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The most revealing aspect I learned about Ebola Virus Disease is how quickly it was able to spread leading to over 28,000 cases in a short period of time. The modes of transmission combined with high virulence allow the disease to spread like a wildfire. Something that surprised me about EVD is that the total economic and societal burden was over $53 billion. This made me curious about the total economic and societal burden of the COVID-19 pandemic as there was a lot more PPE  distributed, more vaccines developed, more jobs lost, and more hospitals at full capacity. Many of the strategical tactics used during the COVID-19 pandemic were learned from or based upon takeaways from the EVD epidemic. Something I came across in my research that I think could be included in the Padlet assignment in the future is the long-term health effects of Ebola Virus Disease including headaches, eye problems, and joint pain. Many survivors of EVD suffer from chronic health problems such as these, making a large impact on their daily lives.

https://www.fda.gov/emergency-preparedness-and-response/mcm-regulatory-science/survivor-studies-better-understanding-ebolas-after-effects-help-find-new-treatments#:~:text=Many%20of%20the%20recent%20epidemic's,eye%20problems%20caused%20by%20Ebola.&text=Scientists%20do%20not%20yet%20fully%20understand%20what%20causes%20these%20after%2Deffects.

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The Ugandan Ministry of Health declared a new outbreak of Ebola on 20 September 2022. To prevent the virus from spreading throughout the country, the Uganda Red Cross Society (URCS) is supporting with contact tracing, community-based surveillance, risk communication and community engagement, ambulance services, and safe and dignified burials. Through this Emergency Appeal, the IFRC is supporting the URCS to scale up its activities, targeting a total of 2.7 million people. We are also working with Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies in neighbouring countries to help them prepare in case the outbreak spreads.

Read more about epidemics and pandemics

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The Ugandan Ministry of Health declared a new outbreak of Ebola on 20 September 2022. To prevent the virus from spreading throughout the country, the Uganda Red Cross Society (URCS) is supporting with contact tracing, community-based surveillance, risk communication and community engagement, ambulance services, and safe and dignified burials.

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The 2014 Ebola Virus Disease outbreak posed a large economic burden on society. The total economic and social burden is estimated to be slightly over $53 billion. The disease also lead to loss in agricultural production which lead to food insecurity for many individuals. EVD also had a major impact on the healthcare system and the healthcare workers themselves working on the frontlines to protect and treat people. Specifically, "Libera lost 8% of its doctors, nurses, and midwives to Ebola (CDC)." Due to almost 20% of cases of EVD being in children, the disease also affected many schools. Some schools closed between 2014-2015, and therefore students lost over 1,800 hours of education (CDC). The disease also had many sociological impacts such as widespread fear and stigma. This, in turn lead to consequences which lower morale in society such as reduced community cohesion and job losses. Certain society behaviors also changed as a result of Ebola Virus Disease. For example, hand washing and other caretaking practices increased in communities. Other more negative consequences ensued such as distrust of the government. One of the most important takeaways from the physical effect of Ebola Virus Disease was that the healthcare system needed to become more universal so that everyone could have access to basic healthcare. Also, being better prepared for a potential healthcare crisis by being proactive and preventative were other important takeaways for the future of medicine and society.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30321368/
https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/history/2014-2016-outbreak/cost-of-ebola.html#:~:text=In%20addition%20to%20the%20devastating,Tuberculosis

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7111626/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468227622004173
https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-023-15559-1
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4354058/

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The Democratic Republic of Congo declares over the thirteenth Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak - Africa CDC

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ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA, 16 December 2021. On the 16th December 2021, the Minister of Health of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) declared the end of the 13th Ebola virus disease (EVD) outbreak. This is the second EVD outbreak reported this year from the DRC.

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To handle the 2014 outbreak of Ebola Virus Disease, President Obama sent more than 3,000 DOD, CDC, USAID and other health officials to Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea. These health officials constructed Ebola treatment units, as well as provided a surplus of personal protective equipment and other relief supplies. Also, individuals traveling in between the U.S. and locations with a high number of cases were subject to airport screening. In the United States, the government worked to increase testing, educated health care workers about the disease, developed the Ebola vaccine, and more. Over $900 million was allocated towards fighting the disease. The World Health Organization not only worked to prevent outbreaks through surveillance such as contact tracing and disease detection, but they also supported at-risk countries through reducing the risk of wildlife-to-human transmission, human-to-human transmission, and more. In 2015, U.S. Global Development Lab invented protective suits which were described as “state-of-the-art cooling vests” to fight against the Ebola epidemic in West Africa (Shah). This organization also invented lotions which had the ability to repel Ebola virus. More innovative initiatives used to combat EVD include the Research and Development Blueprint initiative created in 2016. This initiative allowed for fast-tracking of effective tests, vaccines, and treatments. With any health crisis, there are always things leadership could have done differently in order to better control the disease. For EVD, most funding went towards combatting the disease. Unfortunately, the humanitarian emergency which was a consequence of the outbreak was overlooked. Many families found that food security, livelihoods, and education were neglected during this time period. Also, critics have said that the international response to Ebola was slower than it should have been as the health systems were already overwhelmed. With any disease outbreak, there are always important take-always and things to improve on for the future.

References:
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-virus-disease

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/ebola-response

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2015/01/16/how-innovation-transforming-fight-against-ebola

https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/ebola-then-and-now

https://odi.org/en/insights/covid-19-five-lessons-from-ebola/

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In order to limit the spread of Ebola Virus Disease during the major 2014 outbreak, healthcare workers focused on controlling the epidemic at its source in West Africa. In the US, healthcare workers increased the number of Ebola testing labs, spread education about how to identify, isolate, diagnose, and care for patients diagnosed with Ebola, converted around 10 Ebola Treatment Centers into long-term regional Ebola and Pandemic Treatment Centers, and helped stated and local public health systems improve there preparedness for Ebola. Two vaccines for ebola virus disease entered phase 1 development in 2014. Both vaccines are based on insertion of a glycoprotein gene into a viral vector. The FDA approved the single dose vaccine, Ervebo, in December of 2019.  The FDA also approved two treatments available for adults and children. The drugs, named Inmazeb and Ebanga, are combinations of monoclonal antibodies, and prevent the virus from entering the infected individual's cells. New technology used to collect microorganisms from the air arose during this outbreak as well. Researchers developed filters which can detect Ebola virus in air samples, allowing for a 'better understanding of the aerosol hazard of the virus' (U.S. Department of Homeland Security). Testing for Ebola Virus Disease has also evolved. A technology formerly used to detect tuberculosis, GeneXpert, was adapted to be able to test for Ebola. Another test, OraQuick, was deployed and could test for Ebola in 30 minutes.

https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/transmission/index.html

https://www.who.int/groups/global-advisory-committee-on-vaccine-safety/topics/ebola-virus-vaccines

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/ebola-response

https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/treatment/index.html

https://www.dhs.gov/science-and-technology/news/2021/04/20/feature-article-new-tech-makes-detecting-airborne-ebola-virus-possible
https://www.afro.who.int/news/new-technology-allows-rapid-diagnosis-ebola-democratic-republic-congo#:~:text=One%20of%20the%20technologies%20being,malaria%2C%20STIs%2C%20and%20Ebola.

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Virulence is the ability of an infectious agent to cause disease or damage in its host. Ebola Virus Disease is described as a highly virulent pathogen. The case fatality rate (CFR) of a disease is a measure of virulence as it is the proportion of people who die from a disease among all individuals who have been infected over a specific period of time. The case fatality rate for EVD is around 50% and has ranged between 25-90% amongst all outbreaks. In 1976 when the disease was first reported in the Democratic Republic of Congo, the CFR was 88%. The outbreak in Sudan during that same time had a CFR of 53%. The difference in CFRs between these two outbreaks is largely due to the differing species of EVD. The outbreak in Uganda in 2007 had a CFR of 25% and the outbreak starting 2014 is around 70%. Currently, the CFR of EVD ranges between 55-60%. These varying percentages of CFR for EVD can be attributed to the disease evolving over time in order to balance evolutionary trade-offs and selective pressures.

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-virus-disease
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4642951/
https://www.paho.org/en/topics/ebola-virus-disease

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Ebola virus disease was discovered in 1976 when two outbreaks of fatal hemorrhagic fever occurred in Central Africa. The first detection was in the Democratic Republic of Congo in a village near the Ebola River. The second was in South Sudan, which was around 500 miles away from the first detection. The suspected infectious agent was a virus. Ebola virus disease is considered to be an emerging zoonotic disease. These types of diseases are newly appearing in the population in which they affect or they existed prior to detection, but are rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range. They are also spread between people and animals.

https://www.niaid.nih.gov/research/emerging-infectious-diseases-pathogens#:~:text=Emerging%20infectious%20diseases%20can%20be,B%2C%20or%20C%20priority%20pathogens.

https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/history/summaries.html

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Ebola Virus Disease had its first outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo its second in South Sudan, both occurring in 1976. The next cases of the disease were detected in the United Kingdom, specifically in England that same year. The virus continued to spread amongst these areas, but was detected in 1994 on west coast of Africa. By 1996 the disease had spread to Russia as well as South Africa. In 2000 east Africa was among this group as well. Between 2000 and 2012, the Republic of Congo, South Sudan, Russia, and Uganda all reported cases of Ebola Virus Disease. In December 2013, a case of the disease was reported in a village in Guinea. More cases followed leading to fatalities, and by January 2014 a medical alert was issued. An official outbreak of the disease was declared by the WHO in March of 2014. The virus quickly spread to Liberia and Sierra Leone. In August, the WHO declared the situation in West Africa a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. Following this declaration, the virus spread to Italy, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Spain, the UK, and the US. After around 2 years of illness and fatalities, countries began declaring as 'Ebola-free'. From this outbreak, over 28,000 cases and 11,325 fatalities were reported.

https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/history/2014-2016-outbreak/index.html

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Ebola Virus Disease affects humans as well as nonhuman primates. It was discovered in the late 1970s in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The viruses that cause Ebola Virus Disease spreads through direct contact with blood, body fluids, and tissues. Ebola Virus spreads through direct contact with infected persons. The viruses that cause the disease are in the genus Ebolavirus and the family Filoviridae, and there are six known species.