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Karl V - Püha Rooma Keisririik

Karl V (1500–1558) valitses suurt impeeriumi, mis ulatus Euroopast Ameerikani. Kuigi tema valitsusaja põhitähelepanu oli poliitikal ja sõjal, toetas ta ka kunstnikke ja arhitekte. Tema õukonnas töötasid mitmed renessansi suurkujud, nagu Tizian. Karl V aitas renessansi ideid levitada üle Euroopa.

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François I - Prantsusmaa

François I (1494–1547) tõi Prantsusmaale renessansiõhkkonna, olles suur kunstnike ja arhitektide toetaja. Ta tõi oma õukonda Leonardo da Vinci, kes veetis oma elu viimased aastad Prantsusmaal. François tellis mitmeid renessansi arhitektuuri meistriteoseid, nagu Château de Chambord, ning rajas aluse Prantsuse kultuuri õitsengule.

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Henry VIII - Inglismaa

Henry VIII (1491–1547) oli Inglise renessansi võtmefiguur. Tema ajal said populaarseks renessansi kirjandus ja muusika. Henry ise oli kunstihuviline ja toetas teaduse ning hariduse arengut. Samuti lahutas ta Inglismaa katoliku kirikust ja lõi Inglise kiriku, mis mõjutas kogu Euroopa poliitilist ja kultuurilist maastikku.

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Franco-Preisi sõda (1870–1871)
Toimumiskoht: Prantsusmaa ja Preisi Kuningriik
Kirjeldus:
Franco-Preisi sõda oli konflikt Prantsusmaa ja Preisi (hilisema Saksamaa) vahel. Prantsusmaa kaotas ja kaotas ka Alsace-Lorraine’i ala. See põhjustas tugevaid poliitilisi muutusi Euroopas.
Seos kunstiga:
Paljud impressionistid (nt Claude Monet) põgenesid sõja eest Inglismaale. Pärast sõda sai Pariis taas kunstikeskuseks.

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Ferdinand ja Isabella - Hispaania

Ferdinand (1452–1516) ja Isabella (1451–1504) olid Hispaania kuningapaar, kes ühendasid riigi ja rahastasid Christopher Columbuse ekspeditsiooni, mis avas tee Uue Maailma avastamisele. Nad toetasid ka renessanssi Hispaanias, olles seotud paljude kunstnike ja arhitektide töödega. Samas olid nad tuntud ka rangete usureformide, sealhulgas inkvisitsiooni, toetamise poolest.

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1. Ülevaade

Pealkiri: Wanderer above the Sea of Fog

Kunstnik: Caspar David Friedrich

Aasta: 1818

Tehnika: Õli lõuendil

Mõõtmed: Umbes 94,0 cm × 74,0 cm (37 in × 29 in)

2. Seade ja kompositsioon

Maal kujutab üksildast figuuri, noort meest, kes on riietatud tumerohelisse mantelisse, seismas kivisel kõrgendikul.

Taustal domineerib ulatuslik, keerlev udumeri, mis varjab allolevat maastikku, luues eeterliku atmosfääri.

Kauguses tõusevad ebaühtlased mäed udust, vihjates looduse ürgsele võimsusele.

3. Rändur

Figuri kehakeel on enesekindel, ta seisab seljaga vaataja poole, vaadates udust maastikku.

Ta hoiab paremas käes kepi, mis sümboliseerib nii navigeerimist kui ka elu teekonda.

Tema poos edastab mõtisklemise tunnet, viidates sügavale tegelemisele eksistentsi mõistatusedega.

4. Sümbolism

Loodus ja Sublime: Looduse ülev kohalolek kutsub esile aukartuse ja kummarduse tunde, mis on romantilisme võtmeteema. Udu esindab tundmatut ja inimkonna arusaamise ületamist.

Isolatsioon: Üksildane rändur rõhutab individuaalse kogemuse ja sisemise teekonna teemasid, millega silmitsi seistakse looduse hiiglaslikkusega.

Uurimine: Maal sümboliseerib teadmiste otsingut ja inimese ning looduse vahelise sisemise võitluse teemat, mis on romantiikaga iseloomulik.

5. Värvipalett ja tehnika

Kunstnik kasutab summutatud värvipaletti, mis on valdavalt roheline, hall ja sinine, luues melanhoolse, kuid majesteetliku atmosfääri.

Värvi kihistamise tehnika aitab kaasa udude tekstuurile, andes sellele voolava ja dünaamilise ilme, mis suurendab maali unenäolist kvaliteeti.

6. Emotsionaalne mõju

Kunstiteos kutsub vaatlejat mõtlema oma kohta universumis, julgustades imetlust ja mõtisklemist.

Tugeva figuuri ja vormitu udu vastand kutsub esile nii seose kui ka eristumise tunde, sundides vaatlejat kaaluma elu ja eksistentsi keerukusi.

7. Kultuuriline ja ajalooline kontekst

Maalitud romantilise liikumise haripunktis, peegeldab see teose ajastu huvi looduse, individuaalsuse ja emotsionaalse kogemuse vastu.

Friedrichi teosed uurivad sageli melanhoolia ja eksistentsiaalse peegeldamise teemasid, paigutades ta romantilise maastikumaali võtmefiguuriks.

8. Pärand

"Wanderer above the Sea of Fog" on saanud ikooniliseks esinduseks romantilisme ja jätkab arutlemist inimkonna ja looduse vahelise suhte üle.

Seda viidatakse tihti kunstiajaloo aruteludes, rõhutades Friedrichi nägemuse püsimise mõju.

© Martin Landing

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1. Ülevaade

Pealkiri: Liberty Leading the People

Kunstnik: Eugène Delacroix

Aasta: 1830

Tehnika: Õli lõuendil

Mõõtmed: 260 cm × 325 cm (102,4 in × 128 in)

2. Seade ja kompositsioon

Maal kujutab Prantsuse juuli revolutsiooni (1830) stseeni, kus erineva sotsiaalse taustaga inimesed tõusevad ülestõusule.

Keskne figuur on Vabadus, naisfiguur, kes hoiab kõrgel Trikolor’i (Prantsuse lipu) ja suunab rahvahulki edasi.

Esiplaanil on surnud ja haavatud revolutsioonilised, sümboliseerides võitluse hinda vabaduse eest.

3. Vabaduse allegooriline figuur

Vabadus on kujutatud poolpalja naisena, kellel on peas Früügia müts, sümboliseerides revolutsiooni ja vabadust.

Tema vasakus käes on musket, samal ajal kui paremas käes on kõrgel lehviv Prantsuse lipp.

Tema näoilme on sihikindel ja enesekindel, esindades revolutsiooni vaimu ja rahva vabaduspüüdlusi.

4. Sümbolism

Vabaduse juhtfiguur: Keskne naisfiguur esindab vabadust ja iseseisvust ning on klassikaline revolutsiooni ja rahva õiguste sümbol.

Rahva mitmekesisus: Maalil on kujutatud erinevatest ühiskonnakihtidest pärit inimesi – töölised, sõdurid, kodanikud – mis rõhutab, et revolutsioon oli kõikide ühine eesmärk, mitte ainult ülemklassi või eliidi asi.

Surnukehad ja vägivald: Maali alumises osas lebavad surnud kehad rõhutavad võitluse ja verevalamise hinda, mida tuli maksta vabaduse eest.

5. Värvipalett ja tehnika

Delacroix kasutab rikkalikke ja sügavaid värve, eriti punast, sinist ja valget, et tuua esile Prantsuse lipu ja revolutsiooni sümboolikat.

Värvide elav kasutamine loob maali dünaamilisuse ja intensiivsuse, samas kui detailne brushwork toob esile figuuride liikumise ja emotsionaalse energia.

6. Emotsionaalne mõju

Maal kutsub esile tugeva patriootlikkuse ja revolutsioonilise vaimu tunde. Keskfiguuri jõud ja kindlus inspireerivad vaatajat tundma end osa võitlevast rahvast.

Samal ajal tuletavad surnukehad ja vägivald meelde võitluse ohvreid ja raskusi, tekitades segaseid emotsioone nii ülevusest kui ka kurbusest.

7. Kultuuriline ja ajalooline kontekst

"Vabadus juhtimas rahvast" on seotud 1830. aasta juulirevolutsiooniga, mille tulemusena kukutati Prantsuse kuningas Charles X ja asutati uus monarhia Louis-Philippe’i juhtimisel.

See teos peegeldab Prantsusmaa revolutsioonilist ajalugu ning Delacroix püüab jäädvustada hetke, mil rahvas tõusis võitluses vabaduse eest.

8. Pärand

"Vabadus juhtimas rahvast" on saanud üheks romantilise maali ikooniks ja on sümboliks revolutsioonilistele liikumistele üle maailma.

Teos inspireerib jätkuvalt uusi põlvkondi ja on kasutatud poliitilistes ja sotsiaalsetes liikumistes, sümboliseerides vabaduse ja õiguse kaitset.

© Martin Landing

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Toompea loss

Herbert Johanson ja Eugen Habermann

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Einsteini torn

Erich Mendelsohn

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Esimene maailmasõda (1914–1918)

Toimumiskoht: Euroopas ja mujal maailmas
Kirjeldus:
Esimene maailmasõda oli globaalne konflikt, mis põhjustas tohutut hävingut ja kannatusi. Miljonid inimesed hukkusid.
Seos kunstiga:
Paljud ekspressionistid olid šokeeritud sõjast. Nende kunst peegeldas hirmu, valu ja sisemisi konflikte. Tekkis nn „kaotatud põlvkond“.

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De Bijenkorf in The Hague

Piet Kramer

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Borsig-Tower

Eugen Schomohl

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August Macke. "Daam rohelise jakiga". 1913

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"Impressioon. Tõusev päike" Claude Monet

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Pariisi Kommuun (märts–mai 1871)
Toimumiskoht: Pariis, Prantsusmaa
Kirjeldus:
Pariisi töölised võtsid võimu ja moodustasid oma valitsuse – Pariisi Kommuuni. See kestis vaid 2 kuud ja lõppes verise mahasurumisega.
Seos kunstiga:
Kunstnikud nägid rahutusi ja tänavalahinguid oma silmaga. See mõjutas kunstis linna- ja sotsiaalseid teemasid.

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Sõjad Impressionismi aeg:

(Sabrina ja Elina)

Prantsuse-Preisi sõda (1870–1871). See sõda oli oluline konflikt Prantsusmaa ja Preisi vahel, mille tulemusena tekkis Saksamaa keisririik.

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Sõjad ekspressionismi aeg:

(Sabrina ja Elina)

Esimene maailmasõda (1914–1918). See konflikt mõjutas sügavalt ekspressionistlikke kunstnikke ja kirjanikke, kuna sõda tõi kaasa suurt kaost, kannatusi ja desillusiooni, mis kajastus nende loomingus. Paljud ekspressionistid, nagu saksa kunstnikud Otto Dix ja George Grosz, kujutasid sõja õudusi oma töödes, keskendudes inimeste emotsioonidele ja hingevalu peegeldamisele.

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Leiutised Impressionismi aeg:

(Sabrina ja Elina)

Fotograafia areng. Kuigi fotograafia leiutati ametlikult 1839. aastal (Joseph Nicéphore Niépce ja Louis Daguerre tööd), arenes see tehnoloogia märkimisväärselt just 19. sajandi teisel poolel, samal ajal kui impressionism õitses.

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Röntgenkiirgus (Reaalsed fotod tol ajast ei leitud)

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Leiutised ekspresionismi aeg:

(Sabrina ja Elina)

Üks oluline leiutis ekspressionismi ajal oli röntgenikiirgus. Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen avastas röntgenikiirguse 1895. aastal, ja selle leiutise rakendamine meditsiinis muutus 20. sajandi alguseks laialdaseks.

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Ajalooline Taust

Sünniaeg ja -koht: Wilhelm I sündis 22. märtsil 1797. Ta oli Preisi kuningas ja hilisem Saksamaa keiser.

Valitsemisaeg: Wilhelm I krooniti Preisi kuningaks 1861. aastal ja Saksamaa keisriks 1871. aastal pärast Saksamaa ühendamist.

Politika ja Reformid

Sõjaline karjäär: Wilhelm I teenis sõjaväes ja osales mitmetes sõdades, sealhulgas Napoleoni sõdades. Tema sõjaline kogemus mõjutas tema poliitikat ja valitsemisstiili.

Bismarcki roll: Wilhelm I toetas Otto von Bismarcki, kes oli tema peamine nõunik ja poliitiline arhitekt Saksamaa ühendamisel. Bismarcki sõjalised ja diplomaatilised strateegiad aitasid saavutada ühendamise, sealhulgas Prantsusmaa ja Austriaga käidud sõdades.

Saksamaa Ühendamine

Sõda Austriaga (1866): Wilhelm I ja Bismarck korraldasid sõja Austriaga, mis viis Saksamaa põhjaosa ja lõunaosa eristumiseni ja Prussi ja Austri üleolekule.

Prantsusmaa-Venemaa sõda (1870–1871): Prantsusmaa vastu suunatud sõda, mis viis Saksamaa ühendamiseni. Wilhelm I kuulutati Saksamaa keisriks 18. jaanuaril 1871 Versailles' lossi peeglikammeris.

Valitsemine

Keisriks olemine: Wilhelm I oli Saksamaa keiser kuni oma surmani 1888. aastal. Tema valitsemise ajal tugevnes Saksamaa majandus ja sõjaline jõud.

Konservatiivne poliitika: Tema valitsusajast iseloomustas konservatiivne poliitika ja rõhutus autoritaarsusele, sealhulgas nõukogude ja parlamendi rolli piiramine.

Isiklik Elu

Perekond: Wilhelm I abiellus Augusta, Saksamaa printsessiga, kellega tal oli seitse last. Tema pojad ja järeltulijad mängisid hiljem olulist rolli Saksamaa poliitikas.

Pärand

Wilhelm I on tuntud kui Saksamaa ühendaja, kes aitas luua tugeva ja ühtse Saksamaa riigi. Tema valitsemine seondub Saksamaa kiire majandusliku ja sõjalise arengu ajaga, samuti autoritaarse valitsemise ja konservatiivsete väärtuste edendamisega.(NELLI)

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Ajalooline Taust

Sünniaeg ja -koht: Aleksander II sündis 29. aprillil 1818. Ta sai Venemaa tsaariks 1855. aastal pärast oma isa, tsaari Nikolai I, surma.

Valitsemisaeg: Tema valitsusaeg kestis kuni 1881. aastani, mil ta mõrvati.

Suured Reformid

Talurahva vabastamine: Aleksander II on tuntud oma 1861. aastal toimunud reformide poolest, mil ta vabastas talupojad orjuse alt. See oli suur samm Venemaa sotsiaalsete suhete ja majanduse moderniseerimise suunas.

Õigusreformid: Ta kehtestas kohtureformid, mille eesmärk oli luua õiglasem kohtusüsteem ja parandada tsiviilõigust. See hõlmas ka kohtute avamist avalikkusele.

Haridusreformid: Hariduse kättesaadavuse suurendamine, sealhulgas uute koolide rajamine ja ülikoolide moderniseerimine, aitas edendada rahva haridust.

Sotsiaalne ja Poliitiline Tõus

Tööstuslik areng: Aleksander II valitsusajal toimusid Venemaal mitmed tööstuslikud reformid, sealhulgas raudteede ehitus, mis aitasid moderniseerida riigi majandust.

Liberaalsed ideed: Tema valitsusajal said populaarseks liberaalsed ideed, kuid poliitiline surve ja radikaliseerumine suurendasid vastasseise valitsuse ja rahva vahel.

Välispoliitika

Krimmi sõda (1853–1856): Aleksander II juhtis Venemaad Krimmi sõjas, mis lõppes Venemaa kaotusega. Sõda paljastas Venemaa nõrkused ja tõukas reformide poole.

Rahvusvahelised konfliktid: Tema valitsemise ajal toimusid mitmed konfliktid, sealhulgas suhetes Türgi ja Austriaga.

Tõsised Vastuseisud ja Mõrv

Radikaalne vastupanu: Aleksander II reformide vastu tõusis radikaalne vastupanu, sealhulgas salajased organisatsioonid, nagu Narodnaja Volja, mis soovisid sügavaid muutusi Venemaal.

Mõrv: 1881. aastal mõrvati Aleksander II pommiplahvatuse tagajärjel, mis tekitas Venemaal suurt šokki ja tõi kaasa repressiivsemate meetmete kehtestamise.

Pärand

Aleksander II reformid andsid alguse Venemaa moderniseerimisele ja muutsid oluliselt sotsiaalseid ja poliitilisi struktuure. Tema elu ja valitsusaeg on seotud nii edusammude kui ka konfliktidega, mis määrasid Venemaa saatuse järgmisteks aastakümneteks.(LAUR)

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Ajalooline Taust

Sünniaeg ja -koht: Kuninganna Victoria sündis 24. mail 1819. Ta sai kuningannaks 1837. aastal pärast oma onu, kuningas William IV surma.

Valitsemisaeg: Tema valitsemine kestis 63 aastat, kuni tema surmani 22. jaanuaril 1901, olles üks pikimaid valitsusaegu Briti ajaloos.

Poliitilised ja Sotsiaalsed Reformid

Imperialistlik ajastu: Victoria ajastu langes kokku Briti Impeeriumi tipphetkega, mil Suurbritannia laienes globaalsetele turgudele ja piirkondadele.

Sotsiaalsed reformid: Victoria valitsuse ajal toimusid mitmed sotsiaalsed reformid, sealhulgas töötajate õiguste ja naiste hariduse edendamine.

Kunst ja Kultuur

Viktoriaanlik ajastu: Victoria valitsemisaeg on tuntud viktoriaanliku kultuuri ja kunstistiilide, nagu neogooti ja romantism, poolest.

Teatrikunst: Aeg tõi kaasa ka teatrite ja muusikaedenduse, sealhulgas Shakespeare'i uued tõlgendused ja opera teosed.

Fotograafia: Victoria ja tema perekond aitasid populariseerida fotograafiat, olles selle tehnika varajased kasutajad ja toetajad.

Haridus ja Teadus

Hariduse edendamine: Victoria ajastu nägi hariduse kättesaadavuse suurenemist, sealhulgas uute koolide rajamist ja haridusreforme.

Teaduse ja tehnoloogia areng: Aeg oli tunnistajaks ka teaduse ja tehnoloogia suurtele edusammudele, sealhulgas tööstusrevolutsioonile.

Isiklik Elu

Abielu: Victoria abiellus 1840. aastal prints Albertiga, kellega tal oli kokku dev üheksa last. Prints Albert oli tema suur toimetuleku- ja inspiratsiooniallikas.

Lein ja pärand: Prints Alberti surm 1861. aastal mõjutas Victoriat sügavalt, ta tõmbus tagasi avalikust elust ja leinas teda ülejäänud oma elu.

Pärand

Kuninganna Victoria pärand on laialdane, ulatudes poliitikast kunstini ja sotsiaalsetesse muutustesse. Tema valitsusaeg kujundas Briti identiteeti ja aitas kehtestada Suurbritannia kui globaalse suurriigi.(LUCAS)

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Ajalooline Taust

Sünniaeg ja -koht: Franz Joseph I sündis 18. augustil 1830 Viennas, Austria. Ta oli Habsburgide dünastia liige.

Valitsemisaeg: Tuli troonile 1848. aastal, pärast oma eelkäija, tsaari Ferdinand I, loobumist. Tema valitsemine kestis kuni tema surmani 21. novembril 1916.

Poliitilised ja Sotsiaalsed Reformid

Revolutsioonid 1848: Tema valitsemise alguses toimusid Euroopa laialdased revolutsioonid. Franz Joseph vastas neile karmide meetmetega, sealhulgas sõjalise jõu kasutamisega.

Austro-Ungari Monarhia: 1867. aastal sõlmis ta Austriaga kompromissi, mille tulemusena loodi Austro-Ungari kahekordne monarhia. See tugevdas Ungari autonoomiat ja rahuldas Ungari rahva nõudmisi.

Välispoliitika

Sõjad: Franz Joseph I juhtis mitmeid sõdu, sealhulgas sõda Prussia vastu 1866, mis lõppes Austria kaotusega ja mõjutas tema valitsust. Samuti osales ta esimese maailmasõja alguses, mil Austro-Ungari tungis Serbiasse.

Rahvusvahelised suhted: Tema valitsusaja jooksul kujunes välja keeruline rahvusvaheline poliitika, sealhulgas liidud ja konfliktid, mis viisid lõpuks Esimese maailmasõjani.

Majandus ja Ühiskond

Tööstuslik areng: Franz Josephi ajal toimus Austro-Ungaris kiire tööstuslik areng ja urbaniseerumine. Raudteede ehitus ja tööstuse laienemine aitasid kaasa majanduse kasvule.

Sotsiaalsed probleemid: Suurenev töölisklass ja sotsiaalsed pinged nõudsid valitsuselt reforme, kuid Franz Joseph oli ettevaatlik muutuste suhtes.

Isiklik Elu

Abielu: Franz Joseph abiellus 1854. aastal Elisabeth "Sissi" Baieriga, kelle elulugu on saanud mitmete filmide ja raamatute keskpunktiks. Tema abielu oli keeruline ja isiklikud konfliktid mõjutasid tema valitsust.

Pereliikmed: Neil oli neli last, kuid kaks tütart ja üks poeg surid noorelt, mis mõjutas tsaari vaimset heaolu.

Pärand

Franz Joseph I on ajalukku läinud kui vastuoluline valitseja, kelle poliitika ja reformid aitasid kujundada Austro-Ungari riiki, kuid samas tõid kaasa ka rahutusi ja probleeme. Tema valitsemise lõppemisel seisis Austro-Ungari silmitsi tõsiste väljakutsetega, mis viisid lõpuks Esimese maailmasõjani.(ANNA)

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Ajalooline Taust

Sünniaeg ja -koht: Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte sündis 20. aprillil 1808. Ta oli Napoleoni I vennapoeg.

Esimene katse võimule: Louis-Napoleon püüdis esmakordselt Prantsusmaal võimule saada 1836. aastal, kuid ebaõnnestus ja põgenes Šveitsi. 1848. aastal, pärast juulirevolutsiooni, naasis ta Prantsusmaale ja valiti esimeseks Prantsuse presidendiks.

Valitsemine

Keisriks kuulutamine: 1852. aastal kuulutas ta end Prantsusmaa keiseriks Napoleon III-nime all, lõpetades teise vabariigi ja asutades teise keisririigi.

Ajaline ulatus: Tema valitsusaeg kestis 1852–1870, mil Prantsusmaal toimusid suured sotsiaalsed ja majanduslikud muutused.

Majandus ja Sotsiaalne Reform

Tööstuse arendamine: Napoleon III soodustas tööstuse ja kaubanduse arengut, käivitas infrastruktuuri projekte, sealhulgas raudteede ehitamist ja sadamate arendamist.

Linastumine: Tema valitsuse ajal toimus Pariisi ulatuslik moderniseerimine, mille tulemuseks olid laiad bulevardid ja uued ehitised, sealhulgas suurimad avalikud hooned.

Kunst ja Kultuur

Impressionism: Napoleon III toetas kunstnikke, sealhulgas impressioniste, kes kasutasid uusi tehnikaid ja teemade käsitlemist. Tema ajastu lõi viljaka keskkonna, kus kunstnikud said uurida igapäevaelu ja loodust.

Salonid: Tema valitsuse ajal toimusid regulaarselt kunstinäitused, sealhulgas Salon de Paris, kus kunstnikud said oma teosed avalikkusele tutvustada.

Poliitilised Konfliktid

Franco-Prussia sõda: 1870. aastal käivitas Napoleon III Prantsusmaale sõja Preisi vastu, mis lõppes tema alistumise ja Prantsuse keisririigi kokkuvarisemisega.

Pärand

Napoleon III jättis märkimisväärse jälje Prantsusmaa ajaloos, olles esimene Prantsusmaa keiser pärast Napoleoni I. Tema valitsuse ajal toimunud sotsiaalsed ja majanduslikud reformid ning kunstielu areng mõjutasid tugevalt Prantsuse kultuuri ja identiteeti.(MARKUS)

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Heliloojad: Alban Berg ja Anton Webern(KRISTJAN VAHTER JA MARTIN PILDER)

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Heliloojad: Alban Berg ja Anton Webern(KRISTJAN VAHTER JA MARTIN PILDER)

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Alban Berg ja Anton Webern – mõlemad kuulusid Schönbergi õpilaste hulka ja olid seotud ekspressionismi ja 12-tooni muusika arenguga. Bergi ooperid, nagu "Wozzeck", ja Weberni lühikesed, kontsentreeritud teosed on ekspressionistliku liikumise näited.

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Heliloojad: Arnold Schönberg (KRISTJAN VAHTER JA MARTIN PILDER)

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Heliloojad: Arnold Schönberg (KRISTJAN VAHTER JA MARTIN PILDER)

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Arnold Schönberg – peamine ekspressionistliku muusika esindaja. Schönberg oli tuntud oma atonaalsuse ja dodekafoonia (12-tooni süsteem) väljatöötamise poolest. Tema kuulus teos "Verklärte Nacht" on selle stiili näide.

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Heliloojad: Maurice Ravel (KRISTJAN VAHTER JA MARTIN PILDER)

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Heliloojad: Maurice Ravel (KRISTJAN VAHTER JA MARTIN PILDER)

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Maurice Ravel – teine suur impressionismi nimi, tuntud teostega nagu "Boléro" ja "Daphnis et Chloé". Ravel oli tuntud oma keeruka orkestratsiooni ja harmooniate kasutamise poolest.

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Heliloojad: Claude Debussy (KRISTJAN VAHTER JA MARTIN PILDER)

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Heliloojad: Claude Debussy (KRISTJAN VAHTER JA MARTIN PILDER)

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Claude Debussy – kõige tuntum impressionistlik helilooja. Tema teosed, nagu "Clair de Lune" ja "La Mer", on kuulsad oma õrnade, ujuvate harmooniate ja värvilise orkestratsiooni poolest.

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Heliloojad (Uljana, Stefania, Liana, Ailis) 

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Heliloojad (Uljana, Stefania, Liana, Ailis) 

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Heliloojad  (Uljana, Liana, Ailis, Stefania 

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Heliloojad  (Uljana, Liana, Ailis, Stefania 

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Heliloojad (Uljana, Liana, Stefania, Ailis)

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Heliloojad (Uljana, Liana, Stefania, Ailis)

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Heliloojad (Uljana, Liana, Ailis, Stefania) 

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Heliloojad (Uljana, Liana, Ailis, Stefania) 

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Piano (klaver) - Klaver oli peamine instrument, millega impressionistlikud heliloojad, nagu Debussy ja Ravel, katsetasid uusi helivärve ja tekstuure.

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Olisemad muusika-instrumendid: Flööt  (SaveliyF; AlisaB; PlatonJ)

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Olisemad muusika-instrumendid: Flööt  (SaveliyF; AlisaB; PlatonJ)

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Flöödi kerge ja õhuline heli sobis ideaalselt impressionistlike loodus- ja unenäo kujutamisele. Flöödid tõid sisse pehmuse ja graatsilisuse.

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Olisemad muusika-instrumendid: Harp  (SaveliyF; AlisaB; PlatonJ)

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Olisemad muusika-instrumendid: Harp  (SaveliyF; AlisaB; PlatonJ)

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Harp - Harfi helid on sageli maagilised ja unenäolised, lisades teostele müstilise mõõtme.

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Barokkajastu (u 1600–1750) riietus oli rikkalik, detailirohke ja mõeldud muljet avaldama – eriti aadli ja jõukamate ühiskonnakihtide seas.

Meeste riietus:

Pikad kuued (sakid) suurte nööpide ja kaunistustega

Pitsilised kraed ja mansetid

Parukad, sageli valged ja lokkis

Põlvpüksid (knickerbockers) ja sukad

Säravad kingad pannaldega

Naiste riietus:

Korsettidega esile toodud talje

Laiad seelikud krinoliinide või rõngasseelikutega

Rikkalikud kangad – siid, brokaat, samet

Pitsid, paelad, tikandid

Juustes sageli pärlid, lindid või kaunistatud parukad

Riietus peegeldas seisust: mida kõrgem seisus, seda uhkem ja värvikam rõivastus. Barokkmood oli suurejooneline, teatraalne ja luksuslik.

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Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) -
Klassitsismi ja romantismi piiril tegutsenud helilooja, kes löi naiteks „9. sumfoonia" ja „Kuupaistesonaadi".

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1. Ülevaade

Pealkiri: The Raft of the Medusa

Kunstnik: Théodore Géricault

Aasta: 1818-1819

Tehnika: Õli lõuendil

Mõõtmed: 491 cm × 716 cm (193,7 in × 282,3 in)

2. Seade ja kompositsioon

Maal kujutab Méduse'i fregati laevahuku järgselt ellujäänute meeleheitlikku võitlust elu ja surma vahel. Parv on täis inimesi, kes on nii füüsiliselt kui emotsionaalselt ammendunud.

Taustal on tormiline meri ja kaugel horisondil paistab päästev laev, pakkudes väikest lootuskiirt.

Figuuride dramaatiline ja energiline asetumine parvel loob tugeva diagonaalse kompositsiooni, mis juhib vaataja pilku keskelt äärele.

3. Ellujäänud ja figuuride dünaamika

Parvel olevad inimesed on kujutatud erinevates füüsilistes ja emotsionaalsetes seisundites. Mõned on suremas, mõned annavad alla, teised on tõstnud käed lootuses pääsemisele.

Keskfiguur on võimas ja jõuline, suunates oma pilgu kaugusse, hoides käsi kõrgel, sümboliseerides meeleheitlikku lootust.

Maalil on üle 20 erineva figuuri, mis kõik kujutavad kannatusi, lootust, meeleheidet ja jõuvarude lõppemist.

4. Sümbolism

Meeleheide ja lootus: Parv sümboliseerib inimkonna eksistentsiaalset võitlust elu ja surma vahel. Hoolimata kohutavast olukorrast, püüavad mõned figuurid siiski meeleheitlikult ellu jääda.

Poliitiline ja sotsiaalne kriitika: Méduse’i laevahukk oli suur skandaal, kuna see oli seotud Prantsuse valitsuse ebakompetentsusega. Géricault kasutas maali poliitilise ja ühiskondliku kommentaarina, kritiseerides võimulolijaid.

Inimese vastupanuvõime: Ellujäänute kehahoiak ja väljendusviis peegeldavad inimvaimu sitkust ja visadust isegi kõige raskemates olukordades.

5. Värvipalett ja tehnika

Géricault kasutab tugevaid ja kontrastseid tumedate ja heledate toonide kombinatsioone, rõhutades maali dramaatilist ja traagilist atmosfääri.

Figuuride üksikasjalik anatoomiline täpsus näitab kunstniku uurimistööd ja pühendumist, sealhulgas kadunute surnukehade uurimist, et kujutada tõelist füüsilist ja emotsionaalset kurnatust.

6. Emotsionaalne mõju

Maal kutsub esile tugevaid emotsioone nagu kaastunne, kurbus ja isegi viha, sundides vaatajat mõtlema inimeksistentsi hapruse ja ebaõigluse üle.

"Méduse'i parv" on näide inimvaimu jõulisest ja sisemisest vastupidavusest ning selle mõju on vaataja jaoks sügavalt raputav.

7. Kultuuriline ja ajalooline kontekst

Maal põhineb tõsielulisel sündmusel – Méduse'i fregati hukkumine 1816. aastal, mis oli Prantsusmaal poliitiline ja sotsiaalne skandaal.

See teos on romantilise ajastu üks silmapaistvamaid teoseid, mis keskendub intensiivsetele emotsioonidele, ühiskondlikule ja poliitilisele kriitikale ning inimeste võitlustele.

8. Pärand

"Méduse'i parv" on üks tuntumaid teoseid kunstiajaloos, olles võimas näide romantilisest liikumisest, mis uurib inimkonna sügavaid kannatusi ja lootuse teemat.

See on jätkuvalt üks mõjukamaid ja dramaatilisemaid teoseid Lääne kunstis, inspireerides lugematuid arutelusid ja interpretatsioone.

© Martin Landing

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Fagott (itaalia keeles fagotto) on kahekordse lesthuuliku ehk trostiga C-puupuhkpill, mis koosneb viiest osast: saapast, kahest säärest, lehtrist ja essist – viimase külge kinnitatakse trost. Klapisüsteem koosneb peamiselt kangidest, kusjuures vasaku pöidla teeninduspiirkonda jääb 9–12 kangi-hooba ja lukusti.

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Olisemad muusika-instrumendid: Fagott  (SaveliyF; AlisaB; PlatonJ)

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Olisemad muusika-instrumendid: Fagott  (SaveliyF; AlisaB; PlatonJ)

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autor ja teose nimetus

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George Frideric Handel (1685–1759)

Handel oli Saksamaal sündinud, kuid suure osa elust Inglismaal tegutsenud barokkhelilooja. Ta on tuntud eelkõige oma oratooriumide, eriti kuulsa Messiase poolest, mille kuulus “Halleluuja”-koor on tänaseni väga armastatud.

Lisaks kirjutas ta oopereid, kantaatide, ja orkestriteoseid nagu Veesüit (Water Music) ja Tulevärgimuusika (Music for the Royal Fireworks), mis olid loodud kuninglike pidustuste tarbeks.

Handeli muusika on sageli pidulik, jõuline ja meloodiline, sobides nii kirikusse kui ka suurtele lavadele. Temast sai üks esimesi heliloojaid, kes saavutas suure kuulsuse ka väljaspool oma kodumaad. (1685–1759)

Handel oli Saksamaal sündinud, kuid suure osa elust Inglismaal tegutsenud barokkhelilooja. Ta on tuntud eelkõige oma oratooriumide, eriti kuulsa Messiase poolest, mille kuulus “Halleluuja”-koor on tänaseni väga armastatud.

Lisaks kirjutas ta oopereid, kantaatide, ja orkestriteoseid nagu Veesüit (Water Music) ja Tulevärgimuusika (Music for the Royal Fireworks), mis olid loodud kuninglike pidustuste tarbeks.

Handeli muusika on sageli pidulik, jõuline ja meloodiline, sobides nii kirikusse kui ka suurtele lavadele. Temast sai üks esimesi heliloojaid, kes saavutas suure kuulsuse ka väljaspool oma kodumaad.

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( George Frideric (or Frederick) Handel (;[a] baptised Georg Friedrich Händel ,[b] German: [ˈɡeːɔʁk ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈhɛndl̩] listen ); 23 February 1685 - 14 April 1759[c]) was a German-British Baroque composer well known for his operas, oratorios, anthems, concerti grossi, and organ concertos. Handel received his training in Halle and worked as a composer in Hamburg and Italy before settling in London in 1712, where he spent the bulk of his career and became a naturalised British subject in 1727.[4] He was strongly influenced both by the middle-German polyphonic choral tradition and by composers of the Italian Baroque. In turn, Handel's music forms one of the peaks of the "high baroque" style, bringing Italian opera to its highest development, creating the genres of English oratorio and organ concerto, and introducing a new style into English church music. He is consistently recognized as one of the greatest composers of his age.[5][6]

Handel started three commercial opera companies to supply the English nobility with Italian opera. In 1737, he had a physical breakdown, changed direction creatively, and addressed the middle class and made a transition to English choral works. After his success with (1742), he never composed an Italian opera again. His orchestral Water Music and Music for the Royal Fireworks remain steadfastly popular. One of his four coronation anthems, Zadok the Priest, has been performed at every British coronation since 1727. Almost blind, he died in 1759, a respected and rich man, and was given a state funeral at Westminster Abbey.

Handel composed more than forty opere serie over a period of more than thirty years. Since the late 1960s, interest in Handel's music has grown. The musicologist Winton Dean wrote that "Handel was not only a great composer; he was a dramatic genius of the first order." His music was admired by Classical-era composers, including Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven.

Handel was born in 1685 (the same year as Johann Sebastian Bach and Domenico Scarlatti) in Halle, Duchy of Magdeburg (then part of Brandenburg-Prussia). His parents were Georg Händel, aged sixty-three, and Dorothea Taust. His father was an eminent barber-surgeon who served the court of Saxe-Weissenfels and the Margraviate of Brandenburg.

Halle was a relatively prosperous city, home of a salt-mining industry and centre of trade (and member of the Hanseatic League). The Margrave of Brandenburg became the administrator of the archiepiscopal territories of Mainz, including Magdeburg when they converted, and by the early 17th century held his court in Halle, which attracted renowned musicians. Even the smaller churches all had "able organists and fair choirs", and humanities and the letters thrived (Shakespeare was performed in the theatres early in the 17th century). The Thirty Years' War brought extensive destruction to Halle, and by the 1680s it was impoverished. However, since the middle of the war the city had been under the administration of the Duke of Saxony, and soon after the end of the war he would bring musicians trained in Dresden to his court in Weissenfels.

The arts and music, however, flourished only among the higher strata (not only in Halle but throughout Germany), of which Handel's family was not a member. Georg Händel (senior) was born at the beginning of the war and was apprenticed to a barber in Halle at the age of 14 after his father died. When he was 20, he married the widow of the official barber-surgeon of a suburb of Halle, inheriting his practice. With this, Georg determinedly began the process of becoming self-made; by dint of his "conservative, steady, thrifty, unadventurous" lifestyle, he guided the five children he had with Anna who reached adulthood into the medical profession (except his youngest daughter, who married a government official). Anna died in 1682. Within a year Georg married again, this time to the daughter of a Lutheran minister, Pastor Georg Taust of the Church of St. Bartholomew in Giebichenstein, who himself came from a long line of Lutheran pastors. Handel was the second child of this marriage; the first son was stillborn. Two younger sisters were born after the birth of George Frideric: Dorthea Sophia, born 6 October 1687, and Johanna Christiana, born 10 January 1690.

Early in his life Handel is reported to have attended the in Halle, where the headmaster, Johann Praetorius, was reputed to be an ardent musician. Whether Handel remained there, and if he did for how long, is unknown, but many biographers suggest that he was withdrawn from school by his father, based on the characterization of him by Handel's first biographer, John Mainwaring. Mainwaring is the source for almost all information (little as it is) of Handel's childhood, and much of that information came from J.C. Smith, Jr., Handel's confidant, and copyist. Whether it came from Smith or elsewhere, Mainwaring frequently relates misinformation. It is from Mainwaring that the portrait comes of Handel's father as implacably opposed to any musical education. Mainwaring writes that Georg Händel was "alarmed" at Handel's very early propensity for music, "took every measure to oppose it", including forbidding any musical instrument in the house and preventing Handel from going to any house where they might be found. This did nothing to dampen young Handel's inclination; in fact, it did the reverse. Mainwaring tells the story of Handel's secret attic spinet: Handel "found means to get a little clavichord privately convey'd to a room at the top of the house. To this room he constantly stole when the family was asleep". Although both John Hawkins and Charles Burney credited this tale, Schoelcher found it nearly "incredible" and a feat of "poetic imagination" and Lang considers it one of the unproven "romantic stories" that surrounded Handel's childhood. But Handel had to have had some experience with the keyboard to have made the impression in Weissenfels that resulted in his receiving formal musical training.

Sometime between the ages of seven and nine, Handel accompanied his father to Weissenfels where he came under the notice of one whom Handel thereafter always regarded throughout life as his benefactor, Duke Johann Adolf I. Somehow Handel made his way to the court organ in the palace chapel of the Holy Trinity, where he surprised everyone with his playing. Overhearing this performance and noting the youth of the performer caused the Duke, whose suggestions were not to be disregarded, to recommend to Georg Händel that Handel be given musical instruction. Handel's father engaged the organist at the Halle parish church, the young Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow, to instruct Handel. Zachow would be the only teacher that Handel ever had. Because of his church employment, Zachow was an organist "of the old school", reveling in fugues, canons, and counterpoint. But he was also familiar with developments in music across Europe and his own compositions "embraced the new concerted, dramatic style". When Zachow discovered the talent of Handel, he introduced him "to a vast collection of German and Italian music, which he possessed, sacred and profane, vocal and instrumental compositions of different schools, different styles, and of every master". Many traits considered "Handelian" can be traced back to Zachow's music. At the same time Handel continued practice on the harpsichord, learned violin and organ, but according to Burney his special affection was for the hautbois (oboe). Schoelcher speculates that his youthful devotion to the instrument explains the large number of pieces he composed for oboe.

With respect to instruction in composition, in addition to having Handel apply himself to traditional fugue and cantus firmus work, Zachow, recognising Handel's precocious talents, systematically introduced Handel to the variety of styles and masterworks contained in his extensive library. He did this by requiring Handel to copy selected scores. "I used to write like the devil in those days", Handel recalled much later. Much of this copying was entered into a notebook that Handel maintained for the rest of his life. Although it has since disappeared, the notebook has been sufficiently described to understand what pieces Zachow wished Handel to study. Among the chief composers represented in this exercise book were Johann Krieger, an "old master" in the fugue and prominent organ composer, Johann Caspar Kerll, a representative of the "southern style" after his teacher Frescobaldi and imitated later by Handel, Johann Jakob Froberger, an "internationalist" also closely studied by Buxtehude and Bach, and Georg Muffat, whose amalgam of French and Italian styles and his synthesis of musical forms influenced Handel.

Mainwaring writes that during this time Zachow had begun to have Handel assume some of his church duties. Zachow, Mainwaring asserts, was "often" absent, "from his love of company, and a cheerful glass", and Handel, therefore, performed on organ frequently. What is more, according to Mainwaring, Handel began composing, at the age of nine, church services for voice and instruments "and from that time actually did compose a service every week for three years successively." Mainwaring ends this chapter of Handel's life by concluding that three or four years had been enough to allow Handel to surpass Zachow, and Handel had become "impatient for another situation"; "Berlin was the place agreed upon." Carelessness with dates or sequences (and possibly imaginative interpretation by Mainwaring) makes this period confused.

Handel's father died on 11 February 1697. It was German custom for friends and family to compose funeral odes for a substantial burgher like Georg, and young Handel discharged his duty with a poem dated 18 February and signed with his name and (in deference to his father's wishes) "dedicated to the liberal arts." At the time Handel was studying either at Halle's Lutheran Gymnasium or the Latin School.

Mainwaring has Handel travelling to Berlin the next year, 1698. The problem with Mainwaring as an authority for this date, however, is that he tells of how Handel's father communicated with the "king" during Handel's stay, declining the Court's offer to send Handel to Italy on a stipend and that his father died "after his return from Berlin." But since Georg Händel died in 1697, either the date of the trip or Mainwaring's statements about Handel's father must be in error. Early biographers solved the problem by making the year of the trip 1696, then noting that at the age of 11 Handel would need a guardian, so they have Handel's father or a friend of the family accompany him, all the while puzzling over why the elder Handel, who wanted Handel to become a lawyer, would spend the sum to lead his son further into the temptation of music as a career. Schoelcher for example has Handel travelling to Berlin at 11, meeting both Bononcini and Attilio Ariosti in Berlin and then returning at the direction of his father. But Ariosti was not in Berlin before the death of Handel's father, and Handel could not have met Bononcini in Berlin before 1702. Modern biographers either accept the year as 1698, since most reliable older authorities agree with it, and discount what Mainwaring says about what took place during the trip or assume that Mainwaring conflated two or more visits to Berlin, as he did with Handel's later trips to Venice.

Perhaps to fulfill a promise to his father or simply because he saw himself as "dedicated to the liberal arts," on 10 February 1702 Handel matriculated at the University of Halle. That university had only recently been founded. In 1694, the Elector of Brandenburg Frederick III (later Prussian King Frederick I) created the school, largely to provide a lecture forum for the jurist Christian Thomasius who had been expelled from Leipzig for his liberal views. Handel did not enroll in the faculty of law, although he almost certainly attended lectures. Thomasius was an intellectual and academic crusader who was the first German academic to lecture in German and also denounced witch trials. Lang believes that Thomasius instilled in Handel a "respect for the dignity and freedom of man's mind and the solemn majesty of the law," principles that would have drawn him to and kept him in England for half a century. Handel also there encountered theologian and professor of Oriental languages August Hermann Francke, who was particularly solicitous of children, particularly orphans. The orphanage he founded became a model for Germany, and undoubtedly influenced Handel's own charitable impulse, when he assigned the rights of Messiah to London's Foundling Hospital.

Shortly after commencing his university education, Handel (though Lutheran) on 13 March 1702 accepted the position of organist at the Calvinist Cathedral in Halle, the Domkirche, replacing J.C. Leporin, for whom he had acted as assistant. The position, which was a one-year probationary appointment showed the foundation he had received from Zachow, for a church organist and cantor was a highly prestigious office. From it he received 5 thalers a year and lodgings in the run-down castle of Moritzburg.

Around this same time, Handel made the acquaintance of Telemann. Four years Handel's senior, Telemann was studying law at Leipzig and was assisting cantor Johann Kuhnau ( Bach's predecessor at the Thomaskirche there). Telemann recalled forty years later in an autobiography for Mattheson's Grundlage: "The writing of the excellent Johann Kuhnau served as a model for me in fugue and counterpoint; but in fashioning melodic movements and examining them Handel and I were constantly occupied, frequently visiting each other as well as writing letters."

Although Mainwaring records that Handel wrote weekly when assistant to Zachow and as probationary organist at Domkirche part of his duty was to provide suitable music, no sacred compositions from his Halle period can now be identified. Mattheson, however, summarised his opinion of Handel's church cantatas written in Halle: "Handel in those days set very, very long arias and sheerly unending cantatas which, while not possessing the proper knack or correct taste, were perfect so far as harmony is concerned."

Early chamber works do exist, but it is difficult to date any of them to Handel's time in Halle. Many historians until recently followed Chrysander and designated the six trio sonatas for two oboes and basso continuo as his first known composition, supposedly written in 1696 (when Handel was 11). Lang doubts the dating based on a handwritten date of a copy (1700) and stylistic considerations. Lang writes that the works "show thorough acquaintance with the distilled sonata style of the Corelli school" and are notable for "the formal security and the cleanness of the texture." Hogwood considers all of the oboe trio sonatas spurious and even suggests that some parts cannot be performed on oboe. That authentic manuscript sources do not exist and that Handel never recycled any material from these works makes their authenticity doubtful. Other early chamber works were printed in Amsterdam in 1724 as opus 1, but it is impossible to tell which are early works in their original form, rather than later re-workings by Handel, a frequent practice of his.

Handel's probationary appointment to Domkirche expired in March 1703. By July Handel was in Hamburg. Since he left no explanation for the move biographers have offered their own speculation. Burrows believes that the answer can be found by untangling Mainwaring's confused chronology of the trip to Berlin. Burrows dates this trip to 1702 or 1703 (after his father's death) and concluded that since Handel (through a "friend and relation" at the Berlin court) turned down Frederick's offer to subsidise his musical education in Italy (with the implicit understanding that he would become a court musician on his return), Handel was no longer able to expect preferment (whether as a musician, lawyer or otherwise) within Brandenburg-Prussia. And since he was attracted to secular, dramatic music (by meeting the Italians Bononcini and Attilio Ariosti and through the influence of Telemann), Hamburg, a free city with an established opera company, was the logical choice. The question remains, however, why Handel rejected the King's offer, given that Italy was the centre of opera. Lang suggests that influenced by the teachings of Thomasius, Handel's character was such that he was unable to make himself subservient to anyone, even a king. Lang sees Handel as someone who could not accept class distinctions that required him to regard himself as a social inferior. "What Handel craved was personal freedom to raise himself out of his provincial milieu to a life of culture." Burrows notes that like his father, Handel was able to accept royal (and aristocratic) favours without considering himself a court servant. And so given the embarrassed financial condition of his mother, Handel set off for Hamburg to obtain experience while supporting himself.

In 1703, he accepted a position as violinist and harpsichordist in the orchestra of the Hamburg Oper am Gänsemarkt. There he met the composers Johann Mattheson, Christoph Graupner and Reinhard Keiser. His first two operas, and Nero, were produced in 1705. He produced two other operas, and , in 1708. It is unclear whether Handel directed these performances.

According to Mainwaring, in 1706 Handel travelled to Italy at the invitation of Ferdinando de' Medici. (Other sources say Handel was invited by Gian Gastone de' Medici, whom Handel had met in 1703-1704 in Hamburg.) Ferdinando, who had a keen interest in opera, was trying to make Florence Italy's musical capital by attracting the leading talents of his day. In Italy, Handel met librettist Antonio Salvi, with whom he later collaborated. Handel left for Rome and since opera was (temporarily) banned in the Papal States, composed sacred music for the Roman clergy. His famous Dixit Dominus (1707) is from this era. He also composed cantatas in pastoral style for musical gatherings in the palaces of duchess Aurora Sanseverino (whom Mainwaring called "Donna Laura") one of the most influential patrons from the Kingdom of Naples, and cardinals Pietro Ottoboni, Benedetto Pamphili and Carlo Colonna. Two oratorios, La resurrezione and Il trionfo del tempo, were produced in a private setting for Ruspoli and Ottoboni in 1709 and 1710, respectively. , his first all-Italian opera, was produced in the Cocomero theatre in Florence in 1707. was first produced in 1709 at Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo in Venice, owned by the Grimanis. The opera, with a libretto by Cardinal Vincenzo Grimani, ran for 27 nights successively. The audience, thunderstruck with the grandeur and sublimity of his style, applauded for Il caro Sassone ("the dear Saxon" - referring to Handel's German origins).

In June 1710, Handel became Kapellmeister to German prince George, the Elector of Hanover, but left at the end of the year. It is likely he was also invited by Charles Montagu the former ambassador in Venice to visit England. He visited Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici and her husband in Düsseldorf on his way to London. With his opera , based on La Gerusalemme Liberata by the Italian poet Torquato Tasso, Handel enjoyed great success, although it was composed quickly, with many borrowings from his older Italian works. This work contains one of Handel's favourite arias, Cara sposa, amante cara, and the famous Lascia ch'io pianga.

Handel went back to Halle twice to attend the wedding of his sister and the baptism of her daughter but decided to settle permanently in England in 1712. In the summer of 1713, he lived at Mr. Mathew Andrews' estate in Barn Elms, Surrey. He received a yearly income of £200 from Queen Anne after composing for her the Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate, first performed in 1713.

One of his most important patrons was the 3rd Earl of Burlington and 4th Earl of Cork, a young and extremely wealthy member of an Anglo-Irish aristocratic family. While living in the mansion of Lord Burlington, Handel wrote Amadigi di Gaula, a " magic" opera, about a damsel in distress, based on the tragedy by Antoine Houdar de la Motte.

The conception of an opera as a coherent structure was slow to capture Handel's imagination and he composed no operas for five years. In July 1717 Handel's Water Music was performed more than three times on the River Thames for King George I and his guests. It is said the compositions spurred reconciliation between Handel and the king, supposedly annoyed by the composer's abandonment of his Hanover post.

In 1717, Handel became house composer at Cannons in Middlesex, where he laid the cornerstone for his future choral compositions in the Chandos Anthems. Romain Rolland wrote that these anthems (or Psalms) stood in relation to Handel's oratorios, much the same way that the Italian cantatas stood to his operas: "splendid sketches of the more monumental works." Another work, which he wrote for The 1st Duke of Chandos, the owner of Cannons, was Acis and Galatea: during Handel's lifetime, it was his most performed work. Winton Dean wrote, "the music catches breath and disturbs the memory".

In 1719, the Duke of Chandos became one of the composer's important patrons and a primary subscriber to his new opera company, the Royal Academy of Music, though his patronage declined after Chandos lost large sums of money in the South Sea Bubble, which burst in 1720 in one of history's greatest financial cataclysms. Handel himself invested in the South Sea Company in 1716, when its share prices were low and sold them before the "bubble" burst in 1720. In 1720, Handel invested in the slave-trading Royal African Company (RAC), following in the steps of his patron (the Duke of Chandos was one of the leading investors in the RAC). As noted by music historian David Hunter, 32% of the subscribers and investors in the Royal Academy of Music, or their close family members, held investments in the RAC as well.

In May 1719, The 1st Duke of Newcastle, the Lord Chamberlain, ordered Handel to look for new singers. Handel travelled to Dresden to attend the newly built opera. He saw Teofane by Antonio Lotti, and engaged members of the cast for the Royal Academy of Music, founded by a group of aristocrats to assure themselves a constant supply of baroque opera or opera seria. Handel may have invited John Smith, his fellow student in Halle, and his son Johann Christoph Schmidt, to become his secretary and amanuensis. By 1723 he had moved into a Georgian house at 25 Brook Street, which he rented for the rest of his life. This house, where he rehearsed, copied music, and sold tickets, is now the Handel House Museum. During twelve months between 1724 and 1725, Handel wrote three successful operas, Giulio Cesare, and . Handel's operas are filled with da capo arias, such as Svegliatevi nel core. After composing Silete venti, he concentrated on opera and stopped writing cantatas. , from which the regimental slow march of the British Grenadier Guards is derived, was performed as a stopgap, waiting for the arrival of Faustina Bordoni.

In 1727, Handel was commissioned to write four anthems for the Coronation ceremony of King George II. One of these, Zadok the Priest, has been played at every British coronation ceremony since. The words to Zadok the Priest are taken from the King James Bible. In 1728, John Gay's The Beggar's Opera, which made fun of the type of Italian opera Handel had popularised in London, premiered at Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre and ran for 62 consecutive performances, the longest run in theatre history up to that time. After nine years the Royal Academy of Music ceased to function but Handel soon started a new company.

The Queen's Theatre at the Haymarket (now Her Majesty's Theatre), established in 1705 by architect and playwright John Vanbrugh, quickly became an opera house. Between 1711 and 1739, more than 25 of Handel's operas premièred there. In 1729, Handel became joint manager of the theatre with John James Heidegger.

Handel travelled to Italy to engage new singers and also composed seven more operas, among them the comic masterpiece and the "magic" opera . After two commercially successful English oratorios and , he was able to invest again in the South Sea Company. Handel reworked his Acis and Galatea which then became his most successful work ever. Handel failed to compete with the Opera of the Nobility, who engaged musicians such as Johann Adolph Hasse, Nicolo Porpora and the famous castrato Farinelli. The strong support by Frederick, Prince of Wales caused conflicts in the royal family. In March 1734 Handel composed a wedding anthem This is the day which the Lord hath made, and a serenata Parnasso in Festa for Anne, Princess Royal.

Despite the problems the Opera of the Nobility was causing him at the time, Handel's neighbour in Brook Street, Mary Delany, reported on a party she invited Handel to at her house on 12 April 1734 where he was in good spirits:

I had Lady Rich and her daughter, Lady Cath. Hanmer and her husband, Mr. and Mrs. Percival, Sir John Stanley and my brother, Mrs. Donellan, Strada [star soprano of Handel's operas] and Mr. Coot. Lord Shaftesbury begged of Mr. Percival to bring him, and being a profess'd friend of Mr. Handel (who was here also) was admitted; I never was so well entertained at an opera! Mr. Handel was in the best humour in the world, and played lessons and accompanied Strada and all the ladies that sang from seven o'clock till eleven. I gave them tea and coffee, and about half an hour after nine had a salver brought in of chocolate, mulled white wine, and biscuits. Everybody was easy and seemed pleased.

In 1733, the Earl of Essex received a letter with the following sentence: "Handel became so arbitrary a prince, that the Town murmurs." The board of chief investors expected Handel to retire when his contract ended, but Handel immediately looked for another theatre. In cooperation with John Rich he started his third company at Covent Garden Theatre. Rich was renowned for his spectacular productions. He suggested Handel use his small chorus and introduce the dancing of Marie Sallé, for whom Handel composed Terpsicore. In 1735, he introduced organ concertos between the acts. For the first time, Handel allowed Gioacchino Conti, who had no time to learn his part, to substitute arias. Financially, was a failure, although he introduced ballet suites at the end of each act. , his last opera with a magic content, and Alexander's Feast or the Power of Music based on John Dryden's Alexander's Feast starred Anna Maria Strada del Pò and John Beard.

Early 1737 he had produced Arminio and Giustino, completed Berenice, revived Partenope, and continued with Il Parnasso in Festa, Alexander's Feast, and the revised The Triumph of Time and Truth which premiered on 23 March. In April Handel suffered a mild stroke, or rheumatic palsy, resulting in temporary paralysis in his right hand and arm. After brief signs of a recovery, he had a relapse in May, with an accompanying deterioration in his mental capacities. He had strong competition from John Frederick Lampe; The Dragon of Wantley was first performed at the Little Theatre in the Haymarket in London on 16 May 1737. It was a parody of the Italian opera seria.

In Autumn 1737 the fatigued Handel reluctantly followed the advice of his physicians and went to take the cure in the spa towns of Royal Tunbridge Wells, Aix-la-Chapelle ( Burtscheid) in September. All the symptoms of his "disorder" vanished by November. On Christmas Eve Handel finished the score of Faramondo, but its composition was interrupted by that of the Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline. On Boxing Day he began the composition of Serse, the only comic opera that Handel ever wrote and worked with Elisabeth Duparc.

The harp and organ concerto (HWV 294) and Alexander's Feast were published in 1738 by John Walsh. He composed music for a musical clock with a pipe organ built by Charles Clay; it was bought by Gerrit Braamcamp and was in 2016 acquired by the Museum Speelklok in Utrecht. , his last opera, a co-production with the Earl of Holderness, was performed three times in 1741. Handel gave up the opera business, while he enjoyed more success with his English oratorios.

Il trionfo del tempo e del disinganno, an allegory, Handel's first oratorio was composed in Italy in 1707, followed by La resurrezione in 1708 which uses material from the Bible. The circumstances of and its first performance, possibly in 1718, are obscure. Another 12 years had passed when an act of piracy caused him to take up Esther once again. Three earlier performances aroused such interest that they naturally prompted the idea of introducing it to a larger public. Next came , strongly coloured by the coronation anthems and , his first English Oratorio. In these three oratorios Handel laid the foundation for the traditional use of the chorus which marks his later oratorios. Handel became sure of himself, broader in his presentation, and more diverse in his composition.

It is evident how much he learned from Arcangelo Corelli about writing for instruments, and from Alessandro Scarlatti about writing for the solo voice; but there is no single composer who taught him how to write for chorus. Handel tended more and more to replace Italian soloists by English ones. The most significant reason for this change was the dwindling financial returns from his operas. Thus a tradition was created for oratorios which was to govern their future performance. The performances were given without costumes and action; the singers appeared in their own clothes.

In 1736, Handel produced Alexander's Feast. John Beard appeared for the first time as one of Handel's principal singers and became Handel's permanent tenor soloist for the rest of Handel's life. The piece was a great success and it encouraged Handel to make the transition from writing Italian operas to English choral works. In , Handel was collaborating with Charles Jennens and experimenting with three trombones, a carillon and extra-large military kettledrums (from the Tower of London), to be sure "...it will be most excessive noisy". Saul and Israel in Egypt both from 1739 head the list of great, mature oratorios, in which the da capo aria became the exception and not the rule. Israel in Egypt consists of little else but choruses, borrowing from the Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline. In his next works, Handel changed his course. In these works he laid greater stress on the effects of orchestra and soloists; the chorus retired into the background. L'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato has a rather diverting character; the work is light and fresh.

During the summer of 1741, The 3rd Duke of Devonshire invited Handel to Dublin, capital of the Kingdom of Ireland, to give concerts for the benefit of local hospitals. His was first performed at the New Music Hall in Fishamble Street on 13 April 1742, with 26 boys and five men from the combined choirs of St Patrick's and Christ Church cathedrals participating. Handel secured a balance between soloists and chorus which he never surpassed.

In 1747, Handel wrote his oratorio Alexander Balus. This work was produced at Covent Garden Theatre in London, on 23 March 1748, and to the aria Hark! hark! He strikes the golden lyre, Handel wrote the accompaniment for mandolin, harp, violin, viola, and violoncello. Another of his English oratorios, , was first performed on 17 March 1749 at the Covent Garden Theatre. Solomon contains a short and lively instrumental passage for two oboes and strings in act 3, known as "The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba".

The use of English soloists reached its height at the first performance of . The work is highly theatrical. The role of the chorus became increasingly important in his later oratorios. was first performed on 26 February 1752; even though it was his last oratorio, it was no less a masterpiece than his earlier works.

In 1749, Handel composed Music for the Royal Fireworks; 12,000 people attended the first performance. In 1750, he arranged a performance of Messiah to benefit the Foundling Hospital, a children's home in London. The performance was considered a great success and was followed by annual concerts that continued throughout his life. In recognition of his patronage, Handel was made a governor of the Hospital the day after his initial concert. He bequeathed a copy of Messiah to the institution upon his death. His involvement with the Foundling Hospital is today commemorated with a permanent exhibition in London's Foundling Museum, which also holds the Gerald Coke Handel Collection. In addition to the Foundling Hospital, Handel also gave to a charity that assisted impoverished musicians and their families.

In August 1750, on a journey back from Germany to London, Handel was seriously injured in a carriage accident between The Hague and Haarlem in the Netherlands. In 1751, one eye started to fail. The cause was a cataract which was operated on by the great charlatan Chevalier Taylor. This did not improve his eyesight but possibly made it worse. He was completely blind by 1752. He died in 1759 at home in Brook Street, at age 74. The last performance he attended was of Messiah. Handel was buried in Westminster Abbey. More than three thousand mourners attended his funeral, which was given full state honours.

Handel never married and kept his personal life private. His initial will bequeathed the bulk of his estate to his niece Johanna, however, four codicils distributed much of his estate to other relations, servants, friends and charities.

Handel owned an art collection that was auctioned posthumously in 1760. The auction catalogue listed approximately seventy paintings and ten prints (other paintings were bequeathed).

Handel's compositions include 42 operas, 25 oratorios, more than 120 cantatas, trios and duets, numerous arias, odes and serenatas, solo and trio sonatas, 18 concerti grossi, and 12 organ concertos. His most famous work, the oratorio with its "Hallelujah" chorus, is among the most popular works in choral music and has become the centrepiece of the Christmas season. The Lobkowicz Palace in Prague holds Mozart's copy of Messiah, complete with handwritten annotations. Among the works with opus numbers published and popularised in his lifetime are the Organ concertos Op. 4 and Op. 7, together with the Opus 3 and Opus 6 Concerti grossi; the latter incorporates an earlier organ concerto The Cuckoo and the Nightingale in which birdsong is imitated in the upper registers of the organ. Also notable are his 16 keyboard suites, especially The Harmonious Blacksmith.

The first published catalogue of Handel's works appeared as an appendix to Mainwaring's Memoirs. Between 1787 and 1797 Samuel Arnold compiled a 180-volume collection of Handel's works-however, it was far from complete. Also incomplete was the collection produced between 1843 and 1858 by the English Handel Society (founded by Sir George Macfarren).

The 105-volume Händel-Gesellschaft ("Handel Society") edition was published between 1858 and 1902 - mainly due to the efforts of Friedrich Chrysander. For modern performance, the realisation of the basso continuo reflects 19th-century practice. Vocal scores drawn from the edition were published by Novello in London, but some scores, such as the vocal score to Samson, are incomplete.

The continuing Hallische Händel-Ausgabe edition was first inaugurated in 1955 in the Halle region in Saxony-Anhalt, Eastern Germany. It did not start as a critical edition, but after heavy criticism of the first volumes, which were performing editions without a critical apparatus (for example, the opera Serse was published with the title character recast as a tenor, reflecting pre-war German practice), it repositioned itself as a critical edition. Influenced in part by cold-war realities, editorial work was inconsistent: misprints are found in abundance and editors failed to consult important sources. In 1985, a committee was formed to establish better standards for the edition. The unification of Germany in 1990 removed communication problems, and the volumes issued have since shown a significant improvement in standards.

Between 1978 and 1986 the German academic Bernd Baselt catalogued Handel's works in his Händel-Werke-Verzeichnis publication. The catalogue has achieved wide acceptance and is used as the modern numbering system, with each of Handel's works designated an "HWV" number, for example Messiah is catalogued as "HWV 56".

Handel's works were collected and preserved by two men: Sir Samuel Hellier, a country squire whose musical acquisitions form the nucleus of the Shaw-Hellier Collection, and the abolitionist Granville Sharp. The catalogue accompanying the National Portrait Gallery exhibition marking the tercentenary of the composer's birth calls them two men of the late eighteenth century "who have left us solid evidence of the means by which they indulged their enthusiasm". With his English oratorios, such as and , the coronation anthems, and other works including Water Music and Music for the Royal Fireworks, Handel became a national icon in Britain, and featured in the BBC series, The Birth of British Music: Handel - The Conquering Hero.

After his death, Handel's Italian operas fell into obscurity, except for selections such as the aria from , " Ombra mai fu". The oratorios continued to be performed but not long after Handel's death they were thought to need some modernisation, and Mozart orchestrated German versions of Messiah and other works. Throughout the 19th century and first half of the 20th century, particularly in the Anglophone countries, his reputation rested primarily on his English oratorios, which were customarily performed by choruses of amateur singers on solemn occasions. The centenary of his death, in 1859, was celebrated by a performance of Messiah at The Crystal Palace, involving 2,765 singers and 460 instrumentalists, who played for an audience of about 10,000 people.

Recent decades have revived his secular cantatas and what one might call 'secular oratorios' or 'concert operas'. Of the former, Ode for St. Cecilia's Day (1739) (set to texts by John Dryden) and Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne (1713) are noteworthy. For his secular oratorios, Handel turned to classical mythology for subjects, producing such works as Acis and Galatea (1719), (1745) and (1744). These works have a close kinship with the sacred oratorios, particularly in the vocal writing for the English-language texts. They also share the lyrical and dramatic qualities of Handel's Italian operas. As such, they are sometimes fully staged as operas. With the rediscovery of his theatrical works, Handel, in addition to his renown as instrumentalist, orchestral writer, and melodist, is now perceived as being one of opera's great musical dramatists.

The original form of his name, Georg Friedrich Händel, is generally used in Germany and elsewhere, but he is known as "Haendel" in France. A different composer, Jacob Handl or Händl (1550-1591) is usually known by the Latin form Jacobus Gallus that appears in his publications.

Handel has generally been accorded high esteem by fellow composers, both in his own time and since. Johann Sebastian Bach attempted, unsuccessfully, to meet Handel while he was visiting Halle. (Handel was born in the same year as Bach and Domenico Scarlatti.) Mozart is reputed to have said of him, "Handel understands affect better than any of us. When he chooses, he strikes like a thunder bolt." To Beethoven he was "the master of us all... the greatest composer that ever lived. I would uncover my head and kneel before his tomb." Beethoven emphasised above all the simplicity and popular appeal of Handel's music when he said, "Go to him to learn how to achieve great effects, by such simple means."

Since 1831, when William Crotch raised the issue in his Substance of Several Lectures on Music, scholars have extensively studied Handel's "borrowing" of music from other composers. Summarising the field in 2005, Richard Taruskin wrote that Handel "seems to have been the champion of all parodists, adapting both his own works and those of other composers in unparalleled numbers and with unparalleled exactitude." Among the composers whose music has been shown to have been re-used by Handel are Alessandro Stradella, Gottlieb Muffat, Alessandro Scarlatti, Domenico Scarlatti Giacomo Carissimi, Georg Philipp Telemann, Carl Heinrich Graun, Leonardo Vinci, Jacobus Gallus, Francesco Antonio Urio, Reinhard Keiser, Francesco Gasparini, Giovanni Bononcini, William Boyce, Henry Lawes, Michael Wise, Agostino Steffani, Franz Johann Habermann, and numerous others.

In an essay published in 1985, John H. Roberts demonstrated that Handel's borrowings were unusually frequent even for his own era, enough to have been criticised by contemporaries (notably Johann Mattheson); Roberts suggested several reasons for Handel's practice, including Handel's attempts to make certain works sound more up-to-date and more radically, his "basic lack of facility in inventing original ideas" - though Roberts took care to argue that this does not "diminish Handel's stature", which should be "judged not by his methods, still less by his motives in employing them, but solely by the effects he achieves."

After Handel's death, many composers wrote works based on or inspired by his music. The first movement from Louis Spohr's Symphony No. 6, Op. 116, "The Age of Bach and Handel", resembles two melodies from Handel's Messiah. In 1797, Ludwig van Beethoven published the 12 Variations in G major on "See the conqu'ring hero comes" from Judas Maccabaeus by Handel, for cello and piano. In 1822, Beethoven composed the overture The Consecration of the House, which also bears the influence of Handel. Guitar virtuoso Mauro Giuliani composed his Variations on a Theme by Handel, Op. 107 for guitar, based on Handel's Suite No. 5 in E major, HWV 430, for harpsichord.

In 1861, using a theme from the second of Handel's harpsichord suites, Johannes Brahms wrote the Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel, Op. 24, one of his most successful works (praised by Richard Wagner). Several works by the French composer Félix-Alexandre Guilmant use Handel's themes, for example his March on a Theme by Handel uses a theme from Messiah. French composer and flautist Philippe Gaubert wrote his Petite marche for flute and piano based on the fourth movement of Handel's Trio Sonata, Op. 5, No. 2, HWV 397. Argentine composer Luis Gianneo composed his Variations on a Theme by Handel for piano. In 1911, Australian-born composer and pianist Percy Grainger based one of his most famous works on the final movement of Handel's Suite No. 5 in E major (just like Giuliani). He first wrote some variations on the theme, which he titled Variations on Handel's 'The Harmonious Blacksmith' . Then he used the first sixteen bars of his set of variations to create Handel in the Strand, one of his most beloved pieces, of which he made several versions (for example, the piano solo version from 1930). Arnold Schoenberg's Concerto for String Quartet and Orchestra in B-flat major (1933) was composed after Handel's Concerto Grosso, Op. 6/7.

In the Lutheran Calendar of Saints Handel and Bach share that date with Heinrich Schütz, and Handel and Bach are commemorated in the calendar of saints prepared by the Order of Saint Luke for the use of the United Methodist Church. The Book of Common Worship of the Presbyterian Church (USA) (Westminster John Knox Press, 2018) commemorates him on 20 April.

In 1942, Handel was the subject of the British biographical film The Great Mr. Handel directed by Norman Walker and starring Wilfrid Lawson. It was made at Denham Studios by the Rank Organisation, and shot in Technicolor. He is also the central character in the television films God Rot Tunbridge Wells! (1985) and Handel's Last Chance (1996) and the stage play All the Angels (2015). Handel was portrayed by Jeroen Krabbé as the antagonist in the film (1994).

Notes, references and sources

1. ^ "Handel" entry in Collins English Dictionary gives the common variant "George Frederick" (used in his will and on his funeral monument) alongside the pronunciation of his last name. The spelling "Frideric" is used on his 1727 application for British citizenship.

2. According to baptismal records in Halle's parish church, the Lutheran ^ Marktkirche Unser Lieben Frauen. The records of that church also show that the family name was spelled on various occasions at least four other ways: Hendel, Händeler, Hendeler and Hendtler, but most commonly Händel. In Italy he spelled it Hendel, as it is pronounced in German. From the time he arrived in England, however, he consistently signed his name as George Frideric Handel.

3. Handel's tomb in Westminster has the Old Style birth date of February XXIIII, MDCLXXXIV, giving the day of his baptism and using its ^ Annunciation style of counting the new year from 25 March.

4. Georg Händel (senior) was the son of a ^ coppersmith, Valentin Händel (1582-1636), who had emigrated from Eisleben in 1608 with his first wife Anna Belching, the daughter of a master coppersmith. They were Protestants and chose reliably Protestant Saxony over Silesia, a Habsburg possession, as religious tensions mounted in the years before the Thirty Years' War.

5. Among the court musicians of Halle were ^ Samuel Scheidt (who also was organist at the Moritzkirche), William Brade and Michael Praetorius.

6. Halle also was noted for the quality of its organ-builders. In 1712, ^ Bach was intrigued by the organ at Marktkirche, and applied for the position that Zachow, Handel's teacher, vacated. He decided on Weimar, however.

7. This barber, Andreas Berger, happened to be the son-in-law of English ^ émigré William Brade, court musician to Augustus in Weissenfels.

8. Both Landon and Hogwood point out and to the extent possible correct the more obvious misstatements of facts and dates and inconsistencies of Mainwaring. ^ See Landon 1984, pp. 9-19; Hogwood 1984, pp. 11-17.

9. ^ Schoelcher suggests that Handel's "doctor" father observed Handel making musical sounds even before he could talk and this in the eyes of the son of a coppersmith "discovered instincts of so low an order ..."

10. The year and purpose of the visit and why the meeting occurred are variously given. Schoelcher and Bone have it that Handel was seven and they were visiting a son by Georg's first marriage, who was in service to the Duke. ^ Friedrich Chrysander states that they were visiting the younger Handel's nephew, Carl (ten years his senior) who was the Duke's valet. Lang writes that Handel was nine and Handel's father, holding a court position, must have frequently travelled to Weissenfels, where the Duke had established a residence after Prussia had annexed the city of Halle. Young Handel was taken along because he could be cared for by relatives of his late wife.

11. Handel not only applied Kerll's techniques and phrases in later compositions, he imported an entire movement composed by Kerll into ^ Israel in Egypt.

12. Both Landon and Hogwood point out and to the extent possible correct the more obvious misstatements of facts and dates and inconsistencies of Mainwaring. ^ See Landon 1984, pp. 9-19; Hogwood 1984, pp. 11-17.

13. There was no "king" in Berlin until 18 January 1701 when Frederick III, the Elector of Brandenburg, became ^ Frederick I, the first King in Prussia.

14. Among the careful authorities who accepted the trip taking place in 1698 were Handel's friend ^ Johann Mattheson and Burney.

15. The first mention of Handel from the time he took his last communion at the Marktkirche on 23 April is in Mattheson's annotated translation of Mainwaring (published in 1761) where he writes that he met Handel in the Organ loft of the Church of St. Mary Magdalena in Hamburg. In his earlier ^ Grunlage (published in 1740), he fixes the date as 9 July.

16. In 2000, the upper stories of 25 ^ Brook Street were leased to the Handel House Trust, and after extensive restoration, the Handel House Museum opened to the public, with events including concerts of baroque music.

Buelow, George J. (2004). A History of Baroque Music. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34365-8.

Bukofzer, Manfred F. (1947). 'Music in the Baroque Era - From Monteverdi To Bach. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-09745-5.

(Subscription or Burrows, Donald (2007). "Handel, George Frideric (1685-1759)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/12192. UK public library membership required.)

Consisting of three volumes (separately hosted online by zeno.org): Buch 1: Jugendzeit und Lehrjahre in Deutschland (1685-1706); Buch 2: Die große Wanderung (1707-1720).

Dean, Winton (1982). The New Grove Handel. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-30086-2.

Dean, Winton (2006). Handel's Operas, 1726-1741. The Boydell Press. Archived from the original on 26 September 2009.

Dent, Edward Joseph (2004). Handel. R A Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4191-2275-4.

Harris, Ellen T. (2001). Handel as Orpheus. Voice and Desire in the Chamber Cantatas. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-00617-8.

Hicks, Anthony (2013), "Handel, George Frideric", Grove Music Online, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40060, ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0

Hicks, Anthony (1998). "Handel, George Frederick". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Opera. Vol. 2. London: Macmillan Publishers. pp. 614-26. ISBN 1-56159-228-5.

Landon, H.C. Robbins (1984). Handel and his World. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-78498-6.

Lang, Paul Henry (1966). George Frideric Handel. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. LCCN 66011793/MN/r842.

Larsen, J.P. (1972). Handel's Messiah. London: Adams and Charles Black Limited.

Marx, Hans Joachim (1998). Händels Oratorien, Oden und Serenaten: Ein Kompendium. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-27815-2.

Meynell, Hugo. The Art of Handel's Operas, Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press (1986) ISBN 0-88946-425-1

National Portrait Gallery. Handel. A Celebration of his Life and Times 1685-1759.

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( George Frideric (or Frederick) Handel (;[a] baptised Georg Friedrich Händel ,[b] German: [ˈɡeːɔʁk ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈhɛndl̩] listen ); 23 February 1685 - 14 April 1759[c] ) was a German-British Baroque composer well known for his operas, oratorios, anthems, concerti grossi, and organ concertos.

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Uljana ,liana ossip, Stefania, Ailis

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Impressionism and Musical Atmosphere in Ravel's 'Pavane'

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IMPRESSIONISM

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"Fauni pärastlõuna” ooper: “ Pelleas ja Melisande” autor Claude Debussy.

EKSPRESSIONISM

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Richard Strauss- ooper : "Salome" (1902) ja "Elektra" (1909)

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Andrei

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Adriaen van Ostade kuulus nn väikeste hollandlaste hulka, kes põhiliselt tegeles olustikumaalidega. Tema tööde formaat oli üldiselt väike (vastavalt kodanlasest tellija soovile), kompositsioon lihtne ja argipäevane, töö ise humoorikas ja irooniline.

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Kunstnik oma ateljees. Autoportree. 1663.

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Kunstnik oma ateljees. Autoportree. 1663.

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Andrei Gaidai

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1. Ülevaade

Pealkiri: Võitlev Temeraire

Kunstnik: J.M.W. Turner

Aasta: 1839

Tehnika: Õli lõuendil

Mõõtmed: Umbes 90,7 cm × 121,6 cm (35,7 in × 47,9 in)

2. Seade ja kompositsioon

Maal kujutab HMS Temeraire’i, kuulsat Briti sõjalaeva, mis on teel oma viimasele sadamasse vedamisele.

Taustal on sädelev päikeseloojang, mille soojad ja eredad värvid loovad müstilise õhkkonna.

Laev on kujutatud tõukerattaga laeva poolt, mis sümboliseerib vanade ja uute tehnoloogiate vahelisi vastandusi.

3. Laeva temaatika

HMS Temeraire on kujutatud üllatavalt suurena, edastades kunagi möödunud hiilguse ja võimu tunnet.

Laev on jätnud mulje võitlusest ja kangelasteost, viidates Briti mereväe ajaloole.

Laeva ja tõukerattaga laeva vastandamine rõhutab muutuste aega, mil traditsioonilised laevad asenduvad uue, aurujõul töötava tehnoloogiaga.

4. Sümbolism

Muudatus ja nostalgie: Maal peegeldab nostalgiat kadunud aegade ja vanade traditsioonide üle, mis on asendatud uue ajastu ja tehnoloogiaga.

Elu ja surm: Tõukeratta laev, mis tõukab Temeraire’i, võib sümboliseerida elu ja surma vahekorra ning unustamatuse teemat.

Üksildus ja eraklikkus: Laeva tõukamine viimasele sadamale peegeldab üksi olemise ja kadumise teemasid.

5. Värvipalett ja tehnika

Turner kasutab soojade värvide, nagu kuldne ja oranž, ning külmade siniste ja hallide toonide kontrasti, et luua visuaalset sügavust ja emotsionaalset mõju.

Maali õrn brushwork ja värvikihistamine annavad atmosfääri pehmusele, luues melanhoolse ja samas majesteetliku meeleolu.

6. Emotsionaalne mõju

Teos kutsub vaatlejat tunnetama ajaloo kaalu ja edasiviiva ajamuutuse mõju.

Maal edastab tunde, mis kutsub esile nii kurbust kui ka imetlust, tekitades introspektiivse dialooge, mis on iseloomulik romantilisele kunstile.

7. Kultuuriline ja ajalooline kontekst

Maalitud romantilise ajastu haripunktis, see teos peegeldab romantikaga seotud huvi looduse, tehnoloogia ja individuaalsuse vastu.

Turner oli tuntud oma innovaatiliste tehnika poolest ja "Võitlev Temeraire" on üks tema tuntuimaid teoseid, mis tõstatab küsimusi inimkonna ja looduse suhte üle.

8. Pärand

"Võitlev Temeraire" on muutunud ikooniliseks teoseks, mis esindab Briti meresõidu ajalugu ja romantilise kunsti olemust.

See teos on sageli kasutatud kunstiajaloos arutelu alustamiseks, rõhutades Turneri panust ja mõju romantilise liikumise kujunemisele.

© Martin Landing

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Viiul

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Claude Monet

Monet on impressionismi peamine esindaja, kelle teosed, nagu "Impressioon, tõusulaine", andsid nime kogu liikumisele. Ta uuris pidevalt valguse ja looduse muutumist erinevates tingimustes, kasutades lahtisi pintslitõmbeid ja elavaid värve.

Pierre-Auguste Renoir

Renoir oli tuntud oma sooja ja elava värvikasutuse poolest. Tema teosed, nagu "Laupäevaõhtu La Grande Jatte'is", jäädvustavad rõõmsaid hetki ja inimestevahelisi suhteid. Ta keskendus sageli naiste ja laste kujutamisele, luues õnnelikke ja elavaid stseene.

Edgar Degas

Degas oli kuulus oma ainulaadse lähenemise tõttu. Ta kasutas tihti erinevaid kompositsioone ja nurki, et jäädvustada liikumist ja emotsioone. Tema teosed, sealhulgas ballerinate ja ratsutamise teemad, toovad esile ka liikumise ja dünaamika, mis eristab teda teistest impressionistidest.

Camille Pissarro

Pissarro oli impressionismi isa ja oluline figura, kes aitas ühendavaks jõuks artistide vahel. Ta propageeris sotsiaalset õiglust ja oma teostes, nagu "Jõe ääres", peegeldas elu Prantsusmaal, tuues esile maapinna ja maainimeste igapäevaelu.

Impressionismi valitsejad lõid uue kunstilise keele, mis eraldas end akadeemilisest traditsioonist ja tõi esile individuaalse vaate. Nende teosed kutsub esile emotsioone ja võimaldavad vaatajal tunnetada hetke ilu, mis jääb ajas hõljuma.

4o mini

Tegid Laur ja Lucas

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Püha Peetruse basiilika Vatikanis (Rooma, Itaalia)

Üks kuulsamaid barokkarhitektuuri meistriteoseid. Arhitektid Gian Lorenzo Bernini ja Carlo Maderno andsid katedraalile monumentaalse välimuse oma majesteetliku fassaadi ja tohutu kupliga. Toas avaldab katedraal muljet kaunistuse rikkusega, mis on loodud usulise aukartuse suurendamiseks.

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Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750) oli saksa barokiaja helilooja ja organist, keda peetakse üheks suurimaks muusikaloos. Ta kirjutas nii vaimulikku kui ka ilmalikku muusikat – tuntumad teosed on Brandenburgi kontserdid, Hästitempereeritud klaviir ja Matteuse passioon. Bachi stiilile on iseloomulik polüfoonia, sügav emotsioon ja tehniline täiuslikkus. Tema muusika avaldas suurt mõju hilisematele heliloojatele.

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Johann Sebastian Bach (31 March [ O.S. 21 March] 1685 - 28 July 1750) was a German composer and musician of the late Baroque period. He is known for his orchestral music such as the Brandenburg Concertos; instrumental compositions such as the Cello Suites; keyboard works such as the Goldberg Variations and The Well-Tempered Clavier; organ works such as the Schubler Chorales and the Toccata and Fugue in D minor; and vocal music such as the St Matthew Passion and the Mass in B minor. Since the 19th-century Bach revival, he has been generally regarded as one of the greatest composers in the history of Western music.

The Bach family already counted several composers when Johann Sebastian was born as the last child of a city musician, Johann Ambrosius, in Eisenach. After being orphaned at the age of 10, he lived for five years with his eldest brother Johann Christoph, after which he continued his musical education in Lüneburg. From 1703 he was back in Thuringia, working as a musician for Protestant churches in Arnstadt and Mühlhausen and, for longer stretches of time, at courts in Weimar, where he expanded his organ repertory, and Köthen, where he was mostly engaged with chamber music. From 1723, he was employed as Thomaskantor ( cantor at St Thomas's) in Leipzig. There he composed music for the principal Lutheran churches of the city, and for its university's student ensemble Collegium Musicum. From 1726, he published some of his keyboard and organ music. In Leipzig, as had happened during some of his earlier positions, he had difficult relations with his employer, a situation that was little remedied when he was granted the title of court composer by his sovereign, Augustus III of Poland, in 1736. In the last decades of his life, he reworked and extended many of his earlier compositions. He died of complications after eye surgery in 1750 at the age of 65.

Bach enriched established German styles through his mastery of counterpoint, harmonic, and motivic organisation, and his adaptation of rhythms, forms, and textures from abroad, particularly from Italy and France. Bach's compositions include hundreds of cantatas, both sacred and secular. He composed Latin church music, Passions, oratorios, and motets. He often adopted Lutheran hymns, not only in his larger vocal works, but for instance also in his four-part chorales and his sacred songs. He wrote extensively for organ and for other keyboard instruments. He composed concertos, for instance for violin and for harpsichord, and suites, as chamber music as well as for orchestra. Many of his works employ the genres of canon and fugue.

Throughout the 18th century, Bach was primarily valued as an organist, while his keyboard music, such as The Well-Tempered Clavier, was appreciated for its didactic qualities. The 19th century saw the publication of some major Bach biographies, and by the end of that century all of his known music had been printed. Dissemination of scholarship on the composer continued through periodicals (and later also websites) exclusively devoted to him, and other publications such as the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis (BWV, a numbered catalogue of his works) and new critical editions of his compositions. His music was further popularised through a multitude of arrangements, including the Air on the G String and " Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring", and of recordings, such as three different box sets with complete performances of the composer's oeuvre marking the 250th anniversary of his death.

Childhood (1685-1703)

[Johann Ambrosius Bach, 1685, Bach's father. Painting attributed to Johann David Herlicius de]

Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach, in present-day Germany, on 21 March 1685 O.S. (31 March 1685 N.S.). He was the eighth and youngest child of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt. His father likely taught him violin and basic music theory. His uncles were all professional musicians, whose posts included church organists, court chamber musicians, and composers. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach, introduced him to the organ, and an older second cousin, Johann Ludwig Bach, was a well-known composer and violinist.

Bach's mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later. The 10-year-old Bach moved in with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach, the organist at St. Michael's Church in Ohrdruf, Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. There he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brother's, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private, and blank ledger paper of that type was costly. He received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord. Johann Christoph exposed him to the works of great composers of the day, including South Germans such as Johann Caspar Kerll, Johann Jakob Froberger and Johann Pachelbel (under whom Johann Christoph had studied); North Germans; Frenchmen such as Jean-Baptiste Lully, Louis Marchand and Marin Marais; and even the Italian Girolamo Frescobaldi. During this time, he was also taught theology, Latin and Greek at the local gymnasium.

By 3 April 1700, Bach and his schoolfriend Georg Erdmann - who was two years Bach's elder - were enrolled in the prestigious St. Michael's School in Lüneburg, some two weeks' travel north of Ohrdruf. Their journey was probably undertaken mostly on foot. His two years there were critical in exposing Bach to a wider range of European culture. In addition to singing in the choir, he played the school's three-manual organ and harpsichords. He also came into contact with sons of aristocrats from northern Germany who had been sent to the nearby Ritter-Academie to prepare for careers in other disciplines.

Weimar, Arnstadt, and Mühlhausen (1703-1708)

The Wender organ Bach played in Arnstadt

In January 1703, shortly after graduating from St. Michael's and being turned down for the post of organist at Sangerhausen, Bach was appointed court musician in the chapel of Duke Johann Ernst III in Weimar. His role there is unclear, but it probably included menial, non-musical duties. During his seven-month tenure at Weimar, his reputation as a keyboardist spread so much that he was invited to inspect the new organ and give the inaugural recital at the New Church (now Bach Church) in Arnstadt, located about 30 kilometres (19 mi) southwest of Weimar. On 14 August 1703, he became the organist at the New Church, with light duties, a relatively generous salary, and a new organ tuned in a temperament that allowed music written in a wider range of keys to be played.

Despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer, tension built up between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir. He called one of them a "Zippel Fagottist" ( weenie bassoon player). Late one evening this student, named Geyersbach, went after Bach with a stick. Bach filed a complaint against Geyersbach with the authorities. They acquitted Geyersbach with a minor reprimand and ordered Bach to be more moderate regarding the musical qualities he expected from his students. Some months later Bach upset his employer by a prolonged absence from Arnstadt: after obtaining leave for four weeks, he was absent for around four months in 1705-1706 to take lessons from the organist and composer Johann Adam Reincken and to hear him and Dieterich Buxtehude play in the northern city of Lübeck. The visit to Buxtehude and Reincken involved a 450-kilometre (280 mi) journey each way, reportedly on foot. Buxtehude probably introduced Bach to his friend Reincken, so he could learn from his compositional technique (especially his mastery of the fugue), his organ playing and his skills with regard to improvisation. Bach knew Reincken's music very well; he copied for instance Reincken's monumental An Wasserflüssen Babylon when he was fifteen years old. Bach later wrote several other works on the same theme. When Bach visited Reincken again in 1720 and showed him his improvisation skills on the organ, Reincken reportedly remarked: "I thought that this art was dead, but I see that it lives in you."

In 1706, Bach applied for a post as organist at the Blasius Church in Mühlhausen. As part of his application, he had a cantata performed on Easter, 24 April 1707, likely an early version of his Christ lag in Todes Banden. A month later Bach's application was accepted and he took up the post in July. The position included significantly higher remuneration, improved conditions, and a better choir. Four months after arriving at Mühlhausen, Bach married Maria Barbara Bach, his second cousin. Bach was able to convince the church and town government at Mühlhausen to fund an expensive renovation of the organ at the Blasius Church. In 1708 Bach wrote Gott ist mein König, a festive cantata for the inauguration of the new council, which was published at the council's expense.

Return to Weimar (1708-1717)

Organ of the St. Paul's Church in Leipzig, tested by Bach in 1717

Bach left Mühlhausen in 1708, returning to Weimar this time as organist and from 1714 Konzertmeister (director of music) at the ducal court, where he had an opportunity to work with a large, well-funded contingent of professional musicians. Bach and his wife moved into a house close to the ducal palace. Later the same year, their first child, Catharina Dorothea, was born, and Maria Barbara's elder, unmarried sister joined them. She remained to help run the household until her death in 1729. Three sons were also born in Weimar: Wilhelm Friedemann, Carl Philipp Emanuel, and Johann Gottfried Bernhard. Johann Sebastian and Maria Barbara had three more children, who however did not live to their first birthday, including twins born in 1713.

Bach's time in Weimar was the start of a sustained period of composing keyboard and orchestral works. He attained the proficiency and confidence to extend the prevailing structures and include influences from abroad. He learned to write dramatic openings and employ the dynamic rhythms and harmonic schemes found in the music of Italians such as Vivaldi, Corelli, and Torelli. Bach absorbed these stylistic aspects in part by transcribing Vivaldi's string and wind concertos for harpsichord and organ; many of these transcribed works are still regularly performed. Bach was particularly attracted to the Italian style, in which one or more solo instruments alternate section-by-section with the full orchestra throughout a movement.

In Weimar, Bach continued to play and compose for the organ and perform concert music with the duke's ensemble. He also began to write the preludes and fugues which were later assembled into his monumental work The Well-Tempered Clavier ("clavier" meaning clavichord or harpsichord), consisting of two books, each containing 24 preludes and fugues in every major and minor key. Bach also started work on the Little Organ Book in Weimar, containing traditional Lutheran chorale tunes set in complex textures. In 1713, Bach was offered a post in Halle when he advised the authorities during a renovation by Christoph Cuntzius of the main organ in the west gallery of the Market Church of Our Dear Lady.

In the spring of 1714, Bach was promoted to Konzertmeister, an honour that entailed performing a church cantata monthly in the castle church. The first three cantatas in the new series Bach composed in Weimar were , for Palm Sunday, which coincided with the Annunciation that year; , for Jubilate Sunday; and for Pentecost. Bach's first Christmas cantata, , was premiered in 1714 or 1715.

In 1717, Bach eventually fell out of favour in Weimar and, according to a translation of the court secretary's report, was jailed for almost a month before being unfavourably dismissed: "On November 6, [1717], the quondam [former] concertmaster and organist Bach was confined to the County Judge's place of detention for too stubbornly forcing the issue of his dismissal and finally on December 2 was freed from arrest with notice of his unfavourable discharge."

Köthen (1717-1723)

Bach's autograph of the first movement of the first sonata for solo violin, BWV 1001

Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen, hired Bach to serve as his Kapellmeister (director of music) in 1717. Prince Leopold, himself a musician, appreciated Bach's talents, paid him well and gave him considerable latitude in composing and performing. The prince was a Calvinist and did not use elaborate music in his worship; accordingly, most of Bach's work from this period was secular, including the orchestral suites, cello suites, sonatas and partitas for solo violin, and Brandenburg Concertos. Bach also composed secular cantatas for the court, such as .

Despite being born in the same year and only about 130 kilometres (80 mi) apart, Bach and Handel never met. In 1719, Bach made the 35-kilometre (22 mi) journey from Köthen to Halle with the intention of meeting Handel; however, Handel had left the town. In 1730, Bach's oldest son, Wilhelm Friedemann, travelled to Halle to invite Handel to visit the Bach family in Leipzig, but the visit did not take place.

On 7 July 1720, while Bach was away in Carlsbad with Prince Leopold, Bach's wife, Maria Barbara Bach, suddenly died. The following year, he met Anna Magdalena Wilcke, a young, highly gifted soprano 16 years his junior, who performed at the court in Köthen; they married on 3 December 1721. Together they had 13 children, six of whom survived into adulthood: Gottfried Heinrich; Elisabeth Juliane Friederica (1726-1781); Johann Christoph Friedrich and Johann Christian, who both, especially Johann Christian, became significant musicians; Johanna Carolina (1737-1781); and Regina Susanna (1742-1809).

Leipzig (1723-1750)

In 1723, Bach was appointed Thomaskantor, director of church music in Leipzig. He had to direct the St. Thomas School and provide four churches with music, the St. Thomas Church, the St. Nicholas Church, and to a lesser extent the New Church and St. Peter's Church. This was "the leading cantorate in Protestant Germany", located in the mercantile city in the Electorate of Saxony, which he held for 27 years until his death. During that time he gained further prestige through honorary appointments at the courts of Köthen and Weissenfels, as well as that of the Elector Frederick Augustus (who was also King of Poland) in Dresden. Bach frequently disagreed with his employer, Leipzig's city council, which he regarded as "penny-pinching".

Appointment in Leipzig

St. Thomas Church and School, Leipzig in 1723

Johann Kuhnau had been Thomaskantor in Leipzig from 1701 until his death on 5 June 1722. Bach had visited Leipzig during Kuhnau's tenure: in 1714 he attended the service at the St. Thomas Church on the first Sunday of Advent, and in 1717 he had tested the organ of the St. Paul's Church. In 1716 Bach and Kuhnau had met on the occasion of the testing and inauguration of an organ in Halle.

The position was offered to Bach only after it had been offered first to Georg Philipp Telemann and then to Christoph Graupner, both of whom chose to stay where they were - Telemann in Hamburg and Graupner in Darmstadt - after using the Leipzig offer to negotiate improved conditions of employment.

Bach was required to instruct the students of the Thomasschule in singing and provide church music for the main churches in Leipzig. He was also assigned to teach Latin but was allowed to employ four "prefects" (deputies) to do this instead. The prefects also aided with musical instruction. A cantata was required for the church services on Sundays and additional church holidays during the liturgical year.

Cantata cycle years (1723-1729)

Bach usually led performances of his cantatas, most of which were composed within three years of his relocation to Leipzig. He assumed the office of Thomaskantor on 30 May 1723, presenting the first new cantata, , in the St. Nicholas Church on the first Sunday after Trinity. Bach collected his cantatas in annual cycles. Five are mentioned in obituaries, three are extant. Of the more than 300 cantatas which Bach composed in Leipzig, over 100 have been lost to posterity. Most of these works expound on the Gospel readings prescribed for every Sunday and feast day in the Lutheran year. Bach started a second annual cycle the first Sunday after Trinity of 1724 and composed only chorale cantatas, each based on a single church hymn. These include , , , and .

Bach drew the soprano and alto choristers from the school and the tenors and basses from the school and elsewhere in Leipzig. Performing at weddings and funerals provided extra income for these groups; it was probably for this purpose, and for in-school training, that he wrote at least six motets. As part of his regular church work, he performed other composers' motets, which served as formal models for his own.

Bach's predecessor as cantor, Johann Kuhnau, had also been music director for the St. Paul's Church, the church of Leipzig University. But when Bach was installed as cantor in 1723, he was put in charge only of music for festal (church holiday) services at the St. Paul's Church; his petition to also provide music for regular Sunday services there (for a corresponding salary increase) went all the way to the Elector but was denied. After this, in 1725, Bach "lost interest" in working even for festal services at the St. Paul's Church and appeared there only on "special occasions". The St. Paul's Church had a much better and newer (1716) organ than did the St. Thomas Church or the St. Nicholas Church. Bach was not required to play any organ in his official duties, but it is believed he liked to play on the St. Paul's Church organ "for his own pleasure".

Café Zimmermann, c. 1720

Bach broadened his composing and performing beyond the liturgy by taking over, in March 1729, the directorship of the Collegium Musicum, a secular performance ensemble started by Telemann. This was one of the dozens of private societies in the major German-speaking cities that were established by musically active university students; these societies had become increasingly important in public musical life and were typically led by the most prominent professionals in a city. In the words of Christoph Wolff, assuming the directorship was a shrewd move that "consolidated Bach's firm grip on Leipzig's principal musical institutions". Every week the Collegium Musicum would give two-hour performances in winter at the Café Zimmermann, a coffeehouse on Catherine Street off the main market square; and during the summer months in the proprietor's outdoor coffee garden just outside the town walls, near the East Gate. The concerts, all free of charge, ended with Gottfried Zimmermann's death in 1741. Apart from showcasing his earlier orchestral repertoire such as the Brandenburg Concertos and Orchestral Suites, many of Bach's newly composed or reworked pieces were performed for these venues, including parts of his Clavier-Übung ( Keyboard Practice), his violin and keyboard concertos and of course the eponymous Coffee Cantata.

Middle years of the Leipzig period (1730-1739)

Bach's seal (centre), used throughout his Leipzig years. It contains the superimposed letters J S B in mirror image topped with a crown. The flanking letters illustrate the arrangement on the seal.

In 1733, Bach composed a Kyrie-Gloria Mass in B minor which he later incorporated in his Mass in B minor. He presented the manuscript to the Elector in an eventually successful bid to persuade the prince to give him the title of Court Composer. He later extended this work into a full mass by adding a , , and , the music for which was partly based on his own cantatas and partly original. Bach's appointment as Court Composer was an element of his long-term struggle to achieve greater bargaining power with the Leipzig council. Between 1737 and 1739, Bach's former pupil Carl Gotthelf Gerlach held the directorship of the Collegium Musicum.

In 1735 Bach started to prepare his first publication of organ music, which was printed as the third Clavier-Übung in 1739. From around that year he started to compile and compose the set of preludes and fugues for harpsichord that would become his second book of The Well-Tempered Clavier. He received the title of "Royal Court Composer" from Augustus III in 1736.

Final years and death (1740-1750)

From 1740 to 1748 Bach copied, transcribed, expanded or programmed music in an older polyphonic style (stile antico) by, among others, Palestrina ( BNB I/P/2), Kerll ( BWV 241), Torri ( BWV Anh. 30), Bassani ( BWV 1081), Gasparini (Missa Canonica) and Caldara ( BWV 1082). Bach's own style shifted in the last decade of his life, showing an increased integration of polyphonic structures and canons and other elements of the stile antico. His fourth and last Clavier-Übung volume, the Goldberg Variations, for two-manual harpsichord, contained nine canons and was published in 1741. Throughout this period, Bach also continued to adopt music of contemporaries such as Handel ( BNB I/K/2) and Stölzel ( BWV 200), and gave many of his own earlier compositions, such as the St Matthew and St John Passions and the Great Eighteen Chorale Preludes, their final revisions. He also programmed and adapted music by composers of a younger generation, including Pergolesi ( BWV 1083) and his own students such as Goldberg ( BNB I/G/2).

In 1746 Bach was preparing to enter Lorenz Christoph Mizler's Society of Musical Sciences. In order to be admitted Bach had to submit a composition, for which he chose his Canonic Variations on "Vom Himmel hoch da komm' ich her", and a portrait, which was painted by Elias Gottlob Haussmann and featured Bach's Canon triplex á 6 Voc. In May 1747, Bach visited the court of King Frederick II of Prussia in Potsdam. The king played a theme for Bach and challenged him to improvise a fugue based on his theme. Bach obliged, playing a three-part fugue on one of Frederick's fortepianos by Gottfried Silbermann, which was a new type of instrument at the time. Upon his return to Leipzig he composed a set of fugues and canons, and a trio sonata, based on the Thema Regium (theme of the king). Within a few weeks this music was published as The Musical Offering and dedicated to Frederick. The Schübler Chorales, a set of six chorale preludes transcribed from cantata movements Bach had composed some two decades earlier, were published within a year. Around the same time, the set of five canonic variations which Bach had submitted when entering Mizler's society in 1747 were also printed.

Two large-scale compositions occupied a central place in Bach's last years. From around 1742 he wrote and revised the various canons and fugues of The Art of Fugue, which he continued to prepare for publication until shortly before his death. After extracting a cantata, BWV 191 from his 1733 Kyrie-Gloria Mass for the Dresden court in the mid-1740s, Bach expanded that setting into his Mass in B minor in the last years of his life. Although the complete mass was never performed during the composer's lifetime, it is considered to be among the greatest choral works in history.

In January 1749, Bach's daughter Elisabeth Juliane Friederica married his pupil Johann Christoph Altnickol. Bach's health was declining. On 2 June, Heinrich von Brühl wrote to one of the Leipzig burgomasters to request that his music director, Johann Gottlob Harrer, fill the Thomaskantor and Director musices posts "upon the eventual ... decease of Mr. Bach". Becoming blind, Bach underwent eye surgery, in March 1750 and again in April, by the British eye surgeon John Taylor, a man widely understood today as a charlatan and believed to have blinded hundreds of people. Bach died on 28 July 1750 from complications due to the unsuccessful treatment.

An inventory drawn up a few months after Bach's death shows that his estate included five harpsichords, two lute-harpsichords, three violins, three violas, two cellos, a viola da gamba, a lute and a spinet, along with 52 "sacred books", including works by Martin Luther and Josephus. The composer's son Carl Philipp Emanuel saw to it that The Art of Fugue, although still unfinished, was published in 1751. Together with one of the composer's former students, Johann Friedrich Agricola, the son also wrote the obituary (" Nekrolog"), which was published in Mizler's Musikalische Bibliothek, a periodical journal produced by the Society of Musical Sciences, in 1754.

Musical style

A handwritten note by Bach in his copy of the Calov Bible. The note next to 2 Chronicles 5:13 reads: "NB Bey einer andächtigen Musiq ist allezeit Gott mit seiner Gnaden Gegenwart" (N(ota) B(ene) In a music of worship God is always present with his grace).

From an early age, Bach studied the works of his musical contemporaries of the Baroque period and those of prior generations, and those influences were reflected in his music. Like his contemporaries Handel, Telemann and Vivaldi, Bach composed concertos, suites, recitatives, da capo arias, and four-part choral music and employed basso continuo. Bach's music was harmonically more innovative than his peer composers, employing surprisingly dissonant chords and progressions, often with extensive exploration of harmonic possibilities within one piece.

The hundreds of sacred works Bach created are usually seen as manifesting not just his craft but also a truly devout relationship with God. He had taught Luther's Small Catechism as the Thomaskantor in Leipzig, and some of his pieces represent it. The Lutheran chorale was the basis of much of his work. In elaborating these hymns into his chorale preludes, he wrote more cogent and tightly integrated works than most, even when they were massive and lengthy.[citation needed ] The large-scale structure of every major Bach sacred vocal work is evidence of subtle, elaborate planning to create a religiously and musically powerful expression. For example, the St Matthew Passion, like other works of its kind, illustrated the Passion with Bible text reflected in recitatives, arias, choruses, and chorales, but in crafting this work, Bach created an overall experience that has been found over the intervening centuries to be both musically thrilling and spiritually profound.

Bach published or carefully compiled in manuscript many collections of pieces that explored the range of artistic and technical possibilities inherent in almost every genre of his time except opera. For example, The Well-Tempered Clavier comprises two books, each of which presents a prelude and fugue in every major and minor key, displaying a dizzying variety of structural, contrapuntal and fugal techniques.

Four-part harmony

"O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden": the four-part chorale setting as included in the St. Matthew Passion

Four-part harmonies predate Bach, but he lived during a time when modal music in Western tradition was largely supplanted in favour of the tonal system. In this system a piece of music progresses from one chord to the next according to certain rules, each chord being characterised by four notes. The principles of four-part harmony are found not only in Bach's four-part choral music: he also prescribes it for instance for the figured bass accompaniment. The new system was at the core of Bach's style, and his compositions are to a large extent considered as laying down the rules for the evolving scheme that would dominate musical expression in the next centuries. Some examples of this characteristic of Bach's style and its influence:

When in the 1740s Bach staged his arrangement of Pergolesi's Stabat Mater, he upgraded the viola part (which in the original composition plays in unison with the bass part) to fill out the harmony, thus adapting the composition to his four-part harmony style.

When, starting in the 19th century in Russia, there was a discussion about the authenticity of four-part court chant settings compared to earlier Russian traditions, Bach's four-part chorale settings, such as those ending his Chorale cantatas, were considered as foreign-influenced models. Such influence was deemed unavoidable, however.

Bach's insistence on the tonal system and contribution to shaping it did not imply he was less at ease with the older modal system and the genres associated with it: more than his contemporaries (who had "moved on" to the tonal system without much exception), Bach often returned to the then-antiquated modi and genres. His Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue, emulating the chromatic fantasia genre as used by earlier composers such as Dowland and Sweelinck in D dorian mode (comparable to D minor in the tonal system), is an example of this.

Modulation

Modulation, or changing key in the course of a piece, is another style characteristic where Bach goes beyond what was usual in his time. Baroque instruments vastly limited modulation possibilities: keyboard instruments, prior to a workable system of temperament, limited the keys that could be modulated to, and wind instruments, especially brass instruments such as trumpets and horns, about a century before they were fitted with valves, were tied to the key of their tuning. Bach pushed the limits: he added "strange tones" in his organ playing, confusing the singers, according to an indictment he had to face in Arnstadt, and Louis Marchand, another early experimenter with modulation, seems to have avoided confrontation with Bach because the latter went further than anyone had done before. In the "Suscepit Israel" of his 1723 Magnificat, he had the trumpets in E-flat play a melody in the enharmonic scale of C minor.

The major development taking place in Bach's time, and to which he contributed in no small way, was a temperament for keyboard instruments that allowed their use in all available keys (12 major and 12 minor) and also modulation without retuning. His Capriccio on the departure of a beloved brother, a very early work, showed a gusto for modulation unlike any contemporary work this composition has been compared to, but the full expansion came with the Well-Tempered Clavier, using all keys, which Bach apparently had been developing since around 1720, the Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach being one of its earliest examples.

Ornamentation

Bach's guide on ornaments as contained in the Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach

"Aria" of the Goldberg Variations, showing Bach's use of ornaments

The second page of the Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach is an ornament notation and performance guide that Bach wrote for his eldest son, who was nine years old at the time. Bach was generally quite specific on ornamentation in his compositions (where in his time much of the ornamentation was not written out by composers but rather considered a liberty of the performer), and his ornamentation was often quite elaborate. For instance, the "Aria" of the Goldberg Variations has rich ornamentation in nearly every measure. Bach's dealing with ornamentation can also be seen in a keyboard arrangement he made of Marcello's Oboe Concerto: he added explicit ornamentation, which some centuries later is played by oboists when performing the concerto.

Although Bach did not write any operas, he was not averse to the genre or its ornamented vocal style. In church music, Italian composers had imitated the operatic vocal style in genres such as the Neapolitan mass. In Protestant surroundings, there was more reluctance to adopt such a style for liturgical music. For instance, Kuhnau, Bach's predecessor in Leipzig, had notoriously shunned opera and Italian virtuoso vocal music. Bach was less moved. One of the comments after a performance of his St Matthew Passion was that it all sounded much like opera.

Continuo instruments solos

In concerted playing in Bach's time the basso continuo, consisting of instruments such as organ, viola da gamba or harpsichord, usually had the role of accompaniment, providing the harmonic and rhythmic foundation of a piece. From the late 1720s, Bach had the organ play concertante (i.e. as a soloist) with the orchestra in instrumental cantata movements, a decade before Handel published his first organ concertos. Apart from the 5th Brandenburg Concerto and the Triple Concerto, which already had harpsichord soloists in the 1720s, Bach wrote and arranged his harpsichord concertos in the 1730s, and in his sonatas for viola da gamba and harpsichord neither instrument plays a continuo part: they are treated as equal soloists, far beyond the figured bass. In this sense, Bach played a key role in the development of genres such as the keyboard concerto.

Instrumentation

Bach wrote virtuoso music for specific instruments as well as music independent of instrumentation. For instance, the sonatas and partitas for solo violin are considered the pinnacle of what has been written for this instrument, only within reach of accomplished players. The music fits the instrument, pushing it to the full scale of its possibilities and requiring virtuosity of the player but without bravura. Notwithstanding that the music and the instrument seem inseparable, Bach made transcriptions for other instruments of some pieces of this collection. Similarly, for the cello suites, the virtuoso music seems tailored for the instrument, the best of what is offered for it, yet Bach made an arrangement for lute of one of these suites. The same applies to much of his most virtuoso keyboard music. Bach exploited the capabilities of an instrument to the fullest while keeping the core of such music independent of the instrument on which it is performed.

In this sense, it is no surprise that Bach's music is easily and often performed on instruments it was not necessarily written for, that it is transcribed so often, and that his melodies turn up in unexpected places such as jazz music. Apart from this, Bach left a number of compositions without specified instrumentation: the canons BWV 1072-1078 fall in that category, as well as the bulk of the Musical Offering and the Art of Fugue.

Counterpoint

Another characteristic of Bach's style is his extensive use of counterpoint, as opposed to the homophony used in his four-part Chorale settings, for example. Bach's canons, and especially his fugues, are most characteristic of this style, which Bach did not invent but contributed to so fundamentally that he defined it to a large extent. Fugues are as characteristic to Bach's style as, for instance, the Sonata form is characteristic to the composers of the Classical period.

These strictly contrapuntal compositions, and most of Bach's music in general, are characterised by distinct melodic lines for each of the voices, where the chords formed by the notes sounding at a given point follow the rules of four-part harmony. Johann Nikolaus Forkel, Bach's first biographer, gives this description of this feature of Bach's music, which sets it apart from most other music:

If the language of music is merely the utterance of a melodic line, a simple sequence of musical notes, it can justly be accused of poverty. The addition of a Bass puts it upon a harmonic foundation and clarifies it, but defines rather than gives it added richness. A melody so accompanied-even though all the notes are not those of the true Bass-or treated with simple embellishments in the upper parts, or with simple chords, used to be called "homophony". But it is a very different thing when two melodies are so interwoven that they converse together like two persons upon a footing of pleasant equality. In the first case the accompaniment is subordinate, and serves merely to support the first or principal part. In the second case the two parts are not similarly related. New melodic combinations spring from their interweaving, out of which new forms of musical expression emerge. If more parts are interwoven in the same free and independent manner, the apparatus of language is correspondingly enlarged, and becomes practically inexhaustible if, in addition, varieties of form and rhythm are introduced. Hence harmony becomes no longer a mere accompaniment of melody, but rather a potent agency for augmenting the richness and expressiveness of musical conversation. To serve that end a simple accompaniment will not suffice. True harmony is the interweaving of several melodies, which emerge now in the upper, now in the middle, and now in the lower parts.

From about the year 1720, when he was thirty-five, until his death in 1750, Bach's harmony consists in this melodic interweaving of independent melodies, so perfect in their union that each part seems to constitute the true melody. Herein Bach excels all the composers in the world. At least, I have found no one to equal him in music known to me. Even in his four-part writing we can, not infrequently, leave out the upper and lower parts and still find the middle parts melodious and agreeable.

Structure and lyrics

Bach devoted more attention than his contemporaries to the structure of compositions. This can be seen in minor adjustments he made when adapting someone else's composition, such as his earliest version of the "Keiser" St Mark Passion, where he enhances scene transitions, and in the architecture of his own compositions such as his Magnificat and Leipzig Passions. In the last years of his life, Bach revised several of his prior compositions. Often the recasting of such previously composed music in an enhanced structure was the most visible change, as in the Mass in B minor. Bach's known preoccupation with structure led (peaking around the 1970s) to various numerological analyses of his compositions, although many such over-interpretations were later rejected, especially when wandering off into symbolism-ridden hermeneutics.

The librettos, or lyrics, of his vocal compositions played an important role for Bach. He sought collaboration with various text authors for his cantatas and major vocal compositions, possibly writing or adapting such texts himself to make them fit the structure of the composition he was designing when he could not rely on the talents of other text authors. His collaboration with Picander for the St Matthew Passion libretto is best known, but there was a similar process in achieving a multi-layered structure for his St John Passion libretto a few years earlier.

Compositions

In 1950, Wolfgang Schmieder published a thematic catalogue of Bach's compositions called the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis (Bach Works Catalogue). Schmieder largely followed the Bach-Gesellschaft-Ausgabe , a comprehensive edition of the composer's works that was produced between 1850 and 1900. The first edition of the catalogue listed 1,080 surviving compositions indisputably composed by Bach.

BWV 1081-1126 were added to the catalogue in the second half of the 20th century, and BWV 1127 and higher are 21st-century additions.

Passions and oratorios

Bach's autograph of the recitative with the gospel text of Christ's death from St Matthew Passion (Matthew 27:45-47a)

Bach composed Passions for Good Friday services and oratorios such as the Christmas Oratorio, which is a set of six cantatas for use in the liturgical season of Christmas. Shorter oratorios include the Easter Oratorio and the Ascension Oratorio. With its double choir and orchestra, the St Matthew Passion is one of Bach's most extended works. The St John Passion was the first passion Bach composed during his tenure as Thomaskantor in Leipzig.

According to his obituary, Bach would have composed five year-cycles of sacred cantatas, and additional church cantatas for weddings and funerals, for example. Approximately 200 of these sacred works are extant, an estimated two thirds of the total number of church cantatas he composed. The Bach Digital website lists 50 known secular cantatas by the composer, about half of which are extant or largely reconstructable.

Church cantatas

Bach's cantatas vary greatly in form and instrumentation. Many consist of a large opening chorus followed by one or more recitative-aria pairs for soloists (or duets) and a concluding chorale. The melody of the concluding chorale often appears as a cantus firmus in the opening movement.

Bach's earliest cantatas date from his years in Arnstadt and Mühlhausen. The earliest surviving work in the genre is . As a whole, the extant early works all show remarkable mastery and skill. Many feature an instrumental opening which display effective use of the limited instrumental forces available to Bach, whether it be in the subdued combination of two recorders and two viola de gamba for BWV 106, or the independent bassoon in BWV 196. Bach's compositional skills are also manifested through his daring harmonies and advanced, unprecedented chord progressions. According to Christoph Wolff, Bach's early cantatas are impressive evidence of how the modest means at his disposal did not restrain the composer in the slightest, and they compare favourably with compositions by the most talented composers from the beginning of the 18th century, such as Krieger, Kuhnau or Zachow.

After taking up his office as Thomaskantor in late May 1723, Bach performed a cantata each Sunday and feast day, corresponding to the lectionary readings of the week. His first cantata cycle ran from the first Sunday after Trinity of 1723 to Trinity Sunday the next year. For instance, the Visitation cantata , containing the chorale that is known in English as "Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring", belongs to this first cycle. The cantata cycle of his second year in Leipzig is called the chorale cantata cycle as it consists mainly of works in the chorale cantata format. His third cantata cycle was developed over a period of several years, followed by the Picander cycle of 1728-29.

Later church cantatas include the chorale cantatas (final version) and . Only the first three Leipzig cycles are more or less completely extant. Apart from his own work, Bach also performed cantatas by Telemann and by his distant relative Johann Ludwig Bach.

Secular cantatas

Bach also wrote secular cantatas, for instance for members of the royal Polish and prince-electoral Saxonian families (e.g. ), or other public or private occasions (e.g. Hunting Cantata). The text of these cantatas was occasionally in dialect (e.g. Peasant Cantata) or Italian (e.g. Amore traditore). Many of the secular cantatas were lost, but for some of them the text and occasion are known, for instance when Picander later published their librettos (e.g. BWV Anh. 11- 12).

Some of the surviving secular cantatas have a plot involving mythological figures of Greek antiquity (e.g. Der Streit zwischen Phoebus und Pan), and others were almost miniature buffo operas (e.g. Coffee Cantata). Although Bach never expressed any interest in opera, his secular cantatas, or drammi per musica, would have allowed Leipzig audiences, deprived of opera since 1720, to experience musical performances comparable to the royal opera in Dresden. These were not at all "poor or makeshift substitutes for real opera" but spectacles displaying "full mastery of the dramatic genre and the proper pacing of the dialogues."

A cappella music

Bach's a cappella music includes motets and chorale harmonisations.

Bach's motets (BWV 225-231) are pieces on sacred themes for choir and continuo, with instruments playing colla parte. Several of them were composed for funerals. The six motets definitely composed by Bach are Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied, Der Geist hilft unser Schwachheit auf, Jesu, meine Freude, Fürchte dich nicht, Komm, Jesu, komm, and Lobet den Herrn, alle Heiden. The motet Sei Lob und Preis mit Ehren (BWV 231) is part of the composite motet Jauchzet dem Herrn, alle Welt ( BWV Anh. 160), other parts of which may be based on work by Telemann.

Chorale harmonisations

Bach wrote hundreds of four-part harmonisations of Lutheran chorales.

Church music in Latin

Bach's church music in Latin includes the Magnificat, four Kyrie-Gloria Masses, and the Mass in B minor.

Magnificat

The first version of Bach's Magnificat dates from 1723, but the work is best known in its D major version of 1733.

Mass in B minor

In 1733 Bach composed a Kyrie-Gloria Mass for the Dresden court. Near the end of his life, around 1748-1749, he expanded this composition into the large-scale Mass in B minor. The work was never performed in full during Bach's lifetime.

Keyboard music

Bach wrote for organ and for stringed keyboard instruments such as harpsichord, clavichord and lute-harpsichord.

Organ works

Bach was best known during his lifetime as an organist, organ consultant, and composer of organ works in both the traditional German free genres (such as preludes, fantasias, and toccatas) and stricter forms (such as chorale preludes and fugues). At a young age, he established a reputation for creativity and ability to integrate foreign styles into his organ works. A decidedly North German influence was exerted by Georg Böhm, with whom Bach came into contact in Lüneburg, and Dieterich Buxtehude, whom the young organist visited in Lübeck in 1704 on an extended leave of absence from his job in Arnstadt. Around this time, Bach copied the works of numerous French and Italian composers to gain insights into their compositional languages, and later arranged violin concertos by Vivaldi and others for organ and harpsichord. During his most productive period (1708-1714) he composed about a dozen pairs of preludes and fugues, five toccatas and fugues, and the Orgelbüchlein or "Little Organ Book", an unfinished collection of 46 short chorale preludes that demonstrate compositional techniques in the setting of chorale tunes. After leaving Weimar, Bach wrote less for organ, although some of his best-known works (the six Organ Sonatas, the German Organ Mass in Clavier-Übung III from 1739, and the Great Eighteen Chorale Preludes, revised late in his life) were composed after leaving Weimar. Bach was extensively engaged later in his life in consulting on organ projects, testing new organs and dedicating organs in afternoon recitals. The Canonic Variations on "Vom Himmel hoch da komm' ich her" and the Schübler Chorales are organ works Bach published in the last years of his life.

Harpsichord and other stringed keyboard instruments

The Art of Fugue (title page) - performed by Mehmet Okonsar on organ and harpsichord
Nos. 1-12

Nos. 13-20

Bach wrote many works for harpsichord, some of which may also have been played on the clavichord or lute-harpsichord. Some of his larger works, such as Clavier-Übung II and IV, are intended for a harpsichord with two manuals: performing them on a keyboard instrument with a single manual (like a piano) may present technical difficulties for the crossing of hands.

The Well-Tempered Clavier, Books 1 and 2 (BWV 846-893). Each book consists of a prelude and fugue in each of the 24 major and minor keys, in chromatic order from C major to B minor (thus, the whole collection is often referred to as "the 48"). "Well-tempered" in the title refers to the temperament (system of tuning); many temperaments before Bach's time were not flexible enough to allow compositions to utilise more than just a few keys.

The Inventions and Sinfonias (BWV 772-801). These short two- and three-part contrapuntal works are arranged in the same chromatic order as The Well-Tempered Clavier, omitting some of the rarer keys. These pieces were intended by Bach for instructional purposes.

Three collections of dance suites: the English Suites (BWV 806-811), French Suites (BWV 812-817), and Partitas for keyboard (Clavier-Übung I, BWV 825-830). Each collection contains six suites built on the standard model (allemande-courante-sarabande-(optional movement)-gigue). The English Suites closely follow the traditional model, adding a prelude before the allemande and including a single movement between the sarabande and gigue. The French Suites omit preludes but have multiple movements between the sarabande and gigue. The partitas expand the model further with elaborate introductory movements and miscellaneous movements between the basic elements of the model.

The Goldberg Variations (BWV 988), an aria with 30 variations. The collection has a complex and unconventional structure: the variations build on the bass line of the aria rather than its melody, and musical canons are interpolated according to a grand plan. There are 9 canons within the 30 variations; every third variation is a canon. These variations move in order from canon at unison to canon at the ninth. The first eight are in pairs (unison and octave, second and seventh, third and sixth, fourth and fifth). The ninth canon stands on its own due to compositional dissimilarities. The final variation, instead of being the expected canon at the tenth, is a quodlibet.

Miscellaneous pieces such as the Overture in the French Style (French Overture, BWV 831) and the Italian Concerto (BWV 971) (published together as Clavier-Übung II), and the Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue (BWV 903).

Among Bach's lesser known keyboard works are seven toccatas (BWV 910-916), four duets (BWV 802-805), sonatas for keyboard (BWV 963-967), the Six Little Preludes (BWV 933-938), and the Aria variata alla maniera italiana (BWV 989).

Orchestral and chamber music

Bach wrote for single instruments, duets, and small ensembles. Many of his solo works, such as the six sonatas and partitas for violin (BWV 1001-1006) and the six cello suites (BWV 1007-1012), are widely considered to be among the most profound in the repertoire. He wrote sonatas for a solo instrument such as the viola de gamba accompanied by harpsichord or continuo, as well as trio sonatas (two instruments and continuo).

The Musical Offering and The Art of Fugue are late contrapuntal works containing pieces for unspecified instruments or combinations of instruments.

Violin concertos

Surviving works in the concerto form include two violin concertos ( BWV 1041 in A minor and BWV 1042 in E major) and a concerto for two violins in D minor, BWV 1043, often referred to as Bach's "double concerto".

Brandenburg Concertos

Bach's best-known orchestral works are the Brandenburg Concertos, so named because he submitted them in the hope of gaining employment from Margrave Christian Ludwig of Brandenburg-Schwedt in 1721; his application was unsuccessful. These works are examples of the concerto grosso genre.

Keyboard concertos

Bach composed and transcribed concertos for one to four harpsichords. Many of the harpsichord concertos were not original works but arrangements of his concertos for other instruments, now lost. A number of violin, oboe, and flute concertos have been reconstructed from these.

Orchestral suites

In addition to concertos, Bach wrote four orchestral suites, each suite being a series of stylised dances for orchestra, preceded by a French overture.

Copies, arrangements and uncertain attributions

In his early youth, Bach copied pieces by other composers to learn from them. Later, he copied and arranged music for performance or as study material for his pupils. Some of these pieces, like " Bist du bei mir" (copied not by Bach but by Anna Magdalena), became famous before being dissociated with Bach. Bach copied and arranged Italian masters such as Vivaldi (e.g. BWV 1065), Pergolesi ( BWV 1083) and Palestrina ( Missa Sine nomine), French masters such as François Couperin ( BWV Anh. 183), and, closer to home, various German masters including Telemann (e.g. BWV 824= TWV 32:14) and Handel ( arias from Brockes Passion), and music from members of his own family. He also often copied and arranged his own music (e.g. movements from cantatas for his short masses BWV 233-236), as his music was likewise copied and arranged by others. Some of these arrangements, like the late 19th-century " Air on the G String", helped to popularise Bach's music.

Sometimes "who copied whom" is not clear. For instance, Forkel mentions a Mass for double chorus among the works composed by Bach. The work was published and performed in the early 19th century, and although a score partially in Bach's handwriting exists, the work was later considered spurious. In 1950, the design of the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis was to keep such works out of the main catalogue: if there was a strong association with Bach they could be listed in its appendix (German: Anhang, abbreviated as Anh.). Thus, for instance, the aforementioned Mass for double chorus became BWV Anh. 167. But this was far from the end of the attribution issues. For instance, Schlage doch, gewünschte Stunde, BWV 53, was later attributed to Melchior Hoffmann. For other works, Bach's authorship was put in doubt without a generally accepted answer to the question of whether or not he composed it: the best known organ composition in the BWV catalogue, the Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565, was indicated as one of these uncertain works in the late 20th century.

The church in Arnstadt where Bach had been the organist from 1703 to 1707. In 1935 the church was renamed "Bachkirche".

Throughout the 18th century, the appreciation of Bach's music was mostly limited to distinguished connoisseurs. The 19th century started with publication of the first biography of the composer and ended with the completion of the publication of all of Bach's known works by the Bach Gesellschaft. A Bach Revival had started from Mendelssohn's performance of the St Matthew Passion in 1829. Soon after that performance, Bach started to become regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time, if not the greatest, a reputation he has retained ever since. A new extensive Bach biography was published in the second half of the 19th century.

In the 20th century, Bach's music was widely performed and recorded, while the Neue Bachgesellschaft, among others, published research on the composer. Modern adaptations of Bach's music contributed greatly to his popularisation in the second half of the 20th century. Among these were the Swingle Singers' versions of Bach pieces (for instance, the Air from Orchestral Suite No. 3, and the Wachet auf... chorale prelude) and Wendy Carlos' 1968 Switched-On Bach, which used the Moog electronic synthesiser.

By the end of the 20th century, more classical performers were gradually moving away from the performance style and instrumentation that were established in the romantic era: they started to perform Bach's music on period instruments of the baroque era, studied and practised playing techniques and tempi as established in his time, and reduced the size of instrumental ensembles and choirs to what he would have employed. The BACH motif, used by the composer in his own compositions, was used in dozens of tributes to the composer from the 19th century to the 21st. In the 21st century, the complete extant output of the composer became available online, with several websites exclusively dedicated to him.[citation needed ]

The liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church remembers Bach annually with a feast day on 28 July; on the same day, the Calendar of Saints of some Lutheran churches, such as the ELCA, remembers Bach and Handel with Heinrich Schütz.

18th century

Painting of Johann Sebastian Bach by 'Gebel', before 1798

In his own time, Bach was highly regarded amongst his colleagues, although his reputation outside of this small circle of connoisseurs was due not to his compositions (which had an extremely narrow circulation), but due to his virtuosic abilities. Nevertheless, during his life, Bach received public recognition, such as the title of court composer by Augustus III of Poland and the appreciation he was shown by Frederick the Great and Hermann Karl von Keyserling. Such highly placed appreciation contrasted with the humiliations he had to cope with, for instance in Leipzig. Also in the contemporary press, Bach had his detractors, such as Johann Adolf Scheibe, suggesting he write less complex music, and his supporters, such as Johann Mattheson and Lorenz Christoph Mizler.

After his death, Bach's reputation as a composer at first declined: his work was regarded as old-fashioned compared to the emerging galant style. Initially, he was remembered more as a virtuoso player of the organ and as a teacher. The bulk of the music that had been printed during the composer's lifetime, at least the part that was remembered, was for the organ and the harpsichord. Thus, his reputation as a composer was initially mostly limited to his keyboard music, and that even fairly limited to its value in music education.

Bach's surviving family members, who inherited a large part of his manuscripts, were not all equally concerned with preserving them, leading to considerable losses. Carl Philipp Emanuel, his second eldest son, was most active in safeguarding his father's legacy: he co-authored his father's obituary, contributed to the publication of his four-part chorales, staged some of his works, and the bulk of previously unpublished works of his father were preserved with his help. Wilhelm Friedemann, the eldest son, performed several of his father's cantatas in Halle but after becoming unemployed sold part of the large collection of his father's works he owned. Several students of the old master, such as his son-in-law Johann Christoph Altnickol, Johann Friedrich Agricola, Johann Kirnberger, and Johann Ludwig Krebs, contributed to the dissemination of his legacy. The early devotees were not all musicians; for example, in Berlin, Daniel Itzig, a high official of Frederick the Great's court, venerated Bach. His eldest daughters took lessons from Kirnberger and their sister Sara from Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, who was in Berlin from 1774 to 1784. Sara Itzig Levy became an avid collector of works by Johann Sebastian Bach and his sons and was a "patron" of CPE Bach.

While in Leipzig, performances of Bach's church music were limited to some of his motets, and under cantor Doles some of his Passions. A new generation of Bach aficionados emerged: they studiously collected and copied his music, including some of his large-scale works such as the Mass in B minor and performed it privately. One such connoisseur was Gottfried van Swieten, a high-ranking Austrian official who was instrumental in passing Bach's legacy on to the composers of the Viennese school. Haydn owned manuscript copies of the Well-Tempered Clavier and the Mass in B minor and was influenced by Bach's music. Mozart owned a copy of one of Bach's motets, transcribed some of his instrumental works ( K. 404a, 405), and wrote contrapuntal music influenced by his style. Beethoven played the entire Well-Tempered Clavier by the time he was 11 and described Bach as Urvater der Harmonie (progenitor of harmony).

19th century

Image of the [Bach memorial de] erected by Felix Mendelssohn in Leipzig in 1843

In 1802, Johann Nikolaus Forkel published Ueber Johann Sebastian Bachs Leben, Kunst und Kunstwerke, the first biography of the composer, which contributed to his becoming known to a wider public. In 1805, Abraham Mendelssohn, who had married one of Itzig's granddaughters, bought a substantial collection of Bach manuscripts that had come down from C. P. E. Bach, and donated it to the Berlin Sing-Akademie. The Sing-Akademie occasionally performed Bach's works in public concerts, for instance his first keyboard concerto, with Sara Itzig Levy at the piano.

The first decades of the 19th century saw an increasing number of first publications of Bach's music: Breitkopf started publishing chorale preludes, Hoffmeister harpsichord music, and the Well-Tempered Clavier was printed concurrently by Simrock (Germany), Nägeli (Switzerland) and Hoffmeister (Germany and Austria) in 1801. Vocal music was also published: motets in 1802 and 1803, followed by the E major version of the Magnificat, the Kyrie-Gloria Mass in A major, and the cantata Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott (BWV 80). In 1818, Hans Georg Nägeli called the Mass in B minor the greatest composition ever. Bach's influence was felt in the next generation of early Romantic composers. When Felix Mendelssohn, Abraham's son, aged 13, produced his first Magnificat setting in 1822, it is clear that he had been inspired by the then unpublished D major version of Bach's Magnificat.

Felix Mendelssohn significantly contributed to the renewed interest in Bach's work with his 1829 Berlin performance of the St Matthew Passion, which was instrumental in setting off what has been called the Bach Revival. The St John Passion saw its 19th-century premiere in 1833, and the first performance of the Mass in B minor followed in 1844. Besides these and other public performances and an increased coverage on the composer and his compositions in printed media, the 1830s and 1840s also saw the first publication of more vocal works by Bach: six cantatas, the St Matthew Passion, and the Mass in B minor. A series of organ compositions saw their first publication in 1833. Chopin started composing his 24 Preludes, Op. 28, inspired by the Well-Tempered Clavier, in 1835, and Schumann published his Sechs Fugen über den Namen B-A-C-H in 1845. Bach's music was transcribed and arranged to suit contemporary tastes and performance practice by composers such as Carl Friedrich Zelter, Robert Franz, and Franz Liszt, or combined with new music such as the melody line of Charles Gounod's . Brahms, Bruckner, and Wagner were among the composers who promoted Bach's music or wrote glowingly about it.

In 1850, the Bach-Gesellschaft (Bach Society) was founded to promote Bach's music. In the second half of the 19th century, the Society published a comprehensive edition of the composer's works. Also in the second half of the 19th century, Philipp Spitta published Johann Sebastian Bach, the standard work on Bach's life and music. By that time, Bach was known as the first of the three Bs in music. Throughout the 19th century, 200 books were published on Bach. By the end of the century, local Bach societies were established in several cities, and his music had been performed in all major musical centres.

In Germany all throughout the century, Bach was coupled to nationalist feelings, and the composer was inscribed in a religious revival. In England, Bach was coupled to an existing revival of religious and baroque music. By the end of the century, Bach was firmly established as one of the greatest composers, recognised for both his instrumental and his vocal music.

20th century

1908 Statue of Bach in front of the Thomaskirche in Leipzig

28 July 1950: memorial service for Bach in Leipzig's Thomaskirche, on the 200th anniversary of the composer's death

During the 20th century, the process of recognising the musical as well as the pedagogic value of some of the works continued, as in the promotion of the cello suites by Pablo Casals, the first major performer to record these suites. Leading performers of classical music such as Willem Mengelberg, Edwin Fischer, Georges Enescu, Leopold Stokowski, Herbert von Karajan, Arthur Grumiaux, Helmut Walcha, Wanda Landowska, Karl Richter, I Musici, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, and Glenn Gould recorded his music.

A significant development in the later part of the 20th century was the momentum gained by the historically informed performance practice, with forerunners such as Nikolaus Harnoncourt acquiring prominence by their performances of Bach's music. His keyboard music was again performed more on the instruments Bach was familiar with, rather than on modern pianos and 19th-century romantic organs. Ensembles playing and singing Bach's music not only kept to the instruments and the performance style of his day but were also reduced to the size of the groups Bach used for his performances. But that was far from the only way Bach's music came to the forefront in the 20th century: his music was heard in versions ranging from Ferruccio Busoni's late romantic piano transcriptions to jazzy interpretations such as those by The Swingle Singers, orchestrations like the one opening Walt Disney's movie, and synthesiser performances such as Wendy Carlos' Switched-On Bach recordings.

Bach's music has influenced other genres. For instance, jazz musicians have adopted Bach's music, with Jacques Loussier, Ian Anderson, Uri Caine, and the Modern Jazz Quartet among those creating jazz versions of his works. Several 20th-century composers referred to Bach or his music, for example Eugène Ysaÿe in Six Sonatas for solo violin, Dmitri Shostakovich in 24 Preludes and Fugues and Heitor Villa-Lobos in Bachianas Brasileiras. All kinds of publications involved Bach: not only were there the Bach Jahrbuch publications of the Neue Bachgesellschaft, various other biographies and studies by among others Albert Schweitzer, Charles Sanford Terry, Alfred Dürr, Christoph Wolff. Peter Williams, John Butt, and the 1950 first edition of the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis; but also books such as Gödel, Escher, Bach put the composer's art in a wider perspective. Bach's music was extensively listened to, performed, broadcast, arranged, adapted, and commented upon in the 1990s. Around 2000, the 250th anniversary of Bach's death, three record companies issued box sets with complete recordings of Bach's music.

Bach's music features three times-more than that of any other composer-on the Voyager Golden Record, a gramophone record containing a broad sample of the images, common sounds, languages, and music of Earth, sent into outer space with the two Voyager probes. Tributes to Bach in the 20th century include statues erected in his honour and a variety of things such as streets and space objects being named after him. Also, a multitude of musical ensembles such as the Bach Aria Group, Deutsche Bachsolisten, Bachchor Stuttgart, and Bach Collegium Japan adopted the composer's name. Bach festivals were held on several continents, and competitions and prizes such as the International Johann Sebastian Bach Competition and the Royal Academy of Music Bach Prize were named after the composer. While by the end of the 19th century Bach had been inscribed in nationalism and religious revival, the late 20th century saw Bach as the subject of a secularised art-as-religion (Kunstreligion).

21st century

In the 21st century, Bach's compositions have become available online, for instance at the International Music Score Library Project. High-resolution facsimiles of Bach's autographs became available at the Bach Digital website. 21st-century biographers include Christoph Wolff, Peter Williams and John Eliot Gardiner.

In 2015, Bach's handwritten personal copy of his Mass in B minor, held by the Berlin State Library, was added to UNESCO's Memory of the World Register, a program intended to protect culturally significant manuscripts.

In 2019, Bach was named the greatest composer of all time in a poll conducted among 174 living composers.

Burial site

Bach was originally buried at Old St. John's Cemetery in Leipzig. His grave went unmarked for nearly 150 years, but in 1894 his remains were located and moved to a vault in St. John's Church. This building was destroyed by Allied bombing during World War II, so in 1950 Bach's remains were taken to their present grave in St. Thomas Church. Later research has called into question whether the remains in the grave are actually those of Bach.

References

Works cited

Biographies

David, Hans T. [in German]; Mendel, Arthur; Wolff, Christoph (1998). The New Bach Reader: A Life of Johann Sebastian Bach in Letters and Documents. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-31956-9. OCLC 37801400.

Eidam, Klaus [in German] (2001). The True Life of Johann Sebastian Bach. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-01861-1.

Forkel, Johann Nikolaus (1920). Johann Sebastian Bach: His Life, Art, and Work. Translated by Charles Sanford Terry. New York; London: Harcourt, Brace and Howe; Constable.

Geck, Martin (2003). Bach. Translated by Anthea Bell. London: Haus Publishing. ISBN 978-1-904341-16-1. Archived 24 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine

Geiringer, Karl (1966). Johann Sebastian Bach: The Culmination of an Era. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-500554-7.

Schweitzer, Albert (1911). J. S. Bach. Translated by Ernest Newman. New York: Macmillan Publishers., first published in French in 1905 and in German in 1908.(Vol. 1, Vol. 2)

Schweitzer, Albert (1923) [1905]. J. S. Bach. Vol. 1. Translated by Ernest Newman. New York: Macmillan Publishers.

Spitta, Philipp (1899a). Johann Sebastian Bach: His Work and Influence on the Music of Germany, 1685-1750. Vol. 1. Translated by Clara Bell; J. A. Fuller Maitland. London: Novello & Co.

Spitta, Philipp (1899b). Johann Sebastian Bach: His Work and Influence on the Music of Germany, 1685-1750. Vol. 2. Translated by Clara Bell; J. A. Fuller Maitland. London: Novello & Co.

Spitta, Philipp (1899c). Johann Sebastian Bach: His Work and Influence on the Music of Germany, 1685-1750. Vol. 3. Translated by Clara Bell; J. A. Fuller Maitland. London: Novello & Co.

Terry, Charles Sanford (1928). Bach: A Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Williams, Peter (2003a). . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53374-4.

Second edition, 2013, W. W. Norton, New York and London, ISBN 978-0-393-32256-9 pbk.

(subscription or Wolff, Christoph; Emery, Walter (20 January 2001). "Bach, Johann Sebastian". Grove Music Online (8th ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.6002278195. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. UK public library membership required)

Boyd, Malcolm, ed. (1999). J. S. Bach. Oxford Composer Companions. Oxford University Press.

Crist, Stephen A.; Stauff, Derek (2011). "Johann Sebastian Bach". Oxford Bibliographies: Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/OBO/9780199757824-0043. (subscription required)

Donington, Robert (1982). Baroque Music: Style and Performance: A Handbook. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-30052-9.

Dürr, Alfred; Jones, Richard D. P. (2006), The Cantatas of J.S. Bach, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-929776-4

Kerst, Friedrich (1904). Beethoven im eigenen Wort (in German). Berlin: Schuster & Loeffler.

Leaver, Robin A. (2007). Luther's Liturgical Music. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8028-3221-4.

Miles, Russell H. (1962). Johann Sebastian Bach: An Introduction to His Life and Works. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. OCLC 600065.

Rich, Alan (1995). Johann Sebastian Bach: Play by Play. San Francisco: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-263547-1.

Schenk, Erich; Winston, Richard; Winston, Clara (1959). Mozart and His Times. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. OCLC 602180.

Schneider, Max (1907). "Verzeichnis der bis zum Jahre 1851 gedruckten (und der geschrieben im Handel gewesenen) Werke von Johann Sebastian Bach". Bach-Jahrbuch. Neue Bachgesellschaft. VII (3): 84-113.

Spaeth, Sigmund (1937). Stories Behind the World's Great Music. New York: Whittlesey House.

Stauffer, George B. (2008). "Music for "Cavaliers et Dames": Bach and the Repertoire of His Collegium Musicum". In Butler, Gregory G.; Stauffer, George B.; Greer, Mary Galton (eds.). About Bach. University of Illinois Press. pp. 135-156. ISBN 978-0-252-03344-5.

;

(subscription or Wolff, Christoph; Emery, Walter; Wollny, Peter; Leisinger, Ulrich; Roe, Stephen (17 January 2018) [2001]. "Bach family". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40023. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. UK public library membership required)

Further reading

See: Crist & Stauff 2011, for an extensive bibliography.

Baron, Carol K. (2006). Bach's Changing World: Voices in the Community. Rochester, New York: University of Rochester Press. ISBN 978-1-58046-190-0.

Dörffel, Alfred (1882). Thematisches Verzeichnis der Instrumentalwerke von Joh. Seb. Bach (in German). Leipzig: C. F. Peters. N.B.: First published in 1867; superseded, for scholarly purposes, by Wolfgang Schmieder's complete thematic catalog, but useful as a handy reference tool for only the instrumental works of Bach and as a partial alternative to Schmieder's work.

Hofstadter, Douglas (1999). Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02656-2.

Leaver, Robin A. (2016), The Routledge Research Companion to Johann Sebastian Bach, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-367-58143-5

Pirro, André (2014) [1907]. The Aesthetic of Johann Sebastian Bach. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-3290-7.

Stauffer, George B.; May, Ernest (1986). J. S. Bach as Organist: His Instruments, Music, and Performance Practices. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-33181-6.

External links

Scores

Recordings

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Johann Sebastian Bach (31 March [ O.S. 21 March] 1685 - 28 July 1750) was a German composer and musician of the late Baroque period.

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Peter I (Suurest Peterist) – Peterburi keiser (Venemaa)

Ametiaeg: 1682–1725

Lühikirjeldus: Peter Suur oli Venemaa keiser, kes alustas suuri reforme, et muuta Venemaa Euroopa suurvõimuks. Ta viiski läbi sõjalisi ja administratiivseid reforme ning asutas Peterburi, mis muutus Venemaa uueks pealinnaks. Peter I soovis, et Venemaa kultuur ja kunst areneksid koos Euroopaga, ja tema valitsemisaeg oli tihedalt seotud baroki stiili edendamisega.

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https://youtu.be/h01YYkuy7pA?si=Fsk4PsxPDEScgvbg

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the Hidden Treasures of Royal Baroque Music!! BACH, VIVALDI, CORELLI..

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Share your videos with friends, family, and the world

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Versailles' palee (Versailles, Prantsusmaa)

Kuningas Louis XIV poolt ümber kujundatud Versailles sai barokk-luksuse kehastuseks. Palee iseloomustab sümmeetria, keerulised dekoratiivsed elemendid ja kuulus peeglite saal, mis rõhutab autoritasu hiilgust ja barokkstiili jõudu arhitektuuris.

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Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza kirik (Rooma, Itaalia)

Arhitekt Francesco Borromini ehitatud Rooma tempel on ainulaadne näide barokkarhitektuurist. Selle kiriku fassaadi ja kuplit iseloomustab keeruline ja ebatavaline disain, millel on kõveruse ja dünaamilisuse elemendid, mis muudab selle üheks barokkstiili ikooniliseks näiteks.

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https://youtu.be/GRxofEmo3HA?si=Q1_M1gKJ579AvmEu

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Schönbrunni palee (Viin, Austria)

Schönbrunn on Austria Habsburgide endine suveresidents, mis sümboliseerib barokkstiili suurust. Paleel on sümmeetriline fassaad, rikkalikud saalid ja keerukad aiad, mis rõhutavad baroki mõju Austria õukonnaarhitektuurile ja esteetikale.

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Louis XIV (Prantsusmaa)

Ametiaeg: 1643–1715

Lühikirjeldus: Louis XIV, tuntud kui "Päikesekuningas" (le Roi Soleil), oli üks võimsamaid ja tuntumaid monarhe baroki ajastul. Tema valitsemisaeg kestis 72 aastat, mis on üks pikimaid ajaloos. Louis XIV keskendus absoluutsele monarhiale, tugevdades kuninga võimu ja vähendades aadli mõju. Tema valitsemisaeg on seotud ka Prantsuse baroki kunsti ja arhitektuuri kuldajaga, sealhulgas Versaille'i lossi rajamisega.

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Veel üks tähtis baroki ajastu helilooja on Henry Purcell (1659–1695), inglise helilooja, kes on üks olulisemaid Briti klassikalise muusika esindajaid. Tema looming ühendab baroki Euroopa stiilide ja ingliskeelse muusika traditsioonide parimad jooned, olles oma ajastu üks tähtsamaid heliloojaid.

Tuntud teosed:

1. "Dido ja Aeneas" (Z. 626)
Purcelli ainus täielikult säilinud ooper, "Dido ja Aeneas", on üks tema tippteoseid ja üks tähtsamaid Inglismaa ooperiteoseid. Ooperi sisu põhineb Aenease ja Dido müütilisel armastuslool, mis lõpeb traagiliselt. Teos on tuntud oma emotsionaalse intensiivsuse ja kauni muusika poolest. Dido kuulsa "Dido’s Lament" ehk "When I am laid in earth" on üks baroki perioodi kõige liigutavamaid ja kuulsamaid aariaid.

2. "Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary" (Z. 860)
See teos on Purcelli üks mõjuvõimsamaid orkestriteoseid, mis on loodud kuninganna Maria II matusetseremooniaks. See sisaldab mitmeid osasid, sealhulgas koraale ja orkestriteoseid, mis on täis sügavat tõsiseltvõetavust ja monumentaalsust.

3. "The Fairy Queen" (Z. 629)
"The Fairy Queen" on väga huvitav ooper, mis on pigem masque ehk muusikaline lavastus, mis ühendab ooperi ja ballet’i elemente. Sellel on palju erinevaid stiile ja žanre, alates suurejoonelistest kooridest kuni erootiliste, lüüriliste aariateni. Teos sisaldab ka Purcelli eluaja ühe kuulsaima instrumentaali, "Rondeau", mida sageli kasutatakse televisioonis ja filmides.

4. "Thy Hand, Belinda"
See on üks Purcelli kuulsamaid aariaid, mis esitatakse ooperis "Dido ja Aeneas". Aaria "Thy Hand, Belinda" on täis igatsust ja leina, kui Dido saab teada, et Aeneas peab lahkuma. Aaria on kuulsa meloodilise joone ja emotsionaalsuse poolest eriti liigutav.

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Barokki ajastu (umbes 1600–1750) oli ajalooliselt rikas sõdade ja poliitiliste konfliktide periood, kus Euroopa, Ameerika ja Aasia olid tihti sõjategevuse keskmes.

1. Ingli-Prantsuse sõda (1627–1629)

Osalejad: Inglismaa ja Prantsusmaa.

Põhjus: Sõda käidi peamiselt Prantsusmaa ja Inglismaa vahel, kuna mõlemad riigid olid seotud Euroopa võimusfääride, eriti Habsburgide monarhiaaladega.

Tulemused: Sõda lõppes Inglismaa ja Prantsusmaa vahelise vaikiva rahu sõlmimisega, kuid konfliktide laiemat mõju Euroopas jäi pikemaks ajaks.

2. Põhjasõda (1700–1721)

Osalejad: Rootsi kuningriik, Venemaa, Taani-Norra ja Saksamaa.

Põhjus: Põhjasõda algas, kui Peterburi Venemaa keiser Peeter Suur ja tema liitlased püüdsid laiendada oma mõju Põhja-Euroopas ja lüüa maha Rootsi suurriigi positsioone.

Tulemused: Põhjasõda lõppes Venemaa võiduga, Rootsi langusega suurriigina ja Peterburi tekkega uue Vene impeeriumi pealinnana.

3. Venemaa-Türgi sõda (1676–1681)

Osalejad: Vene impeerium ja Osmanite impeerium.

Põhjus: Sõda toimus peamiselt Moldova ja Ukraina piirkonnas, kus Vene keiser Peeter Suur soovis laiendada oma territooriume.

Tulemused: Sõda lõppes 1681. aasta Bachtšisaraija rahulepinguga, mille järgi Vene impeerium suutis hoida oma positsioone Lõuna-Ukrainas.

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Friedrich II (Suurest Friedrichist) – Preisi (Saksamaa)

Ametiaeg: 1740–1786

Lühikirjeldus: Friedrich Suur oli Preisi kuningas, kelle valitsemisaeg tõi Preisi Euroopa suurvõimude hulka. Ta oli väga haritud ja edendas kunstide ja teaduste arengut, olles üks suurtest valitsejatest, kes soosis valgustuslikke ideid, kuigi tema valitsemine oli siiski autoritaarne.

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1. Ooper

Ooper tekkis barokiajastul kui uus, suurt tähelepanu saanud lavamuusika žanr, mis ühendab laulu, muusikat, teatri ja tantsu. Ooperi väljakujunemisel mängis olulist rolli Itaalia helilooja Claudio Monteverdi, kelle teosed, nagu L'Orfeo (1607), on mõistetavad kui ooperi sünni hetked. Ooperis oli tihti kasutusel arias, duette, koorid, orkestrid ning ettekanne, mille kaudu edasi anti süžeed ja emotsioone.

2. Kantaat

Kantaat oli üks barokiajastu kõige populaarsemaid žanreid, mida peamiselt esitati kirikumuusika ja kodusõprade ringis. Kantaat on vokaali-orkestriline teos, mis sisaldab mitmeid liikumisi ja mis võib olla seotud kas sakraalsete või ilmalike tekstidega. Sakraalne kantaat oli tavaline kirikumuusika žanr (nt Johann Sebastian Bachi kantaatide sarjad), samas ilmalikud kantaadid sisaldasid tihti armastus- ja looduse teemasid.

3. Oratoorium

Oratoorium on suur vokaali-orkestriline teos, mis sarnaneb ooperile, kuid erinevalt ooperist ei ole seda esitatud laval, vaid pigem kontsertvormis. Oratooriumid põhinesid sageli piiblilugudel või religioossetel teemadel. Üks tuntumaid oratooriumide loojaid oli George Frideric Handel, kelle teos Messias (1741) on üks baroki tähtteoseid. Oratooriumis võib esineda soliste, koore ja orkestrit, olles seega väga suur ja rikkalik teos.

4. Concerto

Concerto oli üks barokiajastu orkestriteostest, kus eri sooloinstrumendid olid esile tõstetud orkestri taustal. Concerto grosso on üks baroki tuntumaid vorme, kus kontrastiks on suur orkester ("ripieno") ja väiksem solistide grupp ("concertino"). Sellele vormile andsid elu heliloojad nagu Arcangelo Corelli ja Antonio Vivaldi. Vivaldi teosed, nagu Neljä vuodenaikaa (The Four Seasons), on oodatud ja populaarsed kontsertteosed.

5. Fuga

Fuga on polüfooniline kompositsioonivorm, mis on väga iseloomulik barokiajastule, eriti Johann Sebastian Bachi loomingus. Fuga algab ühe teemaga, mida hiljem arendatakse ja kordatakse erinevates kõrgustes ja rütmides. See on keeruline ja harjutamiseks nõudlik žanr, kuid samas ka väga väljendusrikas ja täpselt ülesehitatud.

6. Passioon

Passioon on sakraalne vokaalteos, mis kujutab Kristuse kannatusi. Need olid eriti populaarsed kirikuõhtutundide ja suurtel kirikulõpetustel. Passioon on sageli jagatud mitmeks liikumiseks, mis sisaldavad ariasid, koore ja mõnikord ka narratiive, kus solist räägib sündmusi. Johann Sebastian Bach on tuntud oma passioonide poolest, nagu Johannese passioon ja Matteuse passioon.

7. Fantaasia ja Toccata

Fantaasia ja toccata on instrumentaalteosed, mis olid väga populaarsed barokiajastul. Need teosed ei järgnenud kindlale struktuurile ja andsid heliloojale vabaduse väljendada loovust ja virtuoossust. Toccata on kiire ja dekoratiivne teos, mis algab sageli suurte akordidega ja liigub virtuoossete passaažide kaudu. Fantaasia on pigem vabavormiline, eksperimentaalne ja tihti improvisatsiooniline.

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Mozart - Lacrimosa Laur

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J.S. Bach: Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, Cantata BWV 140: I. "Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme"

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Baroki ajastu (16.–18. sajandi algus) kandis endas suurt kontrastide ja liialdatud väljenduse aega, mis kajastus kunsti, arhitektuuri, muusika ja kirjanduse maailmas. Barokk oli seotud emotsionaalsete ja dramaatiliste elementidega, sageli kasutati suurt dekoratiivsust ja pidulikkust. Arhitektuuris ilmnesid suured, keerukad ja kõrgendatud vormid, samas kui muusikas olid suurejoonelised teosed ja keerukad harmooniad. Baroki eesmärk oli esile kutsuda tugevaid emotsioone ja imetlust, sageli läbi religioossete või võimukesksete teemade.

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Pikk, laia lõikega jakk, sageli kaunistatud pitside, kangaste ja kuldsete õmblustega. Kandis seda nii mehed kui naised.

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Suur, sageli valge ja pitsiline krae, mida kandsid nii mehed kui naised, andes riietusele luksusliku ja piduliku ilme.

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Erilised vöötkorsetid, mis kujundasid naiste keha vorme kitsaks ja kõvasti sisse tõmbunud taljaks.

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Viini klassitsismiajastu: muusika ja žanrid

Viini klassitsism oli muusikaajastu, mis kestis umbes 1750–1820. See sai nime Austria linna Viini järgi, sest just seal töötasid mitmed kuulsad heliloojad. Viini klassitsism on tähtis ajastu, kus kujunes välja palju sellest, mida täna tunneme kui klassikalist muusikat.

Muusika omadused

Viini klassitsismi muusika on:

selge ja tasakaalus

lihtne, aga ilus meloodia

sümmeetriline ja hästi üles ehitatud

sageli kindla vormiga (näiteks sonaadivorm)

Muusika pidi olema arusaadav ja meeldiv kuulata. Tähtis oli ka vormi ilu ja kord.

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klassi muusikateosed (igaüks lisab oma nime alt ühe teose sellest ajastust) 

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klassi muusikateosed (igaüks lisab oma nime alt ühe teose sellest ajastust) 

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KRISTJAN VAHTER JA MARTIN PILDER - Marvel 15s (youtube.com)

Alli ja Miia poolt https://youtu.be/9Fle2CP8gR0?feature=shared

Elina ja Sabrina poolt https://youtu.be/c977QdbTIm

Laur ja Lucas, Markus Impressionism, Music by Debussy (youtube.com)

Nelli ja Anna Debussy: La mer | Bernard Haitink and the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra (youtube.com)

KATALINA, ARINA, TAISIJA

katalina- Maurice Ravel – Bolero, conducted by Andrzej Kucybała (youtube.com)

arina-Maurice Ravel – “Pavaan surnud printsessile” (1899), Dirigent: Juan José Restrepo Duarte (youtube.com)

taisija-Debussy Violin Sonata L 140, Meri Khojayan and Robert Poortinga (youtube.com)

daniil - https://youtu.be/U-pVz2LTakMsi=ztbZLfjNXgGVMh8q

saveliy - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQRe8vjr9oQ

platon - https://youtu.be/p_0u9dLCRRY?si=MI3TvESX4c1VxEsS

ALISA-https://youtu.be/P6PKIraXpIk?si=q7euHNK2TpUrxBd6

Laur,Anna,Nelli,Markus,Lucas-Maurice Ravel:

"Boléro": Wiener Philharmoniker - Maurice Ravel - Bolero - Regente Gustavo Dudamel (HD) (youtube.com)

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Žanrid ehk muusikaliigid

Viini klassitsismi ajal olid väga populaarsed järgmised muusikažanrid:

Sümfoonia – suur orkestriteos, tihti 4 osaga (nt Haydni või Mozarti sümfooniad)

Sonaat – klaverile või mõnele pillile ja klaverile kirjutatud teos

Keelpillikvartett – muusika neljale keelpillile (2 viiulit, vioola, tšello)

Kontsert – soolopilli (nt klaver, viiul) ja orkestri koostöös loodud teos

Ooper – lauludega lavateos, nt Mozarti „Võluflööt“

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Uljana, Stefania, Liana

keeruline liikumine ja tundeküllaseid väljendusi

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Uljana, Stefania, Liana

prantsuse baroki näide, kus on rõhk on sujuvatel, idealiseeritud vormidel ja detailirohkusel

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Uljana, Stefania, Liana

väljendavad vaimse ekstaasi ja tugevaid usulisi kogemusi

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Joseph Haydn

• Klassikalise sümfoonia ja keelpillikvarteti

"isa". Viinis veetis ta olulise osa oma elust, kujundades linna muusikaelu.

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1. Religioon ja kiriku roll

Katoliku reformatsioon ja jeesuiitide mõju: Katoliku kirik vastas reformatsioonile, püüdes taastada oma autoriteeti. Jeesuiitide orden (asutatud 1534) mängis suurt rolli, luues hariduse ja misjonitööd, et vastu seista protestantlikule levikule. Jeesuiitide koolid ja missioonid ulatusid Ameerikast Aasiasse.

Püha Inquisitsioon ja galileode kohtuprotsess (1633): Galileo Galilei kohtuprotsess, kus teda süüdistati uskumatustes väidetes (näiteks Maa liikumises), kajastab kiriku võimu teaduse üle.

2. Filosoofilised liikumised

Valgustus ja ratsionalism: Barokki ajastul arenesid ka uued filosoofilised liikumised, eriti ratsionalism ja empirism. Filosoofid nagu René Descartes ja John Locke alustasid mõtteviisi, mis soodustas teaduslikku uurimist ja usku inimeste mõistusesse.

Loodusõiguste filosoofia: John Locke arendas välja teooriaid, mis hiljem mõjutasid Ameerika Ühendriikide ja Prantsusmaa revolutsioone, sealhulgas mõtted, et iga inimesel on loomuomaselt elu, vabadus ja omandiõigus.

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J.S. Bach - Toccata and Fugue in D minor BWV 565

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Uljana, Stefania, Liana

paistvad silma realismi ja keeruliste draperiidega

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Viiul on keelpillide perekonna kõige populaarsem esindaja. Viiulit nimetatakse tihti ka pillide kuningannaks. Tal on väga varjundirikas kõla ja suured mängutehnilised võimalused.

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Klavessiini kõrgaeg oli baroki- ja klassitsismiajastul. Tänapäeval kasutatakse seda instrumenti tihti vanamuusikaesitamisel.

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Oboe on piklik ja torujas pill, millel on metallist klapisüsteem heliavade avamiseks ja sulgemiseks. Oboe heliavadest 6 on lahtised, ülejäänud 16 heliava ees on metallklapid. Heliavade avamise ja sulgemisega muudetakse heli kõrgust.

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RATASLÜÜRA ehk hurdy gurdy on keskaegne keelpill, mille keeled paneb helisema nahaga ületõmmatud vändaga pööratav ratas. Ratas funktsioneerib viiulipoogna sarnaselt ning pilli kõla on lähedane viiuli omale. Meloodiat mängitakse klahvide abil, mis suruvad kiilukujulisi puitdetaile keelte vastu, muutes nende kõrgust.

Enamikul rataslüüradel on mitu burdoonkeelt, mis saadavad meloodiat samal helikõrgusel. See muudab heli torupilli heli sarnaseks ning tihti ongi rataslüürat mängitud koos torupillidega, eriti prantsuse rahvamuusikas ja tänapäeva ungari rahvamuusikas.

Taisija Ailis

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Kaarli XII (Rootsi)

Ametiaeg: 1697–1718

Lühikirjeldus: Kaarli XII valitsemine kestis Rootsis läbi keeruliste aegade, sealhulgas Põhjasõda (1700–1721), kus Rootsi riik langes suure osatähtsusega konfliktidesse Venemaa, Taani ja Poolaga. Kaarli XII oli sõjaline juht ja tuntud oma kindlameelsuse ja julmuse poolest.

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1. Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750)

Bach on üks kõige olulisemaid heliloojaid baroki ajastul, olles tuntud oma täiusliku kontrapunktilise stiili ja keerukate kompositsioonide poolest.

Tuntud teosed:

"Brandenburgi kontserdid" (BWV 1046–1051) – Seeria kuuest kontserdist, mis on üks Bach’i tuntumaid teoseid. Need kontserdid on heaks näiteks baroki ajastu orkestritehnika ja solistide virtuoossuse kohta.

"Matthäuspassion" (BWV 244) – Üks Bach’i suurimaid ja kõige emotsionaalsemaid teoseid, mis räägib Jeesuse kannatustest ja surmast.

"Toccata ja fuuga d-mollis" (BWV 565) – Üks Bach’i kõige tuntumaid teoseid, mis on populaarne ka tänapäeval, eriti oma dramaatilise ja muljetavaldava alguse poolest.

Martin Pilder; Timur Parno

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Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

• Geenius, kes komponeeris üle 600 teose, sealhulgas sumfooniaid, oopereid ja

kammermuusikat. Viin oli tema

loomingulise tegevuse keskus.

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Ludwig van Beethoven

• Üks suurimaid romantismiajastu teerajajaid. Viinis lôi ta oma tähtsamad sumfooniad ja klaveriteosed.

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Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741) oli üks silmapaistvamaid baroki heliloojaid ja violiniste, kelle teosed on endiselt väga populaarsed ja sageli esitatud. Vivaldi on eriti tuntud oma orkestriteoste, eriti kontsertide poolest, ning tema muusika on täis energiat, tehnilist virtuoossust ja selget struktuuri.

Tuntud teosed:

1. "Aastaajad" (Le quattro stagioni)
Vivaldi kõige kuulsam ja esitatud teos on "Aastaajad", mis on neljast kontserdist koosnev tsükkel, kus iga kontsert kajastab ühte aastaaega. Iga teos on täis toredat muusikalist kujutamist looduse, ilmastiku ja meeleolude kohta.

Kevad – Täis elu ja õitsengut, hõlmates metamorfoosi, kevadist tormi ja lindude laulmist.

Suvi – Ekstreemne soojus, torm ja rahutus, samuti suveöö rahu.

Sügis – Saagi aeg, tantsud ja pidustused, aga ka rahulikkus ja väsimus pärast tööd.

Talv – Külma talve jõhkrus, jääkülmad tuuled ja seejärel sooja tule ümber istumine.

2. "Violini kontsert d-mollis" (RV 230)
See teos on iseloomulik Vivaldi kontsertide stiilile – virtuoosne, dünaamiline ja täis kiiret liikumist. Vivaldi oli tuntud oma tehniliselt nõudlike ja värvikate violinipartii poolest, mis rõhutab sooloinstrumenti ja orkestri koostoimet.

3. "Gloria" (RV 589)
Vivaldi "Gloria" on üks tema tähtsamaid kooriteoseid, mis sisaldab helget ja jõulist muusikat. Seda oratooriumi esitavad tihti suured koorid ja orkestrid ning see teos on populaarne kirikus ja kontsertidel.

4. "Concerto for Two Violins in D Minor" (RV 514)
See on teine väga populaarne kontsert, kus Vivaldi demonstreerib oma oskust kirjutada kahele viiulile intrigeeriv ja keerukas dialoog.

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1) Inspireeritud antiigist:
- Kunstnikud ammutasid inspiratsiooni Vana-Kreeka ja Rooma kunstist ning mütoloogiast.
- Rõhutati ideaalset ilu, harmooniat ja proportsioone.
2) Teemad ja sümboolika:
- Moraalsed ja kangelaslikud teemad, näiteks voorus, patriotism ja kohusetunne.
- Sageli kujutati ajaloolisi, mütoloogilisi või allegoorilisi stseene.
3) Stiil ja tehnika:
- Lihtsad ja sümmeetrilised kompositsioonid.
- Selged jooned ja täpne vorm; detailide realism.
- Dramaatiline, kuid tasakaalukas valgustus.
4) Värvigamma:
- Kasutati mahedaid ja harmoonilisi värve, vältides baroki liialdusi.
5) Ajastu roll:
- Klassitsistlik maalikunst oli vastureaktsioon baroki ja rokokooga seotud üleküllusele.
- Tõusis eriti esile Prantsuse revolutsiooni ja Napoleoni ajastul, kuna sobis poliitilise ja sotsiaalse reformi vaimuga.

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1) Kuulsad kunstnikud ja teosed:
- Jacques-Louis David: “Horatiuste vanne”, “Marat’ surm”.

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- Angelica Kauffman: “Cornelia, Gracchuste ema, näitab oma lapsi kui aardeid”.

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- Anton Raphael Mengs: “Parnassus”

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https://youtu.be/tF5kr251BRs?feature=shared

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Mozart - Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K. 550 [complete]

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Flööt

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Tšello

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Klaver

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Artemisia II of Caria skulptuur, mis kuulub Viini klassikalise ajastu kunstiteoste hulka, on erakordne näide ajastu kunstilisest täpsusest ja esteetilisest ideaalist. See portree kajastab Artemisia II tugevust ja väärikust kui Caria valitsejat, kuid samas ka ajastu ideaalset ilmekust ja harmooniat. Skulptuuris kajastub klassikalise kunstivoolu püüdlus tasakaalu, ilu ja inimkeha täiuslikkuse poole. Sellised teosed, nagu see skulptuur, olid iseloomulikud Viini klassikalisele perioodile, kus kunsti eesmärgiks oli viia edasi antiikaja idealiseeritud vorme, samas andes neile isikupärase ja ajastuomase täpsuse.

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Carl Kundmann, Josef Tautenhayn ja Hugo Haerdtl, Baron von Hanseni plaanide järgi

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Aeneas Escaping Troy skulptuur Schönbrunni aias kujutab mütoloogilist hetke, kus Aeneas põgeneb Trooja linnast, kandes oma isa Anchisesi ja poja Ascaniase elude päästmiseks. Skulptuur väljendab liikumist ja perekondlike sidemete tähtsust, olles täiuslik näide Viini klassikalise ajastu kunstist. See teos on osa Schönbrunni palee aiast, kus aastatel 1773–1780 loodud skulptuuride komplekt esindab mütoloogilisi teemasid. Johann Wilhelm Beyeri juhendamisel valmisid need teosed, sealhulgas Aenease skulptuur, mis sobib suurepäraselt klassikalise ilu ja tasakaalu idealiseeritud kujutamisega, mida see ajastu esindas.