollution which can make it difficult to locate an area that is safe to collect seawater. Waters that are near cities, industrial areas or marinas are often contaminated with toxins. Salt harvested from ocean water is used for many purposes. Salt is used as a raw material in the production of various chemicals in manufacturing various products like plastics and paper. Also, salt is used in the textile industry for setting dyes. This is by using a cold water wash and adding salt to the rinse cycle which can help fix the color and prevent bleeding. Another way salt is used is to soften water as a filter to help remove hardness from water. Some environmental impacts of gathering salt from the ocean include increased salt proportion in the water in nearby areas, and potential harm to aquatic life. An example of increased salinity is Freshwater Salinization which is when high salt concentrations can harm freshwater fish. Also, Salt Pan Creation which is the creation of salt evaporation ponds, this can create unnatural ecosystems that may not be beneficial for all species.

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METHANE HYDRATES

The scientific people say that methane hydrates are ice-like crystals trapped deep down underwater, where the methane gas is encased inside a structure of water molecules. They are counted as a possible future energy source since they contain so vast amounts of methane-an excellent fuel. Methane hydrates occur mainly along the continental margins-in places like off the coast of Japan, the Gulf of Mexico, and some areas in the Arctic. Tapping energy from these types of hydrates would bring great energy relief, but the environmental costs would be very high. Methane is a very strong greenhouse gas; hence, if it leaks during extraction, it could really affect the climate. Moreover, disturbance of such deposits could also contribute to underwater landslides or damage to ocean habitats.

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Ferromanganese Crusts

Ferromanganese Crusts are sedimentary mineral deposits that form on almost all rock surfaces in the ocean. Ferromanganese Crusts are composed of manganese oxides and iron oxyhydroxides. It has a slow growth rate and can have a thickness between 1 mm to about 260 mm. It is mainly found in the western Pacific Ocean. It forms at depths of 600-7000 meters on volcanic seamounts, ridges, and plateaus. They are rich in cobalt, manganese, and nickel. They are used to enhance steel properties and are also used in solar cells, magnets, and superconductors. The mining of this mineral has led to sediment clouding and impacted the benthic ecosystems.

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Jingjing Shi:

Methane Hydrates
Methane hydrates, sometimes called “fire ice,” are icy substances found under the ocean floor. They look like ice but contain a gas called methane, which is trapped inside. They are found in cold, high-pressure places like deep ocean sediments. Scientists are interested in them because they could be a big source of energy in the future.
Methane from these hydrates can be used as a fuel, just like natural gas. It could help provide energy for things like heating, cooking, or making electricity. Some countries are studying how to use methane hydrates to help meet their energy needs.
Methane hydrates are found in many parts of the world, including the Gulf of Mexico, near Japan, India, and along the coasts of some oceans. Japan and China have even tested ways to take the gas out of the hydrates.
Getting methane out of these hydrates can be risky. It might disturb the ocean floor and cause underwater landslides. Also, if the methane gas escapes into the air, it could add to global warming because methane is a strong greenhouse gas. Scientists are trying to find safer ways to get this gas without hurting the environment.

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Manganese nodules

Manganese nodules are round, rock-like formations on the ocean floor, about the size of a golf ball, and they grow extremely slowly as they accumulate different metals. They contain manganese, which is commonly used to make steel more durable for more applications; nickel, which is used in battery-related applications; copper, which is commonly used in electrical wiring; and lithium, which is commonly used in batteries.

They're found in deep-sea regions, specifically in abyssal plains across the Indian, Atlantic, and Southern Oceans, at depths of 4,000 to 6,000 meters in flat areas of the ocean floor.

The environmental impact of gathering this material varies because the mining equipment used can disturb the seafloor, causing damage to marine life in the area, or it can release sediment that can block sunlight and also contribute to changes in the environmental impact.

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Seaweed is found in coastal areas all around the world, thriving in both temperate and tropical waters. Major seaweed-producing countries include China, Indonesia, and South Korea, which dominate the global market. In the United States, states like Maine and California are known for their seaweed harvesting, showcasing the geographical distribution of this fascinating marine plant. The impact of seaweed is significant both ecologically and economically; ecologically, seaweed forests, like kelp forests, provide habitat and food for a wide array of marine species, supporting biodiversity, while also helping to stabilize coastlines and reduce erosion. Economically, seaweed farming has become a lucrative industry, with uses in food products, cosmetics, and even as a natural fertilizer. The growing demand for sustainable food sources has led to an increase in seaweed farming, providing jobs and supporting local economies while promoting environmental health. Overall, seaweed is a valuable resource that positively impacts both ecosystems and economies! It's not just a tasty ingredient; it's also crucial for our oceans and a sustainable resource for the future!

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Radiolarian Ooze – A Biogenous Deep-Sea Siliceous Sediment

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Radiolarian ooze is a biogenous sediment, a type of siliceous ooze found in cold, deep-sea environments. It is made mostly of microscopic plankton called radiolarians, which have silica-based skeletons. This ooze accumulates in nutrient-rich equatorial waters and forms a significant part of the deep ocean floor, especially in the Pacific Ocean. Scientists use it as a valuable climate archive, studying it through deep-sea drilling to reconstruct past ocean temperatures and sedimentary processes.
One notable example (picture from Gursky, 2023) is from the Kulm Basin, a Paleozoic ocean in what is now Germany and the Czech Republic. There is limited sediment, but it allows radiolarians to deposit thick layers of ooze. While it is not commercially harvested, obtaining these sediments by ocean drilling must be done with care, as it can help scientists understand the fundamental processes of marine siliceous sediments and reconstruct past ocean temperatures and environments to aid climate records.

Gursky, HJ. Radiolarian cherts and associated siliceous rocks of the Rhenish Massif and Harz Mountains, lower Carboniferous (Mississippian), Germany. PalZ 97, 769–784 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12542-022-00643-5

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Sea Cucumbers

Sea cucumbers are animals found on the ocean floor that look more like sea slugs . They're harvested mostly for food and traditional medicine, especially in East and Southeast Asia. You’ll find them in the Indo-Pacific region, like around Indonesia and the Philippines. Thing is, overharvesting sea cucumbers causes problems. They play a big role in cleaning up the seafloor by breaking down waste, so messing with their population can damage the ecosystem. Also, harvesting methods like trawling mess up other marine life too. Heres a weird fun fact when threatened, some sea cucumbers spit out their own internal organs :0

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Marine Phosphorites

Marine Phosphorites are sedimentary rocks. Known to occur in cold, nutrient rich, deep water and are commonly found in Peru Chile margin, offshore New Zealand and the Blake Bahamas Plateau. You can also find marine phosphorites in continental margins, seamounts and lagoons/insular deposits. They tend to form when phosphate in the ocean replaces carbonate in calcareous sediments or precipitates. From there they form hard grounds, phosphatic nodules or cements in breccias of multiple rock types. The process of formation for marine phosphorites can occur over long periods of time. However, marine phosphorites are known to be important and used in agriculture for fertilizer and even in the food industry as phosphoric acid. It can also be used in different chemical and metallurgical industries as well as in trade. While they are helpful the topic of mining marine phosphorites is a bit controversial. Yes, there are advantages to the mining and use of this mineral but there are also risks. Some being habitat destruction, sediment plumes, water quality degradation and even disruption to the diversity of the ocean. Removing a part of the ecosystem from the ocean causes impacts that many turn the blind eye to. This being said marine phosphorites shouldn't always be used. Finding different source to get phosphorus or methods to mine marine phosphorites can help balance the damage being done to the oceans.

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Giant Hawaiian Underwater Landslides

The exhibit shows how GLORIA sonar discovered big underwater landslides around Hawaii, which can trigger tsunamis and affect volcanic hazard assessments worldwide. It educates the public on these landslides found mainly near Oahu and Molokai, stretching over 100 miles into the Pacific. Sonar data collection has minimal environmental impact compared to other methods, providing crucial hazard insights without major disruption to marine life.

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Coordinates: Latitude: 0° N to 60° N
Longitude: 30° W

The Mid Atlantic ridge is a big site for frequent volcanic activity which is because of the tectonic movement. The Mid Atlantic ridge is a huge underwater mountain that does stretch from the arctic ocean to a southern part of africa. This ridge was formed by seafloor spreading which is where north american plates and the african and south american plates slowly move apart. These tectonic plates move apart at a divergent plate boundary,which then magma rises from the mantle and this is so it fills the gap,cools and ends up forming a new oceanic crust. Since this is a constant type of movement it creates a new seafloor and ends up pushing the older crust outward which forms the ridge over millions of years.

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11.3493° N, 142.1996° E

The Mariana Trench is near Japan,It is the deepest part of the earths oceans. It was formed by ocean-ocean subduction, where one plate was pushed under the other. The Mariana Trench is in the south pacific ocean. The pacific plate subducted under the philippine plate. The Mariana Trench is 35,876 feet deep which is 10,935 meters deep. It is said that the Mariana Trench, compared to Mount Everest, is taller. If Mount Everest was to go in the Mariana Trench it would still be submerged in over 7,166 feet of water.

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Coordinates:

Latitude: 20.7984° N

Longitude: 156.3319° W

The Hawaiian Islands is a representation of a volcanic island developed from an eruption beneath the Pacific Plate. A hotspot is a fixed place where volcanic activity is caused by magma expanding from the mantle. As the Pacific Plate moves to the northwest, new volcanoes and eventually islands are formed, but the hotspot remains stationary. Kauai is the oldest island and the one farthest from the hotspot, while Hawaii, the newest with active volcanoes like Kīlauea and Mauna Loa, is still directly above it. Over countless years, the plate's movement has created a unique chain of islands, each older and more eroded compared to the one before it. This process illustrates how plate tectonics contributes to the formation of geographical elements and how the lithosphere of the planet is dynamic.

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The Mariana Trench

Coordinates: 11.35°N, 142.2°E

Description: The Mariana Trench is the deepest part of the ocean. It is 36,000 feet (11,000 meters) deep. This feature exists because of plate tectonics. The Earth's tectonic plates create/shift over time and are responsible for many of Earth's largest natural features. The trench was formed at a subduction zone where one tectonic plate dives under another. The Pacific Plate is moving west and going under the smaller Mariana Plate. As the Pacific Plate goes under, it continues into the Earth's mantle while the ocean floor sinks deeper at the same time, creating the underwater canyon that is the Mariana Trench. Millions of years of this transformation have made the trench leveled, deepening at all times. The Ocean Trench itself is still extreme with high pressure, freezing temperatures, and no light but aquatic creatures like the deep-sea snailfish can live there. The Mariana Trench exists because of plate tectonics, as compared to land features like mountains and valleys where the Earth is less stable and constantly moving, and plate tectonics causes earthquakes.

Ryan Stallbohm

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Selected Geographic Feature: Mariana Trench

Coordinates:

Approx. 11.35°N, 142.2°E

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Geological Formation:

The Mariana Trench, the deepest part of the ocean, was formed by the process of subduction at a convergent plate boundary. It lies where the Pacific Plate is being forced under the smaller Mariana Plate in the western Pacific Ocean. This occurs because the Pacific Plate is denser and older, causing it to sink beneath the Mariana Plate into the Earth's mantle. As the Pacific Plate subducts, it creates a deep trench—reaching a depth of nearly 36,000 feet (10,994 meters) at Challenger Deep, the deepest known point in the ocean.

The intense pressure and heat in this zone cause the subducted plate to release fluids, which partially melt the mantle above, leading to volcanic activity and forming the Mariana Islands. The ongoing movement of these plates continues to shape the trench, making it one of the most geologically active regions on Earth.

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18.6781° S, 70.6330° W

The Nazca Ridge is in the Pacific Ocean, west of South America. It has a length of 1000km and is 200 km wide. It is part of the Nazca plate, which is located off the coast of Chile. The Nazca plate moves eastward towards the South American plate. The Nazca Ridge lies between these plates, and the subduction zone is created by the Nazca plate sliding underneath the South American plate. This led to the formation of the Andes Mountains. The subduction that occurs leads to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The Nazca Ridge was formed by a hotspot located beneath the Nazca Plate. As the Nazca Plate passed over the hotspot, the rising magma caused volcanic activity and created several underwater mountains. These volcanic ridges, which are made up of seamounts that formed, led to the creation of the Nazca Ridge.

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Hawaiian Islands

19.8987° N, 155.6659° W

The beautiful Hawaiian Islands formed over millions of years ago. The islands are located over a hot spot which is a region deep in the Earth's mantle where heat rises and melts the surrounding rock creating magma. As the Pacific Plate moved across the hot spot this caused volcanic eruptions that created the islands and the chain of seamounts (underwater mountains) moving towards the northwest. The Pacific Plate is beneath the Pacific Ocean, stretching from the East Pacific Rise to the deep-sea trenches bordering the western part of the Pacific and the Pacific Plate is constantly moving. As the islands move away from the hot spot, they become older, cool, erode, break down, and become volcanically inactive, and start to sink into the ocean. This movement has left the 20 islands we know as the Hawaii islands in danger of eroding and becoming underwater mountains.

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East Pacific Rise

Approximate coordinates: 10°S 110°W.

- It covers a wide area of ​​the southeastern Pacific Ocean.

The East Pacific Rise is one of the most active mid-ocean ridges on Earth, located at the diverging plate boundary between the Pacific Plate and the Nazca Plate. Driven by plate tectonic movements, the Pacific Plate and the Nazca Plate are constantly moving away from each other. Magma from the mantle continues to rise and fill the gaps created by the separation of the plates. As the magma cools and solidifies, new oceanic crust is gradually formed through the process of seafloor spreading. This tectonic activity is so intense that the East Pacific Rise is one of the fastest spreading seamounts, with some areas spreading as fast as 16 cm per year. In the process, not only underwater mountains are formed, but also numerous hydrothermal vents. These hydrothermal vents are home to unique ecosystems. Unlike common ecosystems, they rely on chemical energy rather than sunlight to sustain life activities. The East Pacific Rise vividly demonstrates how plate tectonics has profoundly shaped the seafloor and has a significant impact on the Earth's geological and biological processes.

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The Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Coordinates: 0.0000° N, 20.0000° W

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a vast underwater mountain range that stretches from the Arctic Ocean to the southern tip of Africa, bisecting the Atlantic Ocean. It is a prime example of a divergent plate boundary where the Eurasian and North American plates in the north, and the African and South American plates in the south, are moving apart. This movement is driven by the process of seafloor spreading. As these tectonic plates move away from each other, magma from the Earth’s mantle rises to fill the gap. When this magma cools and solidifies, it forms new oceanic crust, contributing to the ridge’s continuous growth. This process not only creates the mountainous terrain of the ridge but also results in volcanic activity along the boundary. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a fundamental component of the planet’s geological activity and plays a significant role in the global distribution of oceans and continents.

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Hawaiian Islands

Coordinates: 18° N to 22° N, 155° W to 160° W

The Hawaiian Islands formed from volcanic activity caused by a hotspot beneath the Pacific Plate. Unlike most volcanoes, which form at plate boundaries, the Hawaiian Islands formed in the middle of the Pacific Plate. The Pacific Plate moves northwest at about 7 to 10 centimeters per year. This movement happens because of seafloor spreading and subduction. As the plate moves, magma pushes through the crust and forms volcanoes. The hotspot has created volcanic islands in the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain for over 70 million years. The Hawaiian Islands are much younger. Kauaʻi, the oldest main island, formed about 5 million years ago. The Big Island of Hawaiʻi is the youngest. It still has active volcanoes like Kīlauea and Mauna Loa. Around 47 million years ago, the Hawaiian-Emperor bend formed. This shows that the Pacific Plate changed direction. Over time, older islands erode and sink as the oceanic crust cools and contracts. This process, called subsidence, makes islands sink lower in the ocean. Lōʻihi Seamount, southeast of Hawaiʻi, is an underwater volcano. It may become a future island. The Hawaiian Islands show how a hotspot creates land far from a plate boundary. As the Pacific Plate moves, new islands will form.

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East African Rift System

Coordinates: 3.0 S, 35.5 E

The East African Rift System is an example of a rift valley that stretches across East Africa. Although several theories regarding its formation have circulated, it is currently thought that 22-25 million years ago, the rift was formed by lithospheric thinning causing the African Plate to split, similar to how oceanic ridges are formed. Volcanic activity may have created a feedback loop of magmatic processes that resulted in further thinning of the lithosphere until the rift had developed. The African Plate is currently in the process of separating, forming what are known as the Somali and Nubian plates. It is speculated that the deepening of the EARS may eventually lead to the separation of East Africa from the mainland, but this process could take tens of thousands of years. The EARS has formed several volcanic systems, including Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya, and the Crater Highlands in Tanzania. In addition, it contains several of the African Great Lakes, including Lake Victoria, which contribute to East Africa's arid climate.

Audrey Levesque

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Andes Mountains

The mountains stretch along the western coast of South America so there is no official coordinate but the central point is 32°S, 70°W

The Andes Mountains were formed through subduction, which happens when one tectonic plate is forced under another. In this case, the Nazca Plate is moving east and gets pushed under the South American Plate at a convergent plate boundary. As the Nazca Plate sinks deeper into the Earth's mantle, it melts, producing magma that rises to the surface. This volcanic activity is what built the Andes over time. Even today, the plates are still shifting and moving, meaning the mountains are still growing. Because of this constant activity, the Andes are home to many volcanoes, making the region one of the most geologically active places on Earth.

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Pico Island, Azores

Coordinates: 38.465°N, 28.402°W

Pico Island in the Azores was formed by volcanic activity along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the Eurasian and North American plates are slowly pulling apart. As they drift, magma rises from below, creating new crust and fueling volcanic eruptions. Over millions of years, this process built up the Azores, and Pico Island ended up with the tallest volcano in Portugal Mount Pico about 2,351 meters high give or take. The island is still pretty active geologically, with occasional earthquakes and volcanic activity shaping the land. Its rugged black basalt landscape, shaped by past eruptions, still shows traces of the island’s volcanic past.

Jacky Huang

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Hawaiian Islands 🌺

Longitude and Latitude:

20.54 N

156.36 W

Together with the migration of the pacific plate a geological phenomenon called a hotspot created the beautiful volcanic island series called the Hawaiian islands. They were created in the center of the pacific plate by a fixed mantle plume, also known as a hotspot, in contrast to the majority of volcanic activity connected to plate boundaries.

Volcanoes are formed as magma from the mantle plume rises through the earths crust when the pacific plate shifts northwestward over a stationary hot spot. These volcanic eruptions have accumulated the islands over millions of years. The southwest and biggest island (hawai’i) has the youngest and most active volcanoes such as Kilauea and Mauna Loa. The pacific plates movements also caused older islands in the chain to drift away from the hotspot and begin to erode. The dynamic character of plate tectonics and hotspot volcanism, which stills forms the Hawaiian islands today, is demonstrated in this process.

Fun Facts:

• Hawaiian islands is home to the most amount of endangered species

• Hawaiian islands has the highest life expectancy in the country

• The islands were first discovered by Captain Cook (a european voyager)

• Each island has a nickname and is represented by a flower and color—> Hawaii (red, lehua flower) Maui(pink, lokelani rose) Kahoolawe(gray, hinahina plant) Lanai (orange, kaunaoa plant) Molokai(green, kuki nut flower) Oahu(yellow, llima flower) Kauai(purple, mokihana berry) Niihau(white, white pupu shell)

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The Galápagos Islands

Latitude: ~1°40′ North to 1°36′ South

Longitude:  ~89°16′ West to92°01′ West

The Galápagos Islands is a volcanic archipelago located in the Pacific Ocean, about 1,000 km (620 miles) off the coast of Ecuador (South America). Best known for their rich natural biodiversity thanks to Charles Darwin’s observation that led to the Natural Selection theory featured in On the Origin of Species. The islands are home to unique species such as the giant tortoise, pink iguana, and many others, earning their status as one of the most protected places on the planet.

These 19 Islands, numerous Islets and rocks, cover an area of approximately 3,093 square miles.

The Island's formation is due to the slow drifting of the Nazca Plate to the southeast over a hotspot, where intense heat from the Earth's mantle rises to create volcanic eruptions, building islands over time.

A hotspot is a fixed area of intense heat flowing from the core-mantle boundary up to the oceanic crust, concentrated volcanic activity beneath the Earth's crust, as the Plate on the Lithosphere moves across, producing volcanic islands one after another; this movement is caused by the movement of the Plate.

The Galápagos are situated between a divergent boundary (Pacific Plate) and a convergent boundary at the Peru-Chile Trench, where the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate. This dynamic tectonic setting influences the region's landscape and ecology. The oldest islands in the Galápagos are located to the east, while the youngest ones, such as Fernandina and Isabela, are situated to the west and are still forming. The Nazca Plate's steady movement, about 2 inches (5 cm) per year, shapes this unique geological environment, which also experiences seismic activity.

Segar, D. A., & Stamman Segar, E. (2024). Chapter 4: Plate Tectonics: Evolution of the Ocean Floor [Digital]. In Introduction to the Ocean Sciences (Fifth edition, third digital edition, p. 81). https://reefimages.com/oceansci.php

Galápagos Conservancy. (2022, May 30). History of Galápagos | Galápagos Conservancy. https://www.galapagos.org/about_galapagos/history/#:~:text=Galapagos%20is%20located%20on%20the,are%20still%20being%20formed%20today.

Latitude.To. (n.d.). GPS coordinates of Galápagos Islands, Ecuador. Latitude: -0.6667 Longitude: -90.5500. Latitude.to, Maps, Geolocated Articles, Latitude Longitude Coordinate Conversion. https://latitude.to/articles-by-country/ec/ecuador/342/galapagos-islands#google_vignette

Ecuador, N. G. &. (2024, July 22). Where are the Galapagos Islands? Nature Galapagos & Ecuador. https://naturegalapagos.com/blog/where-are-the-galapagos-islands-located/

Schaeffer, B. A., Morrison, J. M., Kamykowski, D., Feldman, G. C., Xie, L., Liu, Y., Sweet, W., McCulloch, A., & Banks, S. (2008). Phytoplankton biomass distribution and identification of productive habitats within the Galapagos Marine Reserve by MODIS, a surface acquisition system, and in-situ measurements. Remote Sensing of Environment, 112(6), 3044–3054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2008.03.005

https://www.arcgis.com/apps/instant/atlas/index.html?appid=0cd1cdee853c413a84bfe4b9a6931f0d&webmap=e0bc7263581f4bd5a8a416de167be7ff

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Mariana Trench

11.35°N, 142.2°E

The Mariana Trench is the deepest spot in the ocean, going down about 36,070 feet (10,994 meters) at its lowest point, Challenger Deep. It was formed by subduction, which is when one tectonic plate slides under another. In this case, the Pacific Plate is being pushed beneath the Mariana Plate because it’s denser. This process has been happening for millions of years, creating the trench and causing earthquakes and volcanic activity in the area. The nearby Mariana Islands were also formed due to this tectonic movement. The trench is a huge part of how the Earth recycles its crust, as the Pacific Plate slowly sinks into the mantle. Pretty crazy to think about how much of the ocean is still unexplored, especially in places like this!

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Himalayan Mountains

28.5983’ N

83.9310’ E

The Himalayan Mountains are located in Asia, stretching across 5 countries: India, China, Nepal, Bhutan, and Pakistan. They separate the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The Himalayan Mountains are known for some of the world's highest peaks, Mount Everest being one of them. Mount Everest alone stretches 29,032 feet above seat level (8.848 meters). These mountain ranges influence the climate of the region, as it poses a barrier to freezing cold winds from the North and helps create monsoon weather patterns.

The Himalayan Mountains were formed through the process of plate tectonics, specifically due to the collision of the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. About 50 million years ago, the Indian Plate began to move northward, driven by the forces of mantle convection. As it collided with the Eurasian Plate, the immense pressure and friction caused the Earth's crust to buckle and fold, leading to the uplift of the mountain range. This ongoing tectonic activity continues to shape the Himalayas today, making them one of the youngest and most dynamic mountain ranges in the world. The collision not only created the towering peaks but also resulted in significant geological activity, including earthquakes in the region.

Fun facts about the Himalayan Mountains:

The Himalayas are considered sacred to Hindus and Buddhists

Home to rare species like the snow leopard and red panda

The Himalayas are still rising 4 millimeters each year

Creates unique weather patterns

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Hi, my name is Shivanie Harkishun. This is my second year at Laguardia, I am majoring in Business AD. Some of my hobbies include traveling, cooking, going to the gym, trying out new cafes, and listening to music. I'm excited to be a part of this class and learn about the ocean.

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Hello my name is Julio Puebla. This is my second year at Laguardia; my major is Liberal Arts Math and Science. I plan to transfer to a four-year school and obtain a bachelor's degree in mathematics, and then I plan to continue my education and enroll in graduate school. Some of my biggest hobbies include running and hiking; I love nature. I find running extremely relaxing; it helps me clear my mind and helps me think clearer. I look forward to learning about the ocean; it's a subject I would love to know more about.

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Hello, my name is Ryan Stallbohm. I am 18 years old. This is my second semester at LaGuardia Community College. My major is animal science but was originally vet tech. I like to play video games in my free time. I also enjoy listening to music.