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*ೃ༄ The Role of Female Beauty Standards in Renaissance Italy - Dayanna Clavel .ೃ࿐

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*ೃ༄ The Role of Female Beauty Standards in Renaissance Italy - Dayanna Clavel .ೃ࿐

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✧˚ · .❝ Beauty was seen as a women duty ❞ ˚ · .✧

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🎀 Beauty 🎀

: ̗̀➛ Just to win over males, women would endeavor to be beautiful. Being pretty was no longer regarded as a characteristic that only some women possessed, but rather as something that all women should strive to obtain. Men considered it a severe failure of the marriage if she failed to uphold a standard of attractiveness. ·˚ ༘

: ̗̀➛ The standards for female beauty in the Renaissance were just as strict as those today. The ideal woman was intended to have a high white forehead, long, wavy golden blonde hair, and dark brown eyes. ·˚ ༘

🫧 Hygiene 🫧

: ̗̀➛ Health risks developed as society advanced over the 20th century to include greater industry, frequent overcrowding, and two global wars. In order to encourage residents to practice excellent hygiene for a healthier society, governments established programs. ·˚ ༘

: ̗̀➛  Personal hygiene was reconstructed through Christian belief and practice, becoming more strongly connected with the health of the soul. Hence, traditional sanitary dietary guidelines evolved into condemnations of the "sins" of overeating and intoxication. The two defining features of hygiene at this period were self-help and an escalating asceticism. ·˚ ༘

🌸 Cosmetology 🌸

: ̗̀➛ The Renaissance was a period of European culture that started in Florence in the 1400s, expanded across the majority of the continent, and lasted through the first decades of the 16th century. The idea of what was considered beautiful altered because the Renaissance era was characterized by an idolization of the works of art and literature produced by the ancient civilizations of Rome and Greece. ·˚ ༘

: ̗̀➛ The ssavy Renaissance beauty had unique hair preferences. The upper-class sophisticate desired a high hairline since at the time, a wide, high forehead was considered to be a crucial component of beauty. In order to get the desired impression, many women who did not have naturally high foreheads pluck their hairlines. ·˚ ༘

: ̗̀➛ White lead, mercury, and vermilion powders were used in Renaissance cosmetics (derived from cinnabar). Pallor was highly prized by women at this time. Women who lacked the required pale ivory skin utilized white lead powder to make up for their lack of it. Also remaining fair, the cheeks required a slight shine. The white lead powder would occasionally include mercury before being applied to the cheek area to provide the desired result. Moreover, some Renaissance ladies utilized white lead powder that had been mixed with mercury to emphasize their bust lines. ·˚ ༘

: ̗̀➛ The Secreti Medicinali, a collection of recipes by Pietro Bairo, features a wide range of recipes for beauty products in addition to treatments for conditions including toothaches and hemorrhoids. These recipes are not just for women; many of them claim to treat hair loss and boldness. Some of them try to whiten teeth or tint white hair black again. Nonetheless, the majority of the recipes cater to the conventional standards for female attractiveness. ·˚ ༘

: ̗̀➛ Not only were women at risk for skin burns and eye infections when they attempted to meet society's ideals for beauty. They might also face moral judgment. Christian religion holds that wearing makeup to enhance your beauty could be harmful to the condition of your immortal soul. ·˚ ༘

: ̗̀➛ The value of a woman was determined by her interactions with men, including her husband, father, and God. One intriguing and crucial aspect of this period is the belief that a wife's behavior and appearance should represent her husband's rank. Women during this time period did everything they could to maintain a healthy, attractive appearance since not only was her reputation at risk, but also that of her spouse. ·˚ ༘

: ̗̀➛  For the desired effect, many women who lacked a naturally high forehead pluck their hairlines. Other women chose to wear jeweled turbans or hats, which were also common at the time, to conceal their hairlines. Most Renaissance ladies braided their hair, frequently in quite intricate designs, and pulled it back close against their skin behind their head covering. ·˚ ༘

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Video
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZqPnFj997Bk&t=459s ೄྀ࿐ ˊˎ-

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Arms, Weapons, and Dueling - Renato Chubok

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Arms, Weapons, and Dueling - Renato Chubok

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Bladed weapons, such as swords and daggers, were the most common objects owned, but knives, crossbows, polearms, and firearms were also during the time of the Renaissance.

The Renaissance era saw the rise of the first guns in Western Europe, and they changed the face of warfare forever.

Duels would be a way of restoring one's honor by demonstrating a willingness to face death. Duels began as a way to settle personal disagreements outside of a court of law.

Armour was a profoundly personal art form for the Renaissance knights and noblemen who wore it. It not only protected them in combat, but it also identified them, setting them apart from other men and broadcasting all sorts of complex visual messages

One of the deadliest weapons of the Elizabethan Weapon was the Rapier. The rapier was the favorite among the swords that were in practice. Although the sword was wider, it was, slender, and more sharply pointed. Hence trained soldiers preferred the rapier the most.

Soldiers were required to learn to fence with different kinds of swords which included broadswords, cutting swords, and rapiers. After the training, the same things were used even in the war.

The Pike was much appreciated among the Renaissance weapons. It was one of the simplest of weapons, being merely a long, narrow, lance-like head of steel strengthened by lengthy strips of metal, which ran for a considerable distance down the pole, rendering it almost immune from sword cuts.

As you raise in ranks, your armor, and clothing were different from the other men that would go to war with you. Some would wear plate amour and some would wear chainlink amour.

People used to have tournaments to see among the people who were the best swordsmen and most likely were respected for their ability to handle a weapon with such perfection. People still do it to this day but wear protective armor.

Overall weapons were widely used and if you didn't know how to use one then you must learn quickly since Europe was constantly at war.

Arms and Armor in Renaissance Europe

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Elizabethan style demanded a tight upper body paired with a voluminous lower body.

For men, linen underclothes shirt and long shorts were often embroidered and given lace decoration.

An alternative to the kirtle was wearing a series of light skirts

Children of the wealthy were typically dressed as if they were miniature adults

the higher ranks being able to wear gold cloth.

All of the dye used for coloring fabrics in the Elizabethan era were produced from natural sources like woad, madder, lichen and weld

The materials worn during the Elizabethan era provided instant information about the status of the person wearing them.

some of the shoes they wore were clogs they were a wooden shoe made for outdoors,Pinsons are a safe shoe

the ruff was a white collar the men and women,children wore as a fashional piece

Former ages were rarely keen on washing. A deodorant could be made from camomile, wormwood and alum, which may have worked

https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1577/clothes-in-the-
elizabethan-era/

https://www.bl.uk/shakespeare/articles/clothing-in-
elizabethan-england

https://historicalbritain.org/2013/07/22/elizabethan-ruffs

https://www.elizabethan-era.org.uk/elizabethan-shoes.htm

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When you think about Arms and Weapons, the first reaction is usually war. Arms and armor used for warfare back in the renaissance must be practical for the soldiers, providing protection and functionality without giving them a disadvantage in battle. Anything extra would increase the weight of the armor without providing extra protection and it's a stupid thing to do when you are fighting for your life.

However, armors designed for practical uses are often decorated if the decorations do not impede their functions.

Aside from war, tournaments were also a popular exercise where combatants would use the same equipment they use for war. Different from war, extra protection and dulled lance heads were introduced as a way of protection for the participants.

With the constant evolution of weapons and armor on the battlefields, some outdated gear is still continued to be used in tournaments. This eventually led to the development of specialized armor designed for tournaments instead of war. Some specially designed armor called garnitures can be adapted for both battle fields and tournaments depending on the addition of different pieces and plates.

Different from tournaments, duels were "an encounter between two or more individuals with equal numbers on each side that results in combat where both parties are equally armed..." In official and Judicial duels where the two sides are accompanied by judges and spectators, they would search for hidden weapons, armor, and even amulets because of witchcraft.

Other than the entertaining and fair judicial dues, extra-judicial duels are considered criminal offenses. It was so bad that even churches in the 1600s threaten ex-communication for those individuals taking part in duels. Also stating that those who were killed in a duel could not be buried in hallowed ground.

Weapons during the Renaissance in England were not as powerful as the firearms we owned today, not only was it legal to carry weapons around with them, weapons were a crucial part of a man's wardrobe.

People were allowed to carry anything from swords and daggers to crossbows, polearms(Pole weapons), and even firearms(Muskets) if they could afford it. Picking out a weapon was like picking a shirt from your wardrobe, but the most popular was always the sword.

The earlier double-edged sword to cut and hack

The 1530s "trusting" swords(The one Hamlet used in the movie) were lighter with pointed blades.

Best of all, rapiers, it was long, thin, sharp, flexible, and it had a hand guard.

As weapons become more regularly fixed in a man's wardrobe, some people wanted to be special. Sword belts, scabbards, hilts, and other accessories can be tailored to complement existing outfits. They could adore their weapons with etchings, precious metals, jewels, and even 680 diamonds if they had the money.

With everyone carrying weapons in the streets, chain mail sleeves were also invented as a defense mechanism. It is made of 28,000–50,000 iron links that could be hidden under clothing or added to the lining of a jacket or vest.

Apart from the normal weapons, there were some of the swords, maces, firearms, shields, and armor are made for decoration and ceremonial purposes. Intending to imitate the styles used by heroic figures, many protective features have been abandoned for theatrical and symbolic effect.

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Science and Alchemy (The Four Humours) - Julian Elezaj

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Science and Alchemy (The Four Humours) - Julian Elezaj

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Alchemy was popular in England from the Middle Ages through the 17th century and was practiced by scholars (William Backhouse, Edmund Dickinson), scientists (Isaac Newton), and clergy. It is considered a means of understanding how nature works and converting base metals into gold or other precious metals.

Francis Bacon, a British philosopher, and statesman was a key figure in the development of the scientific method based on the belief that knowledge should be based on empirical observation (based on observation and experience) rather than on ancient texts or abstract reasoning.

The Scientific Revolution wrecked religious teachings as the heliocentric model was developed against the geocentric model taught by the church, and the scientific method, which encouraged observation rather than relying on supernatural explanations.

William Harvey, an English physician, and naturalist made significant contributions to the understanding of the circulatory system and established that the heart was a pump, that pumped blood throughout our body, based on his dissections of animals.

Many alchemist books focused on transmutation, the conversion of ordinary metals, such as iron, copper, and mercury, into precious metals such as gold, silver, and platinum.

One of the oldest scientific and academic societies known as the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge was founded in 1660, in England during the Scientific Revolution. It was founded by a group of scientists, notably Robert Boyle and John Wilkins. Its main focus was to promote the scientific method and increase scientific knowledge through experimentation and observation. In addition, famed mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton served as the president of the Royal Society from 1703 to 1727.

Galileo Galilei, an Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer, was a crucial figure in the explosion of the Scientific Revolution. Galileo's telescope, one of the most powerful at the time, helped him observe space and back up the Heliocentric theory, causing the church to threaten him with torture if he did not recant his beliefs. He was sentenced to house arrest for life by the Catholic Church.

Many scientists of the Renaissance era, such as Leonardo Da Vinci, were also accomplished in other fields of study such as engineering but were also renounced, as painters and artists.

Alchemy was not just practiced in Europe during the Renaissance era. The Islamic World and China also made significant contributions to this field.

Isaac Newton's masterpiece, Principia Mathematica, solved the problems posed by Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo. It proposed the concept of gravity and the laws of planetary motion which have been the standard for physics and astronomy to this day.

Sources:
“The Scientific Revolution.” YouTube, 14 July 2019, https://youtu.be/w70BkCqgyyI. Accessed 15 Mar. 2023.

“Alchemy: History of Science.” YouTube, YouTube, 11 June 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gxiLuz9kHi0&amp;ab_channel=CrashCourse. Accessed 15 Mar. 2023.

McKay, John P., et al. “Chapter 16: Toward a New World View.” A History of Western Society, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, Massachusetts, 2007, pp. 502–539.

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Old Elizabethan Recipes                    Amaya C.

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Old Elizabethan Recipes                    Amaya C.

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The tomato, the potato, and turkey were one of the first kinds of foods introduced in the New World.

Sugar had been imported to England, and are originally obtained from sugar cane.

For someone who wasn't financially right, a fast food meal was a blessing.

The early Crusaders had some of the Eastern cookeries in England that needed spices like pepper, cinnamon, mace, ginger, cloves, raisins, saffron, and sugar.

In old times the people who didn't have money could only rely on the leftovers from the pies and tarts they bought from the street.

Spices were really expensive so only upper-class people could buy and use them in their recipes.

Some plants and Herbs used are Avens, Purslane, Orach, Rose Hips, and so much more.

Water was not the safest thing to drink, Ale and beer were safer to drink.

Almond milk was a big part of Elizabeth's bakery recipes, this was the base and/or the thickening agent of most of the recipes.

The wine was originally imported from Spain, France, Greece, Madeira, and other different countries.

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₊˚ପ⊹ Links & Citations ✧.*

╰┈➤ ೄྀ࿐ ˊˎ-
https://www.historyhit.com/culture/female-beauty-renaissance/

Roller, Sarah. “The Role of Female Beauty Standards in Renaissance Italy.” History Hit, History Hit, 7 Nov. 2022, https://www.historyhit.com/culture/female-beauty-renaissance/.

╰┈➤ ೄྀ࿐ ˊˎ-https://science.jrank.org/pages/9721/Hygiene-Middle-Ages-Renaissance-200-1700-C-E.html

“Hygiene - the Middle Ages and Renaissance, 200–1700 C.E.” The Middle Ages And Renaissance, 200–1700 C.e. - Regimens, Practice, Medical, and Hygienic - JRank Articles, https://science.jrank.org/pages/9721/Hygiene-Middle-Ages-Renaissance-200-1700-C-E.html.

╰┈➤ ೄྀ࿐ ˊˎ-http://www.thebeautybiz.com/78/article/history/beauty-through-ages-renaissance

“Beauty through the Ages - the Renaissance.” The Beauty Biz - Article, http://www.thebeautybiz.com/78/article/history/beauty-through-ages-renaissance.

╰┈➤ ೄྀ࿐ ˊˎ-https://www.leidenmedievalistsblog.nl/articles/makeup-and-female-beauty-standards-in-renaissance-italy

“Makeup and Female Beauty Standards in Renaissance Italy.” Universiteit Leiden, 10 July 2020, https://www.leidenmedievalistsblog.nl/articles/makeup-and-female-beauty-standards-in-renaissance-italy.

╰┈➤ ೄྀ࿐ ˊˎ-
https://www.eviemagazine.com/post/the-weird-and-dangerous-beauty-standards-of-renaissance-italy

Sydel, Simone. “The Weird and Dangerous Beauty Standards of Renaissance Italy.” Evie Magazine, Https://Images.ctfassets.net/ydv6sq0kb5bw/VPXcVUzPNoYjdNmMuwo8m/a2be598830e9b26d963308c6e3cab05b/Evie-Logo.png, 4 Nov. 2021, https://www.eviemagazine.com/post/the-weird-and-dangerous-beauty-standards-of-renaissance-italy.

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THANK YOU ┊͙ ˘͈ᵕ˘͈

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Back in the Renaissance there were a lot of punishment the most punishment you will get is the pillory – the criminal stood with his head and his hands through holes in a wooden plank.  and the people will throw things at them while they are in the wooden plank.

One of the most painful punishment was that the offender will get his or her ear off or get nailed into the the pillory.

In the Renaissance there was a crime punishment you will get and that was a sentence of whipping meaning that you will get whip in the offender’s back was laid open raw and bloody, as they will  staggered along the appointed route through the city.

There were also burning as a punishment and also hanging that left the  Renaissance people chain up and left to death.

There was this object that could really brake your whole body and it's called the torture rack which is most widely used instrument of torture, designed to stretch the victim’s body, eventually dislocating the limbs and ripping them from their sockets. At the Tower it was also known as the Duke of Exciter's Daughter, as it was claimed to be the invention of the Duke, a Constable of the Tower in the 15th century.

The Tower of London served primary as a royal places and a place of imprisonment for those accused of treason or other serious crimes it was also the site of many executions.

There was some crimes that could've commit for the women it will be that Women who murdered their husbands, though, were burned at the stake.

For the men will be would uselessly be hanging and if they a thief or do rape, and arson were also capital offenses. meaning if they found guilty they get hang or get there  heads off.

In the tower of London there was no prison or jail when it exist so there was and if they did not pay there debts could also be confined in jail.

Heretics means A  person believing in or practicing religious heresy. means that will get burned to death at the stake and if they are traitors they will get  hanged for a short period and cut down while they were still alive. They were then disemboweled and their intestines were thrown into a fire or a pot of boiling water. Next, their arms and legs were cut off. Finally, they were beheaded.

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Theater & Costumes -                                                 Jazelle Shipton

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Theater & Costumes -                                                 Jazelle Shipton

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Actors & Costumes -
Actors performed nearly continually of the temporal length of occurrence or entity's life. As skilled was a fast switch middle from two points performances, little former abandoned for rehearsals, goal the performers needed good hopes.

Female Roles -
In the Elizabethan day, girls were prohibited from acting in plays. Instead, young fellows performed the mothers.

Costumes & Makeup -
The suits used by these performers were very expensive and commonly created in coloured cloths to a degree sleek, fabric and understand.

Similarities and Differences to the 21st Century -
Unlike the stars of the Elizabethan era, actors at this time are well respected and highly rewarded. Theatre actors generally give months rehearsing a play then act twice a day for any of weeks. Many women are actors and are frequently paid quite abundant amounts of money, unlike the young guys who played women in Shakespearean times.

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in 1613 someone set off a cannon in the theater and the building caught fire and burnt down

We had to fight for special permission to have our thatched roof, as there has been a law against thatched buildings in London since the Great Fire of 1666!

There’s a trapdoor on the bottom of the stage that leads to “hell” and one above the stage that leads to “heaven”

The Globe Theater was built by the two brothers, Richard and Cuthburt Burbage.

The first ever Shakespeare play was the Julius Ceasar play in 1599.

The current theatre only stands a couple yards away from the original theatre.

Some parts of The Globe Theatre that was built in the renaissance era was built from stolen timbers.

Shakespeare was a part-owner of The Globe Theatre. He owned about 13% of the theatre.

"The Globe" is a reference to Hercules who carried the Earth on his back. He was and is still very famous in classical Greek mythology.

Since there were no actresses allowed, all the roles and plays were performed by male actors.

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𝓐𝓼𝓱𝓲𝔂𝓪𝓱 𝓛𝓪𝔀𝓻𝓮𝓷𝓬𝓮 

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𝓐𝓼𝓱𝓲𝔂𝓪𝓱 𝓛𝓪𝔀𝓻𝓮𝓷𝓬𝓮 

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𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐰𝐞𝐝𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐞𝐬, 𝐰𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐡 𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐥𝐮𝐝𝐞 𝐚 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐬, 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐜𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬, 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐬, 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐬, 𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐬, 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐬, 𝐦𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐝𝐚𝐲𝐬. 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐨𝐥𝐝 𝐫𝐨𝐦𝐚𝐧 𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐬𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐬 𝐡𝐨𝐧𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐰𝐚𝐬 𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐢𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐡 𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐲.

𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐰𝐞𝐝𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐜𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐰𝐚𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐬𝐭 𝐩𝐮𝐛𝐥𝐢𝐜 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐠𝐞, 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐚𝐮𝐠𝐡𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐡𝐮𝐬𝐛𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐡𝐮𝐬𝐛𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐨 𝐡𝐢𝐬 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐬𝐞.

𝐁𝐞𝐜𝐚𝐮𝐬𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐚𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐟𝐚𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐛𝐫𝐢𝐝𝐞 𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐨𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐝𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐬, 𝐰𝐞𝐝𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐬 𝐛𝐞𝐜𝐚𝐦𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐫𝐞 𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐝𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐑𝐞𝐧𝐚𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞. 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐚 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐰𝐞𝐝𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐯𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐲 𝐢𝐬 𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐚𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧𝐢 (𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐜𝐡𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐬)𝐖𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐚 𝐯𝐞𝐢𝐧 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐫 𝐥𝐞𝐟𝐭 𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐬 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐭, 𝐰𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐡 𝐢𝐬 𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐚𝐭 𝐰𝐞𝐝𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬.
𝐌𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐜𝐫𝐢𝐛𝐞𝐝 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐛𝐚𝐧𝐝, 𝐮𝐬𝐮𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲 𝐢𝐧 𝐅𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐡 𝐨𝐫 𝐋𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧. 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐬𝐞 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐮𝐬𝐮𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲  𝐛𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐟:

𝐋𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐮𝐞
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐫
𝐖𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐥𝐨𝐯𝐞

𝐃𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐞, 𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐩𝐨𝐨𝐫 𝐰𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐦𝐚𝐲 𝐠𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐫 𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐫𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐟𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐚 𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠. 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐦𝐚𝐲 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐛𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐬𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐝 𝐝𝐨𝐰𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐠𝐡 𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐨𝐦𝐞 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐬𝐞𝐡𝐨𝐥𝐝𝐬.

𝐃𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐞, 𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐩𝐨𝐨𝐫 𝐰𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐦𝐚𝐲 𝐠𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐫 𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐖𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐫 𝐡𝐮𝐬𝐛𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐬. 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐲 𝐰𝐨𝐦𝐚𝐧 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐬 𝐭𝐨 𝐛𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐝𝐞𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝 𝐨𝐧 𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐥𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐠𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐥𝐢𝐟𝐞.

𝐌𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧𝐬 𝐛𝐞𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐢𝐧 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐲𝐨𝐮𝐫 𝐨𝐰𝐧 𝐡𝐨𝐦𝐞.

𝐂𝐨𝐮𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐧𝐨𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐰𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐝 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐫 𝐰𝐞𝐝𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐞𝐯𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐥𝐞𝐬. 𝐑𝐞𝐧𝐚𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐰𝐞𝐝𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐰𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐬𝐭 𝐥𝐢𝐤𝐞𝐥𝐲 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞 𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐚 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐩𝐞𝐥 𝐨𝐫 𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐡𝐮𝐫𝐜𝐡 𝐝𝐨𝐨𝐫.

𝐑𝐞𝐧𝐚𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐛𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝐝𝐞𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐝 𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐥𝐲 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐛𝐫𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐦.

𝐀𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐤𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐬 𝐰𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐞𝐱𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐝, 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐮𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝐰𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐝 𝐰𝐚𝐢𝐭 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐚 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝 𝐨𝐟 𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐠𝐡𝐥𝐲 𝟒𝟎 𝐝𝐚𝐲𝐬 𝐛𝐞𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐰𝐞𝐝𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐲 𝐭𝐨𝐨𝐤 𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞. 𝐌𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐠𝐞𝐬 𝐰𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐛𝐞 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐞𝐝 𝐝𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐮𝐜𝐡 𝐚𝐬 𝐂𝐡𝐫𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐦𝐚𝐬, 𝐄𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐫, 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐏𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭.

𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝐡𝐚𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐩𝐚𝐲 𝐚 "𝐝𝐞𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭" 𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐰𝐞𝐝𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠, 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐢𝐟 𝐡𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐛𝐚𝐜𝐤 𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐭 𝐰𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 𝐡𝐢𝐦 𝐟𝐨𝐮𝐫 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐞. 𝐀𝐫𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐝 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐠𝐞𝐬 𝐰𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧, 𝐛𝐮𝐭 𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐰𝐞𝐝𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 𝐚𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐠 𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐜𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐬 𝐰𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐨𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐮𝐥𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐠𝐧𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐲.

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The Skills of Globe Theater Actors -
The Globe, that opened in 1599, enhanced the playhouse place audiences first proverb some of Shakespeare's best-known plays. In 1613, it charred to the ground when the roof taken fire during a accomplishment of Shakespeare's Henry VIII. A new, second Globe was quickly erected on the same location, opening in 1614.

The Income of a Globe Theater Actors -
The fees of actors varied in accordance with their position in the theater. The youth actors who accepted the female roles were paid the smallest of all actors. The Admiral’s Men compensated boy players three shillings a period. The boys were ignorant to adult actors and their wages command a price of to their masters who gave bureaucracy board and lodging and a limited allowance in return. Part players command a price of a daily wage of nearly one bait per day. The main players command a price of at least two shillings per era.

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Elizabethan Theatre Explained in 13 Minutes

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Clouted Cream Old Elizabethan

The Clouted cream milk was milked in the morning and was warmed up at noon. The Clouted cream should be warmed at a cool temperature not too hot not too cold, when the Clouted cream gets super hot it starts to bubble up, let it sit and get hard then sit it out over night.

For Queen Elizabeth her meals were prepared at home but others had communal ovens for people to take there dough. when they brought the dough they made bread or stew.

" Even the humblest of kitchens would have had such indispensable cooking and preparation aids as a large brass pot and iron pan, a spit for roasting over the fire, a milk pail and sundry containers, utensils and serving dishes for food made of wood, clay or pewter. "

Fast food was also a common thing back in Elizabethan time, for poor people it was a blessing fresh  food for cheap.

The drinks most common, Ale or Beer, the water was so contaminated, that drinking Ale or Beer was way safer. most people grow their own food and drinks

when going to markets  freemen were allowed to sell their products, Markets were usually ran by the lord mayor. House wives didn't have to walk for to get to the market because the markets were scattered everywhere.

The use of refined sugar, sugar was every important and very expensive, The wealthy would eat so much sugar to where their teeth would turn black.

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- The average life Life expectancy was 30/35 years and 1 in 5 children died at birth.

-Medical care mostly and strictly depended on herbs and superstition.

-Hospitals were used for people who were sick, poor, and blind but also pilgrims, travelers, orphans, people with mental illness, and individuals who had nowhere else to go.

- Wine was used as an antiseptic for washing out wounds and preventing infection and ointments and cauterization were used by surgeons when treating wounds.

-They created a theory that indicated four different bodily fluids, which were called humor, influenced human health. The theory was that these humors had to be in balance or perfect or a person would become sick physically or mentally causing depression.

-The imbalance of blood was thought to be the cause of fever, headache, apoplexy, etc.

-Diseases and epidemics that occurred at this time were leprosy, bubonic plague, smallpox, tuberculosis, scabies, erysipelas, anthrax, trachoma, sweating sickness, and dancing mania

-The worst pandemic was the black death. The Black Death was a bubonic plague pandemic that took place in Western Eurasia and North Africa from 1346 to 1353. This pandemic was labeled the most fatal pandemic in human history because it caused the deaths of over 75–200 million people.

-Illness affected rural and urban day laborers, especially ones that work outside on the field but that didn't stop it from affecting the rich and famous.

-Herbs were a very important form of medication and herb gardens were made to produce herbs to resolve each imbalance humor. You could also obtain these herbs from the local apothecary or witch.

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323533

https://interestingengineering.com/health/13-medical-practices-of-the-renaissance-that-are-still-used-today

https://www.britannica.com/topic/public-health/The-Middle-Ages

https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/sickness-and-disease

ps://youtu.be/iGiZXQVGpbY

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Elizabethan Hairstyles- Symier Mcdonald Williams

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Elizabethan Hairstyles- Symier Mcdonald Williams

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Hairstyles of the Elizabeth era were characterized by frizzed hair and often placed over wires or pads to create a heart-shaped frame around the head, these hairstyles were made easier when the first metal hairpins were invited in England in 1545.

Elizabeth Hair styles for women were designed to compliment the upper class fashion of the day, ruffs or ruffles were in high fashion and during the Elizabeth era these became more elaborate and were constructed on gauze wings which were raised at the back of the head.

The ruffs or collars, framed the face and dictated the hairstyles of the age which were generally short for men and swept up look was required for women.

The essential tool to create the large hairstyles for this period is a pair of hair rats.

An unmarried woman kept her long and showed off its fullness in public, once married, she would always arrange her hair in updo.

Sumptuary laws from 1568 to 1574 declared, all citizens wives in generall were constrayned to wear white caps of woolen yarne, unless their husbands  were good value in the booke, or could prove themselves Gentleman by descent.

Their idle hair was considered to be fair or red in colour and preferably naturally curly as inspired by the Queen herself.

Women would supplement their own hair with natural hairpieces rumored to have come from horses or even children's hair.

Elizabethan Hair Styles for men were just as important as they were for women. The length of hair varied during the Elizabethan era. It started as short closely cropped hairstyles and increased in length during the period.

It was fashionable for men to sport beards during the Elizabethan era. The styles and cut of beards changed with the fashion of the day. The beards could be cut in various styles including pointed square, round or oblong.

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Elizabeth I - Queen of England (1533-1603)

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Elizabeth was born in Greenwich on September /7/ 1533. Her father was Henry the 8th and her mother was Anne Burrell. Her mother was executed when she was just 2 years old. Her education relied on Catherine Parr, Henry's last wife, and she ensured Elizabeth was highly educated.

As a child, Elizabeth was a bright student and she understood how things worked easily. When the marriage between her mother and father was annulled, she lost her privileges as a princess and became a royal illegitimate bastard. Her relationship with her sister wasn't bad, but they were not as close because of their different religious beliefs. Her brother, Prince Edward was closer to Elizabeth because of their close age and the same religion. When they were informed of their father's death, Elizabeth was holding the crying Edward in her arms.

When Anne died, Henry married another wife Jane Seymour, which was Anne's maid of honor. She cared about Elizabeth and made sure that her needs were provided for. Jane was also Prince Edward's mother, but she died a few days after giving birth. Henry's fifth wife had a larger impact on Elizabeth because she took interest in her and cared for her. Just like her mother, Katherine was caused of adultery and was executed. Katherine Parr was a loving lady that cared about the royal children. She tried to give the children a home and she was also Henry's last wife.

Henry the 8 died in 1547 and Edward, Elizabeth's half-brother became the King. Edward died 6 years later in 1553 and Elizabeth's older half-sister, Mary I or Bloody Mary became the Queen of England. Mary was Catholic, while Elizabeth was Protestant, so Elizabeth was imprisoned in the Tower of London during Mary's reign.

Mary died in 1558 and Elizabeth was crowned Queen of England at 25 years old.  She returned to Protestantism in England while also applying religious tolerance to other religions like Catholicism. Elements of Catholicism remained in the Church of England, one example being the crucifix. The Catholic leaders of the Parliament were released from their position, and that decreased the influence of the Catholic Church in the government.

When Elizabeth took the throne, the people wanted her to have an heir to continue the legacy. Perhaps because she had seen her father's relationship with a lot of women, she hated the idea of marriage. Her best friend since childhood said that Elizabeth knew she wasn't going to marry when she got older. She had a few suspected romantic interests, but she refused to marry or give an heir. This led to people being worried about the line of succession, and they revolted to make Mary Queen of Scotts an heir, in case something happens to Elizabeth.

During Elizabeth, the I's reign, England saw a golden age of progress. Exploration brought back prestige and wealth to England. In 1580, Francis Drake became the first Englishman to successfully circumnavigate the world. England's conquers also formed a colony in North America, called Virginia.

The relationship between England and Spain worsened when Elizabeth became the Queen of England. There were threats of putting her cousin, Mary Queen of Scotts on the throne from Catholic followers. At the start, an alliance was formed with the Spanish to fight against the Dutch and French. Spain attempted to assassinate Queen Elizabeth and that further soured the relationship between the countries. Spain sent Armanda which was defeated in the Channel in 1588, thanks to conditions like bad weather. Queen Elizabeth was viewed as a Goddess of Victory and England remained the ruler of the seas during her reign.

As time went on, Elizabeth couldn't handle the change in time and she started getting old. Many people viewed her as an immortal monarch that would bring victory in wars, but time was stronger than her. She had changed from a cool-minded monarch that acted based on rationality to an old woman that was very emotional. She had suffered several medical illnesses, end even some mental illnesses. By the Late winter of 1602/3, Elizabeth was feeling unwell. As her condition got worse, her favorite Archbishop, Whitgift, was called. Everyone present wanted to know who would succeed to her throne after her death. She may have not responded, but James VI, King of Scotland, was named king for the sake of keeping order.

"I will be as good unto ye as ever a Queen was unto her people. No will in me can lack, neither do I trust shall there lack any power. And persuade yourselves that for the safety and quietness of you al,l I will not spare if need be to spend my blood." - said Elizabeth during her Coronation.

Sources:

“Elizabeth I (1533-1603) Queen of England.” YouTube, YouTube, 13 Nov. 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dfgeLdXA87I.
“Elizabeth I (1558 - 1603) - 10 Minute History.” YouTube, YouTube, 2 June 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UvCd6yi1Bao.
Ap Euro Book
Ciara.Berry. “Elizabeth I (R.1558-1603).” The Royal Family, 3 Aug. 2018, https://www.royal.uk/elizabeth-i.
“Queen Elizabeth I(1533-1603).” Elizabethi.org, https://www.elizabethi.org/.

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-Back in the 1600's when the black plague was around their wasn't really that much well educated doctors like their is today in fact the doctors were not  really eligible to be a doctor majority of them were Philolophers of Aristotle.
-The black plague was originated in the parish of saint Charles that was where the Plague was started and also from trades between Europe and china though rat diseases.
-The victims that would get the plague would have severe symptoms of fevers,coughing of blood,and painful blisters and bruises all over the body.
-If one of your family members got sick and died you would be stuck i a house with them till you then came to the inevitable and died and the whole time you where their you were being watched so that you could not leave.
-Over one hundred thousand people died during the black plague in London alone.
-The "doctors" used to try their techniques and practices on criminals or people who where being convicted o any crime.
-The doctors usted to try a method that was called blood letting where they will make a cut and just let you bleed a couple of pints of blood so that you could "survive" this technique was not effective .
-If it wasn't for their being cold weathers in London to this day their would still be the black plague over their,the winter coming was the main reason the remaining civilians lived because it killed off almost all of the diseases.
-The black plague did not only affect us humans but also effected animals a lot of people that were thinking of feeling alone couldn't because even their cows would die from the disease.
-What really helped kill off the black plague was when their was the big London fires and that was what killed off almost every rat and infection that was in the area.
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Shakespearean tragedy and the Tragic Hero - Xinlong Y

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Shakespearean tragedy and the Tragic Hero - Xinlong Y

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Shakespeare wrote several tragedies such as Othello, King Lear, Hamlet, and Macbeth. While his tragedies were influenced by Greek tragedies, they differ in their characteristics. Shakespearean tragedies are based on the downfall of a protagonist, but they don't follow the same form as ancient Greek tragedies.

One Man Show

Shakespeare's tragedies typically revolve around a single protagonist, with a larger cast of characters compared to Greek tragedies (excluding the chorus). Despite the other characters experiencing their own ups and downs throughout the plot, the hero remains the central figure of the play. In some of his love tragedies, such as Antony and Cleopatra and Romeo and Juliet, the heroine also gains the audience's attention

Social Status of Hero

Shakespeare's tragedies feature protagonists who hail from prestigious social standings, much like Greek and Roman heroes. The heroes in his plays are kings (Julius Caesar, King Lear), princes (Hamlet), nobles (Macbeth, Brutus), or military commanders (Othello). This convention was also followed in earlier tragedies, which adhered to the Greek tradition. Some critics have accused Shakespeare of snobbery, arguing that the suffering of a common man is no different from that of a king or noble. However, Shakespeare believed that the tragedy of a king or nobleman would garner more sympathy from a wider audience, whereas the tragedy of a common man would only resonate with a smaller, more limited group

Tragic Fall of Hero

Shakespearean tragedies follow a formulaic plot in which the protagonist faces escalating misfortunes, often due to their own missteps or errors. The magnitude of suffering builds throughout the play, peaking in the fourth act. Although the hero ultimately meets a tragic death, other characters may also suffer similar fates. The underlying theme of these tragedies is the close association between suffering and tragedy

The Cause of Suffering and Death

While Greek tragedies attribute tragedy to destiny, Shakespearean tragedies instead hold the characters responsible for their downfall. The presence of hamartia, or a character flaw, leads to suffering and death, although fate may also play a role. Shakespeare's characters are flawed and complex, and it is the characters themselves that determine their destiny in these tragedies

Moral Values and Poetic Justice

Shakespeare did not concern himself with poetic justice, where characters are rewarded or punished in proportion to their deeds. Instead, in his tragedies, only the hero suffers due to their flaw, while other innocent characters become collateral damage. While villains are always punished, their destructive influence often ensnares innocent characters. For instance, in Othello, Desdemona and Emilia are killed despite their innocence, due to the villain's intricate plot. The moral impact of Shakespeare's tragedies is not pessimistic, but rather evokes pity and fear in the reader

Structure of Shakespearean tragedy

Shakespearean plays typically follow a five-act structure, with each act serving a distinct purpose. Act one establishes the setting, introduces the main characters, and begins the action. Act two advances the plot and adds complications. Act three is the turning point, featuring the climax and the protagonist's realization of their mistake. Act four follows through with the consequences of act three, leading to the final act. Act five concludes the play with the outcome and revelation, ultimately resulting in the tragic death of the hero

Supernatural Elements and Chance Happening in Shakespearean Tragedies

In addition to the protagonist's fatal flaw, external factors such as supernatural occurrences and chance events also contribute to the tragic fall in Shakespearean plays. These elements play a role in shaping the destiny of characters, prompting them to commit irrational or heinous acts that ultimately lead to their downfall. For example, the use of supernatural elements in Macbeth and Hamlet, or the chance event of the handkerchief in Othello. However, it is ultimately the hero's own character that is the root cause of their tragic fall

Three Unities in Shakespearean Tragedy

Shakespearean tragedies don't adhere to Aristotle's three unities - unity of place, time, and action. Aristotle believed that a tragedy should take place in a single location, within a day, and follow a single story without subplots. However, Shakespeare's plays take place in various locations, span longer periods of time, and feature multiple subplots. Therefore, Shakespearean tragedies are more flexible in their structure compared to Aristotle's set patterns.

Source

https://literaryenglish.com/characteristics-of-shakespearean-tragedy/

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- This war lasted 116 years from the Battle of Crecy of 1346 to the Battle of Agincourt in 1415

- The Black Prince caputures the French king with 7000 men in his squad and kept him in London for 4 years. The Black Prince used their truce as an advantage to capture the king.

- This war was over territorial rights and it just kept on advancing onward and onward. It was a series of conflicts only between England and the French. This was Englands big victory over the french.

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Queen Elizabeth -                              By Gahen's Saint fleur

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Queen Elizabeth -                              By Gahen's Saint fleur

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. Elisabeth was the queen of England and Ireland she was born on September 7th 1533 , she had seven siblings, she was named "The virgin queen". Raised by her parents, after her father's death she became the queen of England and Ireland, had no children neither a husband. Robert Dudley was her favorite because many believed they were in love for a long term-suitor. Queen Elisabeth was suffering smallpox. She died on March 24th 1603, but it wasn't the cause of death.

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Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 - 24 March 1603) was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death in 1603. She was the last monarch of the House of Tudor.

Elizabeth was the only surviving child of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn. When Elizabeth was two years old, her parents' marriage was annulled, her mother was executed, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Henry restored her to the line of succession when she was 10, via the Third Succession Act 1543. After Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until his own death in 1553, bequeathing the crown to a Protestant cousin, Lady Jane Grey, and ignoring the claims of his two half-sisters, the Catholic Mary and the younger Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to the contrary. Edward's will was set aside within weeks of his death and Mary became queen, deposing and executing Jane. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.

Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley. One of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the supreme governor. This era, later named the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, would evolve into the Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir; however, despite numerous courtships, she never did. Because of this she is sometimes referred to as the "Virgin Queen". She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin twice removed, James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary, Queen of Scots.

In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and siblings had been. One of her mottoes was video et taceo ("I see and keep silent"). In religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. After the pope declared her illegitimate in 1570, which in theory released English Catholics from allegiance to her, several conspiracies threatened her life, all of which were defeated with the help of her ministers' secret service, run by Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the major powers of France and Spain. She half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, and Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain.

As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated for her virginity. A cult of personality grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the day. Elizabeth's reign became known as the Elizabethan era. The period is famous for the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, the prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as Francis Drake and Walter Raleigh, and for the defeat of the Spanish Armada. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, who enjoyed more than her fair share of luck. Towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged as a charismatic performer ("Gloriana") and a dogged survivor ("Good Queen Bess") in an era when government was ramshackle and limited, and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones. After the short, disastrous reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped to forge a sense of national identity.

Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace on 7 September 1533 and was named after her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Lady Elizabeth Howard. She was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henry VIII's second wife, Anne Boleyn. At birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the English throne. Her elder half-sister Mary had lost her position as a legitimate heir when Henry annulled his marriage to Mary's mother, Catherine of Aragon, to marry Anne, with the intent to sire a male heir and ensure the Tudor succession. She was baptised on 10 September 1533, and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Marchioness of Dorset. A canopy was carried at the ceremony over the infant by her uncle George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; John Hussey, Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham.

Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragon's death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession. Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry married Jane Seymour. Queen Jane died the next year shortly after the birth of their son, Edward, who was the undisputed heir apparent to the throne. Elizabeth was placed in her half-brother's household and carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening.

A rare portrait of a teenage Elizabeth prior to her accession, attributed to William Scrots. It was painted for her father in c. 1546.

Elizabeth's first governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was "as toward a child and as gentle of conditions as ever I knew any in my life". Catherine Champernowne, better known by her later, married name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until her death in 1565. Champernowne taught Elizabeth four languages: French, Dutch, Italian, and Spanish. By the time William Grindal became her tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, and Italian. Under Grindal, a talented and skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek. By the age of 12, she was able to translate her stepmother Catherine Parr's religious work Prayers or Meditations from English into Italian, Latin, and French, which she presented to her father as a New Year's gift. From her teenage years and throughout her life, she translated works in Latin and Greek by numerous classical authors, including the Pro Marcello of Cicero, the De consolatione philosophiae of Boethius, a treatise by Plutarch, and the of Tacitus. A translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Library, one of only four surviving English translations from the early modern era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own in 2019, after a detailed analysis of the handwriting and paper was undertaken.

After Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education under her brother Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, a sympathetic teacher who believed that learning should be engaging. Current knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling and precocity comes largely from Ascham's memoirs. By the time her formal education ended in 1550, Elizabeth was one of the best educated women of her generation. At the end of her life, she was believed to speak the Welsh, Cornish, Scottish, and Irish languages in addition to those mentioned above. The Venetian ambassador stated in 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that each appeared to be her native tongue". Historian Mark Stoyle suggests that she was probably taught Cornish by William Killigrew, Groom of the Privy Chamber and later Chamberlain of the Exchequer.

Thomas Seymour

Henry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at the age of nine. Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, soon married Thomas Seymour, Baron Seymour of Sudeley, Edward VI's uncle and the brother of Lord Protector Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset. The couple took Elizabeth into their household at Chelsea. There Elizabeth experienced an emotional crisis that some historians believe affected her for the rest of her life. Thomas Seymour engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering her bedroom in his nightgown, tickling her, and slapping her on the buttocks. Elizabeth rose early and surrounded herself with maids to avoid his unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront her husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in. Twice she accompanied him in tickling Elizabeth, and once held her while he cut her black gown "into a thousand pieces". However, after Parr discovered the pair in an embrace, she ended this state of affairs. In May 1548, Elizabeth was sent away.

Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued scheming to control the royal family and tried to have himself appointed the governor of the King's person. When Parr died after childbirth on 5 September 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on marrying her. Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Seymour, sought to convince Elizabeth to take him as her husband. She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour and "comfort him in his sorrow", but Elizabeth claimed that Thomas was not so saddened by her stepmother's death as to need comfort.

In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower on suspicion of conspiring to depose his brother Somerset as Protector, marry Lady Jane Grey to King Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as his own wife. Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing. Her stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do see it in her face that she is guilty". Seymour was beheaded on 20 March 1549.

Reign of Mary I

Edward VI died on 6 July 1553, aged 15. His will ignored the Succession to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and instead declared as his heir Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister Mary Tudor, Queen of France. Jane was proclaimed queen by the privy council, but her support quickly crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days. On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth at her side. The show of solidarity between the sisters did not last long. Mary, a devout Catholic, was determined to crush the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been educated, and she ordered that everyone attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to outwardly conform. Mary's initial popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans to marry Philip of Spain, the son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and an active Catholic. Discontent spread rapidly through the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a focus for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.

In January and February 1554, Wyatt's rebellion broke out; it was soon suppressed. Elizabeth was brought to court and interrogated regarding her role, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Tower of London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence. Though it is unlikely that she had plotted with the rebels, some of them were known to have approached her. Mary's closest confidant, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Stephen Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial. Elizabeth's supporters in the government, including William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, convinced Mary to spare her sister in the absence of hard evidence against her. Instead, on 22 May, Elizabeth was moved from the Tower to Woodstock Palace, where she was to spend almost a year under house arrest in the charge of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds cheered her all along the way.

On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to attend the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy. If Mary and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Mary gave birth to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply. When it became clear that Mary was not pregnant, no one believed any longer that she could have a child. Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.

King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne in 1556, acknowledged the new political reality and cultivated his sister-in-law. She was a better ally than the chief alternative, Mary, Queen of Scots, who had grown up in France and was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France. When his wife fell ill in 1558, Philip sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth. This interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she had returned to live in October 1555. By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for her government. Mary recognised Elizabeth as her heir on 6 November 1558, and Elizabeth became queen when Mary died on 17 November.

Elizabeth became queen at the age of 25, and declared her intentions to her council and other peers who had come to Hatfield to swear allegiance. The speech contains the first record of her adoption of the medieval political theology of the sovereign's "two bodies": the body natural and the body politic:

As her triumphal progress wound through the city on the eve of the coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Protestant flavour. Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished". The following day, 15 January 1559, a date chosen by her astrologer John Dee, Elizabeth was crowned and anointed by Owen Oglethorpe, the Catholic bishop of Carlisle, in Westminster Abbey. She was then presented for the people's acceptance, amidst a deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells. Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen in England, the country was still in a state of anxiety over the perceived Catholic threat at home and overseas, as well as the choice of whom she would marry.

Church settlement

The Pelican Portrait by Nicholas Hilliard. The pelican was thought to nourish its young with its own blood and served to depict Elizabeth as the "mother of the Church of England".

Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have been much debated by scholars. She was a Protestant, but kept Catholic symbols (such as the crucifix), and downplayed the role of sermons in defiance of a key Protestant belief.

Elizabeth and her advisers perceived the threat of a Catholic crusade against heretical England. The Queen therefore sought a Protestant solution that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms. As a result, the Parliament of 1559 started to legislate for a church based on the Protestant settlement of Edward VI, with the monarch as its head, but with many Catholic elements, such as vestments.

The House of Commons backed the proposals strongly, but the bill of supremacy met opposition in the House of Lords, particularly from the bishops. Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the time, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury. This enabled supporters amongst peers to outvote the bishops and conservative peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England rather than the more contentious title of Supreme Head, which many thought unacceptable for a woman to bear. The new Act of Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559. All public officials were forced to swear an oath of loyalty to the monarch as the supreme governor or risk disqualification from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat of the persecution of dissenters by Mary. At the same time, a new Act of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance at church and the use of the 1559 Book of Common Prayer (an adapted version of the 1552 prayer book) compulsory, though the penalties for recusancy, or failure to attend and conform, were not extreme.

Marriage question

From the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected that she would marry, and the question arose to whom. Although she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this are not clear. Historians have speculated that Thomas Seymour had put her off sexual relationships. She considered several suitors until she was about 50 years old. Her last courtship was with Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior. While risking possible loss of power like her sister, who played into the hands of King Philip II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir. However, the choice of a husband might also provoke political instability or even insurrection.

Robert Dudley

Pair of miniatures of Elizabeth and Leicester, c. 1575, by Nicholas Hilliard. Their friendship lasted for over 30 years, until his death.

In the spring of 1559, it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her childhood friend Robert Dudley. It was said that his wife Amy was suffering from a "malady in one of her breasts" and that the Queen would like to marry Robert if his wife should die. By the autumn of 1559, several foreign suitors were vying for Elizabeth's hand; their impatient envoys engaged in ever more scandalous talk and reported that a marriage with her favourite was not welcome in England: "There is not a man who does not cry out on him and her with indignation ... she will marry none but the favoured Robert." Amy Dudley died in September 1560, from a fall from a flight of stairs and, despite the coroner's inquest finding of accident, many people suspected her husband of having arranged her death so that he could marry the Queen. Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley for some time. However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and some conservative peers made their disapproval unmistakably clear. There were even rumours that the nobility would rise if the marriage took place.

Among other marriage candidates being considered for the queen, Robert Dudley continued to be regarded as a possible candidate for nearly another decade. Elizabeth was extremely jealous of his affections, even when she no longer meant to marry him herself. She raised Dudley to the peerage as Earl of Leicester in 1564. In 1578, he finally married Lettice Knollys, to whom the queen reacted with repeated scenes of displeasure and lifelong hatred. Still, Dudley always "remained at the centre of [Elizabeth's] emotional life", as historian Susan Doran has described the situation. He died shortly after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. After Elizabeth's own death, a note from him was found among her most personal belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting.

Marriage negotiations constituted a key element in Elizabeth's foreign policy. She turned down the hand of Philip, her half-sister's widower, early in 1559 but for several years entertained the proposal of King Eric XIV of Sweden. Earlier in Elizabeth's life, a Danish match for her had been discussed; Henry VIII had proposed one with the Danish prince Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, and Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, suggested a marriage with Prince Frederick (later Frederick II) several years later, but the negotiations had abated in 1551. In the years around 1559, a Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered, and to counter Sweden's proposal, King Frederick II proposed to Elizabeth in late 1559.

Elizabeth was engaged for a time to Francis, Duke of Anjou. The Queen called him her "frog", finding him "not so deformed" as she had been led to expect.

For several years, she seriously negotiated to marry Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke of Austria. By 1569, relations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage to two French Valois princes in turn, first Henry, Duke of Anjou, and then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Duke of Anjou, formerly Duke of Alençon. This last proposal was tied to a planned alliance against Spanish control of the Southern Netherlands. Elizabeth seems to have taken the courtship seriously for a time, wearing a frog-shaped earring that Francis had sent her.

In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination of my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far rather than queen and married". Later in the year, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, the succession question became a heated issue in Parliament. Members urged the Queen to marry or nominate an heir, to prevent a civil war upon her death. She refused to do either. In April she prorogued the Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its support to raise taxes in 1566.

Having previously promised to marry, she told an unruly House:

I will never break the word of a prince spoken in public place, for my honour's sake. And therefore I say again, I will marry as soon as I can conveniently, if God take not him away with whom I mind to marry, or myself, or else some other great let [obstruction] happen.

By 1570, senior figures in the government privately accepted that Elizabeth would never marry or name a successor. William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem. For her failure to marry, Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility. Her silence, however, strengthened her own political security: she knew that if she named an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup; she remembered the way that "a second person, as I have been" had been used as the focus of plots against her predecessor.

Elizabeth's unmarried status inspired a cult of virginity related to that of the Virgin Mary. In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a virgin, a goddess, or both, not as a normal woman. At first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of her ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, in the end, this shall be for me sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived and died a virgin". Later on, poets and writers took up the theme and developed an iconography that exalted Elizabeth. Public tributes to the Virgin by 1578 acted as a coded assertion of opposition to the queen's marriage negotiations with the Duke of Alençon. Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of "all my husbands, my good people".

The Procession Picture, c. 1600, showing Elizabeth I borne along by her courtiers

This claim of virginity was not universally accepted. Catholics accused Elizabeth of engaging in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled the nation along with her body. Henry IV of France said that one of the great questions of Europe was "whether Queen Elizabeth was a maid or no".

A central issue, when it comes to the question of Elizabeth's virginity, was whether the Queen ever consummated her love affair with Robert Dudley. In 1559, she had Dudley's bedchambers moved next to her own apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden with an illness that caused her body to swell.

In 1587, a young man calling himself Arthur Dudley was arrested on the coast of Spain under suspicion of being a spy. The man claimed to be the illegitimate son of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, with his age being consistent with birth during the 1561 illness. He was taken to Madrid for investigation, where he was examined by Francis Englefield, a Catholic aristocrat exiled to Spain and secretary to King Philip II. Three letters exist today describing the interview, detailing what Arthur proclaimed to be the story of his life, from birth in the royal palace to the time of his arrival in Spain. However, this failed to convince the Spaniards: Englefield admitted to King Philip that Arthur's "claim at present amounts to nothing", but suggested that "he should not be allowed to get away, but [...] kept very secure." The King agreed, and Arthur was never heard from again. Modern scholarship dismisses the story's basic premise as "impossible", and asserts that Elizabeth's life was so closely observed by contemporaries that she could not have hidden a pregnancy.

Mary, Queen of Scots

Mary, Queen of Scots, who was considered by her French relatives to be rightful Queen of England instead of Elizabeth.

Elizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the French presence there. She feared that the French planned to invade England and put her Catholic cousin Mary, Queen of Scots, on the throne. Mary was considered by many to be the heir to the English crown, being the granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder sister, Margaret. Mary boasted being "the nearest kinswoman she hath". Elizabeth was persuaded to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, and though the campaign was inept, the resulting Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 removed the French threat in the north. When Mary returned from France to Scotland in 1561 to take up the reins of power, the country had an established Protestant church and was run by a council of Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth. Mary refused to ratify the treaty.

In 1563, Elizabeth proposed her own suitor, Robert Dudley, as a husband for Mary, without asking either of the two people concerned. Both proved unenthusiastic, and in 1565, Mary married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own claim to the English throne. The marriage was the first of a series of errors of judgement by Mary that handed the victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost certainly led by James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell. Shortly afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to the murder of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary about the marriage, writing to her:

These events led rapidly to Mary's defeat and imprisonment in Lochleven Castle. The Scottish lords forced her to abdicate in favour of her one-year-old son, James VI. James was taken to Stirling Castle to be raised as a Protestant. Mary escaped in 1568 but after a defeat at Langside sailed to England, where she had once been assured of support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow monarch, but she and her council instead chose to play safe. Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, where she was imprisoned for the next nineteen years.

Catholic cause

Mary was soon the focus for rebellion. In 1569 there was a major Catholic rising in the North; the goal was to free Mary, marry her to Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk, and put her on the English throne. After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders. In the belief that the revolt had been successful, Pope Pius V issued a bull in 1570, titled Regnans in Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime" to be excommunicated and a heretic, releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her. Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened with excommunication. The papal bull provoked legislative initiatives against Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention. In 1581, to convert English subjects to Catholicism with "the intent" to withdraw them from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable offence, carrying the death penalty. From the 1570s missionary priests from continental seminaries went to England secretly in the cause of the "reconversion of England". Some were executed for treasonable conduct, engendering a cult of martyrdom.

Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong incentive to look to Mary as the legitimate sovereign of England. Mary may not have been told of every Catholic plot to put her on the English throne, but from the Ridolfi Plot of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Duke of Norfolk, to lose his head) to the Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and the royal council keenly assembled a case against her. At first, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death. By late 1586, she had been persuaded to sanction Mary's trial and execution on the evidence of letters written during the Babington Plot. Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence announced that "the said Mary, pretending title to the same Crown, had compassed and imagined within the same realm diverse things tending to the hurt, death and destruction of our royal person." On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire. After the execution, Elizabeth claimed that she had not intended for the signed execution warrant to be dispatched, and blamed her secretary, William Davison, for implementing it without her knowledge. The sincerity of Elizabeth's remorse and whether or not she wanted to delay the warrant have been called into question both by her contemporaries and later historians.

Wars and overseas trade

Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was the English occupation of Le Havre from October 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure when Elizabeth's Huguenot allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port. Elizabeth's intention had been to exchange Le Havre for Calais, lost to France in January 1558. Only through the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an aggressive policy. This paid off in the war against Spain, 80% of which was fought at sea. She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation of the globe from 1577 to 1580, and he won fame for his raids on Spanish ports and fleets. An element of piracy and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the Queen had little control.

Netherlands

After the occupation and loss of Le Havre in 1562-1563, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on the continent until 1585, when she sent an English army to aid the Protestant Dutch rebels against Philip II. This followed the deaths in 1584 of the Queen's allies William the Silent, Prince of Orange, and the Duke of Anjou, and the surrender of a series of Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's governor of the Spanish Netherlands. In December 1584, an alliance between Philip II and the French Catholic League at Joinville undermined the ability of Anjou's brother, Henry III of France, to counter Spanish domination of the Netherlands. It also extended Spanish influence along the channel coast of France, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England to invasion. The siege of Antwerp in the summer of 1585 by the Duke of Parma necessitated some reaction on the part of the English and the Dutch. The outcome was the Treaty of Nonsuch of August 1585, in which Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch. The treaty marked the beginning of the Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until the Treaty of London in 1604.

The expedition was led by Elizabeth's former suitor, the Earl of Leicester. Elizabeth from the start did not really back this course of action. Her strategy, to support the Dutch on the surface with an English army, while beginning secret peace talks with Spain within days of Leicester's arrival in Holland, had necessarily to be at odds with Leicester's, who had set up a protectorate and was expected by the Dutch to fight an active campaign. Elizabeth, on the other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs any decisive action with the enemy". He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post of Governor-General from the Dutch States General. Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch ploy to force her to accept sovereignty over the Netherlands, which so far she had always declined. She wrote to Leicester:

Spanish Armada

Meanwhile, Francis Drake had undertaken a major voyage against Spanish ports and ships in the Caribbean in 1585 and 1586. In 1587 he made a successful raid on Cádiz, destroying the Spanish fleet of war ships intended for the Enterprise of England, as Philip II had decided to take the war to England.

On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Armada, a great fleet of ships, set sail for the channel, planning to ferry a Spanish invasion force under the Duke of Parma to the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands. The armada was defeated by a combination of miscalculation, misfortune, and an attack of English fire ships off Gravelines at midnight on 28-29 July (7-8 August New Style), which dispersed the Spanish ships to the northeast. The Armada straggled home to Spain in shattered remnants, after disastrous losses on the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried to struggle back to Spain via the North Sea, and then back south past the west coast of Ireland). Unaware of the Armada's fate, English militias mustered to defend the country under the Earl of Leicester's command. Leicester invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops at Tilbury in Essex on 8 August. Wearing a silver breastplate over a white velvet dress, she addressed them in her Speech to the Troops at Tilbury:

When no invasion came, the nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of her coronation as a spectacle. The defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. The English took their delivery as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen. However, the victory was not a turning point in the war, which continued and often favoured Spain. The Spaniards still controlled the southern provinces of the Netherlands, and the threat of invasion remained. Walter Raleigh claimed after her death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the war against Spain:

Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds, Elizabeth had good reason not to place too much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it herself, "to be transported with an haviour of vainglory".

In 1589, the year after the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent to Spain the English Armada or Counter Armada with 23,375 men and 150 ships, led by Francis Drake as admiral and John Norreys as general. The English fleet suffered a catastrophic defeat with 11,000-15,000 killed, wounded or died of disease and 40 ships sunk or captured. The advantage England had won upon the destruction of the Spanish Armada was lost, and the Spanish victory marked a revival of Philip II's naval power through the next decade.

Silver sixpence struck 1593 identifying Elizabeth as "by the Grace of God Queen of England, France, and Ireland"

When the Protestant Henry IV inherited the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support. It was her first venture into France since the retreat from Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested by the Catholic League and by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the channel ports.

The subsequent English campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective. Peregrine Bertie, largely ignoring Elizabeth's orders, roamed northern France to little effect, with an army of 4,000 men. He withdrew in disarray in December 1589, having lost half his troops. In 1591, the campaign of John Norreys, who led 3,000 men to Brittany, was even more of a disaster. As for all such expeditions, Elizabeth was unwilling to invest in the supplies and reinforcements requested by the commanders. Norreys left for London to plead in person for more support. In his absence, a Catholic League army almost destroyed the remains of his army at Craon, north-west France, in May 1591.

In July, Elizabeth sent out another force under Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, to help Henry IV in besieging Rouen. The result was just as dismal. Essex accomplished nothing and returned home in January 1592. Henry abandoned the siege in April. As usual, Elizabeth lacked control over her commanders once they were abroad. "Where he is, or what he doth, or what he is to do," she wrote of Essex, "we are ignorant".

The Irish Gaelic chieftain O'Neale and the other kerns kneel to Henry Sidney in submission.

Although Ireland was one of her two kingdoms, Elizabeth faced a hostile, and in places virtually autonomous, Irish population that adhered to Catholicism and was willing to defy her authority and plot with her enemies. Her policy there was to grant land to her courtiers and prevent the rebels from giving Spain a base from which to attack England. In the course of a series of uprisings, Crown forces pursued scorched-earth tactics, burning the land and slaughtering man, woman and child. During a revolt in Munster led by Gerald FitzGerald, Earl of Desmond, in 1582, an estimated 30,000 Irish people starved to death. The poet and colonist Edmund Spenser wrote that the victims "were brought to such wretchedness as that any stony heart would have rued the same". Elizabeth advised her commanders that the Irish, "that rude and barbarous nation", be well treated, but she or her commanders showed no remorse when force and bloodshed served their authoritarian purpose.

Between 1594 and 1603, Elizabeth faced her most severe test in Ireland during the Nine Years' War, a revolt that took place at the height of hostilities with Spain, who backed the rebel leader, Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone. In spring 1599, Elizabeth sent Robert Devereux, to put the revolt down. To her frustration, he made little progress and returned to England in defiance of her orders. He was replaced by Charles Blount, who took three years to defeat the rebels. O'Neill finally surrendered in 1603, a few days after Elizabeth's death. Soon afterwards, a peace treaty was signed between England and Spain.

Elizabeth continued to maintain the diplomatic relations with the Tsardom of Russia that were originally established by her half-brother, Edward VI. She often wrote to Tsar Ivan the Terrible on amicable terms, though the Tsar was often annoyed by her focus on commerce rather than on the possibility of a military alliance. Ivan even proposed to her once, and during his later reign, asked for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England should his rule be jeopardised. When this failed, he asked to marry Mary Hastings, which Elizabeth declined to speak to the Russian ambassador about. English merchant and explorer Anthony Jenkinson, who began his career as a representative of the Muscovy Company, became the Queen's special ambassador to the court of Tsar Ivan.

Upon his death in 1584, Ivan was succeeded by his son Feodor I. Unlike his father, Feodor had no enthusiasm in maintaining exclusive trading rights with England. He declared his kingdom open to all foreigners, and dismissed the English ambassador Jerome Bowes, whose pomposity had been tolerated by Ivan. Elizabeth sent a new ambassador, Dr. Giles Fletcher, to demand from the regent Boris Godunov that he convince the Tsar to reconsider. The negotiations failed, due to Fletcher addressing Feodor with two of his many titles omitted. Elizabeth continued to appeal to Feodor in half appealing, half reproachful letters. She proposed an alliance, something which she had refused to do when offered one by Feodor's father, but was turned down.

Muslim states

Trade and diplomatic relations developed between England and the Barbary states during the rule of Elizabeth. England established a trading relationship with Morocco in opposition to Spain, selling armour, ammunition, timber, and metal in exchange for Moroccan sugar, in spite of a papal ban. In 1600, Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud, the principal secretary to the Moroccan ruler Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur, visited England as an ambassador to the English court, to negotiate an Anglo-Moroccan alliance against Spain. Elizabeth "agreed to sell munitions supplies to Morocco, and she and Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur talked on and off about mounting a joint operation against the Spanish". Discussions, however, remained inconclusive, and both rulers died within two years of the embassy.

Diplomatic relations were also established with the Ottoman Empire with the chartering of the Levant Company and the dispatch of the first English ambassador to the Sublime Porte, William Harborne, in 1578. For the first time, a treaty of commerce was signed in 1580. Numerous envoys were dispatched in both directions and epistolar exchanges occurred between Elizabeth and Sultan Murad III. In one correspondence, Murad entertained the notion that Protestantism and Islam had "much more in common than either did with Roman Catholicism, as both rejected the worship of idols", and argued for an alliance between England and the Ottoman Empire. To the dismay of Catholic Europe, England exported tin and lead (for cannon-casting) and munitions to the Ottoman Empire, and Elizabeth seriously discussed joint military operations with Murad III during the outbreak of war with Spain in 1585, as Francis Walsingham was lobbying for a direct Ottoman military involvement against the common Spanish enemy.

In 1583, Humphrey Gilbert sailed west to establish a colony in Newfoundland. He never returned to England. Gilbert's half-brother Walter Raleigh explored the Atlantic Coast and claimed the territory of Virginia, perhaps named in honour of Elizabeth, the "Virgin Queen". This territory was much larger than the present-day state of Virginia, extending from New England to the Carolinas. In 1585, Raleigh returned to Virginia with a small group of people. They landed on Roanoke Island, off present-day North Carolina. After the failure of the first colony, Raleigh recruited another group and put John White in command. When Raleigh returned in 1590, there was no trace of the Roanoke Colony he had left, but it was the first English settlement in North America.

East India Company

The East India Company was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region and China, and received its charter from Queen Elizabeth on 31 December 1600. For a period of 15 years, the company was awarded a monopoly on English trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. James Lancaster commanded the first expedition in 1601. The Company eventually controlled half of world trade and substantial territory in India in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Later years

The period after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 brought new difficulties for Elizabeth that lasted until the end of her reign. The conflicts with Spain and in Ireland dragged on, the tax burden grew heavier, and the economy was hit by poor harvests and the cost of war. Prices rose and the standard of living fell. During this time, repression of Catholics intensified, and Elizabeth authorised commissions in 1591 to interrogate and monitor Catholic householders. To maintain the illusion of peace and prosperity, she increasingly relied on internal spies and propaganda. In her last years, mounting criticism reflected a decline in the public's affection for her.

Lord Essex was a favourite of Elizabeth I despite his petulance and irresponsibility.

One of the causes for this "second reign" of Elizabeth, as it is sometimes called, was the changed character of Elizabeth's governing body, the privy council in the 1590s. A new generation was in power. With the exception of William Cecil, Baron Burghley, the most important politicians had died around 1590: the Earl of Leicester in 1588; Francis Walsingham in 1590; and Christopher Hatton in 1591. Factional strife in the government, which had not existed in a noteworthy form before the 1590s, now became its hallmark. A bitter rivalry arose between Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, and Robert Cecil, son of Lord Burghley, with both being supported by their respective adherents. The struggle for the most powerful positions in the state marred the kingdom's politics. The Queen's personal authority was lessening, as is shown in the 1594 affair of Dr. Roderigo Lopes, her trusted physician. When he was wrongly accused by the Earl of Essex of treason out of personal pique, she could not prevent the doctor's execution, although she had been angry about his arrest and seems not to have believed in his guilt.

During the last years of her reign, Elizabeth came to rely on the granting of monopolies as a cost-free system of patronage, rather than asking Parliament for more subsidies in a time of war. The practice soon led to price-fixing, the enrichment of courtiers at the public's expense, and widespread resentment. This culminated in agitation in the House of Commons during the parliament of 1601. In her famous " Golden Speech" of 30 November 1601 at Whitehall Palace to a deputation of 140 members, Elizabeth professed ignorance of the abuses, and won the members over with promises and her usual appeal to the emotions:

This same period of economic and political uncertainty, however, produced an unsurpassed literary flowering in England. The first signs of a new literary movement had appeared at the end of the second decade of Elizabeth's reign, with John Lyly's Euphues and Edmund Spenser's The Shepheardes Calender in 1578. During the 1590s, some of the great names of English literature entered their maturity, including William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe. Continuing into the Jacobean era, the English theatre would reach its peak. The notion of a great Elizabethan era depends largely on the builders, dramatists, poets, and musicians who were active during Elizabeth's reign. They owed little directly to the Queen, who was never a major patron of the arts.

As Elizabeth aged, her image gradually changed. She was portrayed as Belphoebe or Astraea, and after the Armada, as Gloriana, the eternally youthful Faerie Queene of Edmund Spenser's poem. Elizabeth gave Edmund Spenser a pension; as this was unusual for her, it indicates that she liked his work. Her painted portraits became less realistic and more a set of enigmatic icons that made her look much younger than she was. In fact, her skin had been scarred by smallpox in 1562, leaving her half bald and dependent on wigs and cosmetics. Her love of sweets and fear of dentists contributed to severe tooth decay and loss to such an extent that foreign ambassadors had a hard time understanding her speech. André Hurault de Maisse, Ambassador Extraordinary from Henry IV of France, reported an audience with the Queen, during which he noticed, "her teeth are very yellow and unequal ... and on the left side less than on the right. Many of them are missing, so that one cannot understand her easily when she speaks quickly." Yet he added, "her figure is fair and tall and graceful in whatever she does; so far as may be she keeps her dignity, yet humbly and graciously withal." Walter Raleigh called her "a lady whom time had surprised".

Christoffel van Sichem I, Elizabeth, Queen of Great Britain, published 1601

The more Elizabeth's beauty faded, the more her courtiers praised it. Elizabeth was happy to play the part, but it is possible that in the last decade of her life she began to believe her own performance. She became fond and indulgent of the charming but petulant young Earl of Essex, who was Leicester's stepson and took liberties with her for which she forgave him. She repeatedly appointed him to military posts despite his growing record of irresponsibility. After Essex's desertion of his command in Ireland in 1599, Elizabeth had him placed under house arrest and the following year deprived him of his monopolies. In February 1601, Essex tried to raise a rebellion in London. He intended to seize the Queen but few rallied to his support, and he was beheaded on 25 February. Elizabeth knew that her own misjudgements were partly to blame for this turn of events. An observer wrote in 1602: "Her delight is to sit in the dark, and sometimes with shedding tears to bewail Essex."

Elizabeth's senior adviser, Lord Burghley, died on 4 August 1598. His political mantle passed to his son Robert, who soon became the leader of the government. One task he addressed was to prepare the way for a smooth succession. Since Elizabeth would never name her successor, Robert Cecil was obliged to proceed in secret. He therefore entered into a coded negotiation with James VI of Scotland, who had a strong but unrecognised claim. Cecil coached the impatient James to humour Elizabeth and "secure the heart of the highest, to whose sex and quality nothing is so improper as either needless expostulations or over much curiosity in her own actions". The advice worked. James's tone delighted Elizabeth, who responded: "So trust I that you will not doubt but that your last letters are so acceptably taken as my thanks cannot be lacking for the same, but yield them to you in grateful sort". In historian J. E. Neale's view, Elizabeth may not have declared her wishes openly to James, but she made them known with "unmistakable if veiled phrases".

Elizabeth's funeral cortège, 1603, with banners of her royal ancestors

The Queen's health remained fair until the autumn of 1602, when a series of deaths among her friends plunged her into a severe depression. In February 1603, the death of Catherine Carey, Countess of Nottingham, the niece of her cousin and close friend Lady Knollys, came as a particular blow. In March, Elizabeth fell sick and remained in a "settled and unremovable melancholy", and sat motionless on a cushion for hours on end. When Robert Cecil told her that she must go to bed, she snapped: "Must is not a word to use to princes, little man." She died on 24 March 1603 at Richmond Palace, between two and three in the morning. A few hours later, Cecil and the council set their plans in motion and proclaimed James king of England.

While it has become normative to record Elizabeth's death as occurring in 1603, following English calendar reform in the 1750s, at the time England observed New Year's Day on 25 March, commonly known as Lady Day. Thus Elizabeth died on the last day of the year 1602 in the old calendar. The modern convention is to use the old style calendar for the day and month while using the new style calendar for the year.

Elizabeth as shown on her tomb at Westminster Abbey

Elizabeth's coffin was carried downriver at night to Whitehall, on a barge lit with torches. At her funeral on 28 April, the coffin was taken to Westminster Abbey on a hearse drawn by four horses hung with black velvet. In the words of the chronicler John Stow:

Westminster was surcharged with multitudes of all sorts of people in their streets, houses, windows, leads and gutters, that came out to see the obsequy, and when they beheld her statue lying upon the coffin, there was such a general sighing, groaning and weeping as the like hath not been seen or known in the memory of man.

Elizabeth was interred in Westminster Abbey, in a tomb shared with her half-sister, Mary I. The Latin inscription on their tomb, "Regno consortes & urna, hic obdormimus Elizabetha et Maria sorores, in spe resurrectionis", translates to "Consorts in realm and tomb, here we sleep, Elizabeth and Mary, sisters, in hope of resurrection".

Elizabeth I, painted around 1610, during the first revival of interest in her reign. Time sleeps on her right and Death looks over her left shoulder; two putti hold the crown above her head.

The picture of Elizabeth painted by her Protestant admirers of the early 17th century has proved lasting and influential. Her memory was also revived during the Napoleonic Wars, when the nation again found itself on the brink of invasion. In the Victorian era, the Elizabethan legend was adapted to the imperial ideology of the day, and in the mid-20th century, Elizabeth was a romantic symbol of the national resistance to foreign threat. Historians of that period, such as J. E. Neale (1934) and A. L. Rowse (1950), interpreted Elizabeth's reign as a golden age of progress. Neale and Rowse also idealised the Queen personally: she always did everything right; her more unpleasant traits were ignored or explained as signs of stress.

Though Elizabeth followed a largely defensive foreign policy, her reign raised England's status abroad. "She is only a woman, only mistress of half an island," marvelled Pope Sixtus V, "and yet she makes herself feared by Spain, by France, by the Empire, by all". Under Elizabeth, the nation gained a new self-confidence and sense of sovereignty, as Christendom fragmented. Elizabeth was the first Tudor to recognise that a monarch ruled by popular consent. She therefore always worked with parliament and advisers she could trust to tell her the truth-a style of government that her Stuart successors failed to follow. Some historians have called her lucky; she believed that God was protecting her. Priding herself on being "mere English", Elizabeth trusted in God, honest advice, and the love of her subjects for the success of her rule. In a prayer, she offered thanks to God that:

Family tree

References

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14. ^ Burgess, Steve (2011). Famous Past Lives. John Hunt. ISBN 978-1-8469-4494-9. Could it be that when Elizabeth was confined to bed in 1561 (at the time when her love affair with Dudley was at its height) with a mysterious illness she was in fact pregnant?[...] The Spanish ambassador reported that she had a swelling of the abdomen...

15. Levin, Carole (2 December 2004). "All the Queen's Children: Elizabeth I and the Meanings of Motherhood". Explorations in Renaissance Culture. 30 (1): 57-76. doi:10.1163/23526963-90000274. ISSN 2352-6963. Archived from the original on 19 August 2021.

16. (Subscription or ^ Adams, Simon (2008). "Dudley, Robert, earl of Leicester (1532/3-1588)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/8160. UK public library membership required.)

17. Hampden, John ^ Francis Drake, privateer: contemporary narratives and documents (Taylor & Francis, 1972). ISBN 978-0-8173-5703-0, 254.

18. Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1972). Armada Española desde la Unión de los Reinos de Castilla y Aragón. Museo Naval de Madrid, Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval, Tomo III, Capítulo III. Madrid, p. 51.

19. Elliott, J. H. ^ La Europa dividida (1559-1598) (Editorial Critica, 2002). ISBN 978-8-4843-2669-4, 333.

20. Crankshaw, Edward, Russia and Britain, Collins, The Nations and Britain series.

21. ^ University of Birmingham Collections Mimsy.bham.ac.uk Archived 28 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine

22. ^ Tate Gallery exhibition "East-West: Objects between cultures", Tate.org.uk Archived 26 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine

23. ^ "The Tudors had bad teeth? What rot!", The Daily Telegraph, 18 January 2015. Retrieved 28 May 2016.

24. ^ Lee, Christopher (2004). 1603: The Death of Queen Elizabeth, the Return of the Black Plague, the Rise of Shakespeare, Piracy, Witchcraft and the Birth of the Stuart Era. St. Martin's Press. p. viii. ISBN 978-0-3123-2139-0.

Works cited

Black, J. B. (1945) [1936], The Reign of Elizabeth: 1558-1603, Oxford: Clarendon, OCLC 5077207.

Chamberlin, Frederick (1939), Elizabeth and Leycester, Dodd, Mead & Co..

(Subscription or -- (2008). "Elizabeth I (1533-1603)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/8636. UK public library membership required.).

Davenport, Cyril (1899), Pollard, Alfred (ed.), English Embroidered Bookbindings, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., OCLC 705685.

Dobson, Michael & Watson, Nicola (2003), Elizabeth's Legacy in Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum (2003).

-- (2003), The Queen's Suitors and the Problem of the Succession in Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum (2003).

Flynn, Sian & Spence, David (2003), Elizabeth's Adventurers in Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum (2003).

Kenyon, John P. (1983), The History Men: The Historical Profession in England since the Renaissance, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 978-0-2977-8254-4 .

Kupperman, Karen Ordahl (2007), The Jamestown Project, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-6740-2474-8 .

Lacey, Robert (1971), Robert Earl of Essex: An Elizabethan Icarus, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 978-0-2970-0320-5 .

Loades, David (2003), Elizabeth I: The Golden Reign of Gloriana, London: The National Archives, ISBN 978-1-9033-6543-4 .

McGrath, Patrick (1967), Papists and Puritans under Elizabeth I, London: Blandford Press.

Neale, J. E. (1954) [1934], Queen Elizabeth I: A Biography (reprint ed.), London: Jonathan Cape, OCLC 220518.

Rowse, A. L. (1950), The England of Elizabeth, London: Macmillan, OCLC 181656553.

Starkey, David (2001), Elizabeth: Apprenticeship, London: Vintage, ISBN 978-0-0992-8657-8 .

-- (2003), Elizabeth: Woman, Monarch, Mission in Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum (2003).

Strong, Roy C. & van Dorsten, J. A. (1964), Leicester's Triumph, Oxford University Press.

Williams, Neville (1964), Thomas Howard, Fourth Duke of Norfolk, London: Barrie & Rockliff.

-- (1972), The Life and Times of Elizabeth I, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 978-0-2978-3168-6 .

Further reading

Beem, Charles (2011). The Foreign Relations of Elizabeth I. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-2301-1214-8. OL 25553298M.

Bridgen, Susan (2001). New Worlds, Lost Worlds: The Rule of the Tudors, 1485-1603. New York: Viking Penguin. ISBN 978-0-6708-9985-2.

Dunn, Jane. Elizabeth and Mary: Cousins, Rivals, Queens. London: HarperCollins Publishers, 2003; New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004; New York: Vintage Books, 2005. ISBN 0-3757-0820-0.

Hodges, J. P. The Nature of the Lion: Elizabeth I and Our Anglican Heritage (London: Faith Press, 1962).

Jones, Norman. The Birth of the Elizabethan Age: England in the 1560s (Blackwell, 1993)

political biography summarising his multivolume study:

McLaren, A. N. (1999). Political Culture in the Reign of Elizabeth I: Queen and Commonwealth, 1558-1585. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5210-2483-9. OL 7714150M.

Palliser, D. M. The Age of Elizabeth: England Under the Later Tudors, 1547-1603 (1983) survey of social and economic history

Paranque, Estelle. Blood, Fire & Gold: The Story of Elizabeth I & Catherine de Medici. London: Edbury Press, 2022; New York: Hatchette Books. ISBN 978-0-3068-3051-8.

Pollard, Albert Frederick (1911). "Elizabeth of England" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). pp. 282-283.

Wernham, R. B. Before the Armada: The Growth of English Foreign Policy, 1485-1588 (1966).

Susan M. Felch, ed. Elizabeth I and Her Age (Norton Critical Editions) (2009); primary and secondary sources, with an emphasis on literature

William Camden. History of the Most Renowned and Victorious Princess Elizabeth. Wallace T. MacCaffrey (ed). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, selected chapters, 1970 edition. OCLC 59210072.

William Camden. Annales Rerum Gestarum Angliae et Hiberniae Regnante Elizabetha. Archived 18 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine (1615 and 1625.) Hypertext edition, with English translation. Dana F. Sutton (ed.), 2000. Retrieved 7 December 2007.

Clapham, John. Elizabeth of England. E. P. Read and Conyers Read (eds). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1951. OCLC 1350639.

Carlson, Eric Josef. "Teaching Elizabeth Tudor with Movies: Film, Historical Thinking, and the Classroom," Sixteenth Century Journal, Summer 2007, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp. 419-440

Collinson, Patrick. "Elizabeth I and the verdicts of history," Historical Research, Nov 2003, Vol. 76 Issue 194, pp. 469-491

Doran, Susan, and Thomas S. Freeman, eds. The Myth of Elizabeth.(2003).

Greaves, Richard L., ed. Elizabeth I, Queen of England (1974), excerpts from historians

Haigh, Christopher, ed. The Reign of Elizabeth I (1984), essays by scholars

Howard, Maurice. "Elizabeth I: a sense of place in stone, print and paint", Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, December 2004, Vol. 14, Issue 1, pp. 261-268

Hulme, Harold (1958). "Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments: The Work of Sir John Neale". Journal of Modern History. 30 (3): 236-240. doi:10.1086/238230. JSTOR 1872838. S2CID 144764596.

Montrose, Louis. The Subject of Elizabeth: Authority, Gender, and Representation. (2006).

Rowse, A. L. "Queen Elizabeth and the Historians." History Today (September 1953) 3#9 pp 630-641.

Watkins, John. Representing Elizabeth in Stuart England: Literature, History, Sovereignty (2002)

Woolf, D. R. "Two Elizabeths? James I and the Late Queen's Famous Memory," Canadian Journal of History, August 1985, Vol. 20 Issue 2, pp. 167-191

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Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 - 24 March 1603) was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death in 1603. She was the last monarch of the House of Tudor. Elizabeth was the only surviving child of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn.

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What the actors clothes were made of -
As quickly as a character went on the stage the fabric and color of welcome clothing would display the role of the personality he was playing. Elizabethan Nobles and Upper classes used clothing made of velvet's, furs, silks, lace, cottons and fabric.

As undecided Ages, the fabrics used to create costume of the Elizabethans were wool and linen. Clothing used by the upper classes more included silk, understand, and other imported materials.

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The Globe Theater -
As you see here in this video, the little Shakespeare guy talks about the Globe theater and who built the Globe theater with their bare hands. He also talks about how there has never been such a thing in Britain when they made and performed plays at the Globe theater. The most famous plays such as, Hamlet, Romeo & Juliet, and Henry V have performed there and no one could do it as good as they did it back then.

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Arms, Weapons, Dueling -Hailey Marquette 

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Arms, Weapons, Dueling -Hailey Marquette 

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The most common objects that were owned during this time was bladed weapons such as swords, daggers, and knives. Crossbows, pole arms and firearms were also common but not as much.

The type of people to own these objects could have been from any occupations and from different social classes, such as blacksmiths, silk merchants, painters, potters, sculptors and barbers.

Swords were the most popular weapons to be owned by men. Swords had many different varieties, out of all the renaissance weapons the sword went under the most changes, thus, affecting how they were worn on people and used.

There were many different types of swords. There was the arming sword, it was a single-handed weapon from the high Middle Ages, the longsword was a European weapon utilizes during the later Medieval era, it had a hit that measured 10 to 15 inches long, broadsword which was a substantial, straight, and had double-edged blades, and Falchions which was a single edged and single-handed sword.

The next popular was the daggers. The sword and the dagger went hand in hand, especially being used to duel.

Another weapon that was appreciated during this time was a Pike, it was a long narrow, lance-like steel, and had lengthy set of strips of metal. It was over 20 to no less than 10 feet. it was sort of spear like.

Dueling was the combat between two persons, both armed with lethal weapons. It was held to settle quarrels and a point of honor. They used this method instead of using the usual process of justice.

The process of loading and firing a matchlock gun was long and complicated. To defeat this obstacle a new Calvery maneuver was invented.

Armor, which was most commonly associated with warfare was also used for other things such as, hunting, tournaments, and parade costumes.

They also had armor for horses and dogs. Horse armor was more common for protection for certain occasions, were with dogs it was rare and only was used for hunting and warfare.

www.britannica.com/topic/duel, Renaissance Weapons (renaissance-spell.com), Defence, Honour, and Dress - Refashioning the Renaissance (refashioningrenaissance.eu), Renaissance Weapons - Sword Scholar, Arms and Armor in Renaissance Europe | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History (metmuseum.org)

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It is the amazing development of arts and science which is best defining the Renaissance. Weapons and war are completing the picture of a still warlike epoch, when, at times, even the greatest artists had to use their creativity for war related purposes. Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo are the best known examples.

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- Patients with neurological disorders, such as epilepsy would have a hole drilled into their skulls “to let the demons out.” The name of this is trepanning.

- The average life expectancy was 30-35 years old, and 1 in 5 children died at birth. Due to the lack of medical knowledge.

- Common diseases  at this time were smallpox, Hansen’s disease (leprosy), and the Black Death.

- In 1665–1666, the Black Death killed 20 percent of the population of London.

- Herbs were very important, and monasteries had extensive herb gardens they used seeds that looked like miniature skulls to treat headache.

- Doctors gave patients liquid tobacco filled enema´s to treat hernia.

- Doctors used spit to treat skin irritation and earwax mixed with mud to treat migraines.

- The roasted flesh of “well nourished kittens” relieved jaundice.

SOURCES :
https://www.britannica.com/topic/public-health/The-Middle-Ages
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zyscng8/revision/8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ow3RYxZtIBM
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/
https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/63795/11-strange-remedies-used-renaissance-doctors

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A renaissance Man is a person who has expertise and skill in various fields such as art, science, music, literature, and philosophy. Renaissance Man were typically well-educated and curious, with a passion for learning and exploring different disciplines.

Leonardo da Vinci is one of the most famous examples of a Renaissance man, as he was an artist, inventor, scientist, and engineer, who excelled in various fields such as painting, anatomy, mathematics, and architecture.

Michelangelo was another Renaissance Man who was a painter, sculptor, architect, and poet. He is the best known for his works of art such as the Sistine Chapel ceiling and the statue of David.

Galileo Galilei was a Renaissance Man who made significant contributions to the fields of astronomy, physics, and mathematics. He is the best known for his invention of the telescope, which revolutionized the field of astronomy.

William Shakespeare, and English poet and playwright, is considered to be one of the greatest writers in the English language.

Niccolo Machiavelli, politician, and philosopher, was a Renaissance Man who is known for his influential work ¨The Prince¨ on political philosophy.

Francis Bacon, an English philosopher, and scientist, played a crucial role in developing the scientific method and promoting the idea of empirical research.

Dante Alighieri, an Italian poet, writer, and philosopher, wrote the epic poem ¨Divine Comedy¨ and made significant contributions to the development of the Italian language.

Thomas More, an English lawyer, statesman, and author, who wrote the influential work ¨Utopia¨ on the concept of a perfect society

Johannes Kepler, a German mathematician and astronomer, who made significant constributions to the fields of mathematics, astronomy, and physics, including the laws of planetary motion.

https://www.history.com/topics/renaissance/renaissance, https://www.thoughtco.com/galileo-galilei-biography-1991864, https://www.history.com/topics/renaissance/michelangelo, https://www.theartstory.org/artist/da-vinci-leonardo/

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> They believed that "unbalanced humours" caused disease.

> A method used on patients to cure their disease. Purging was a method that used chemicals.

> Bloodletting was a thing that was believed to help patients suffering from a headache or fever.

> Herbs were written down as herbals in their studies. Alongside that were explanations how to use them for medical purposes.

> Herbals were also used to make ointment.

> There was a famous physician names Andreas Vesalius that made a huge discovery with his anatomy sessions that highlighted mistakes by another physician.

> Things the Renaissance also improved on are anatomy, physiology,surgery, dentistry and microbiology.

> Tobacco was used to treat disease, because it was to believed to ward off miasma, just from its smell and taste.

> Miasma was a disease that was believed to be spread through the air.

> New remedies like mercury and antimony were used to purge the body to make patients sweat and vomit.

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Crime, Punishment, and The Tower of London-             Savannah Garcia

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Crime, Punishment, and The Tower of London-             Savannah Garcia

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One of the oldest's and most famous prisons is the Tower of London although it was not meant to be used as a prison in the first place

Prisoners were executed by beheading, firing squad, or hanging which didn't matter your title because even some well-known names came across this tower

John Gerald went as a spy in 1588 until one of his servants snitched on him which led him to be held captive

John Gerald managed to escape the tower with the help of friends and it remained undiscovered for eight years which led him to right a book about the torture in the tower

The prisons were full and filled with diseases of mostly offenders against the civil law

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Back in the day the renaissance had alot of punishments and one of the punishments were carting being carried through the city in a cart, or riding backwards on a horse, wearing a placard describing the offence.

Elizabethan Tortures were very excruciatingly painful and violent.  tortures were use to extract confessions for crime. the Wheel and Thumbscrews were all excruciating methods of Elizabethan tortures.

The upper class was well educated, wealthy and associated with royalty and high members of the clergy. They would often become involved in Political intrigue and matters of religion.

Heretics were burned to death at the stake. Traitors were hanged for a short period and cut down while they were still alive.

The most common crimes were, theft, cut purses, begging and poaching. Theft was a very bad crime in those times.

The primary crime was adultery it was defined as one who had sexual intercourse with another that they were not married or engaged to

The murder rate in elizabethan england was about 1 in 10,000 by comparison it is now 1 in 1000,000.

Begging/unemployment was against the law. it was illegal to live in great britain without an employer.

There were prisons, and they were full, and rife with disease. But they mostly held offenders against the civil law, such as debtors.

The most crimes committed were Larceny / Theft. Larceny-theft hits the top of the crime list, far outweighing any other crime. ...

Burglary. The next most prevalent crime is burglary, another property crime

Motor Vehicle Theft

Aggravated Assault

Robbery

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Childhood in Elizabethan England - Ms. Jennifer Porcelli

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Childhood in Elizabethan England - Ms. Jennifer Porcelli

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In Elizabethan England, one of every 40 women died in childbirth and as many as 200 out of 1000 children would die before the age of 5 🍼

Women would access herbs that could cause the body to abort a fetus as a means of control over pregnancy 🌿

Childhood in Elizabethan England varied amongst the social classes - the nobility and the poor lived very different childhoods 💰

Children of Nobility were educated at schools or with private tutors while the poor were educated at home.   Mostly boys were educated at school houses, while the poor were employed by their families at an early age in business or home duties 👩🏻‍🏫

A fun fact was that boys wore dresses from age 3 - 7, but they wore breeches once they were of age and there be be a celebration 👖

At school, non academic activities included running, wrestling, archery and chess ♔

Children were expected to obey and respect their parents 🚸

If children misbehaved, they would receive beatings or even more severe punishments.  👦

Some parents were unusually cold or insensitive towards their children possibly because of the high mortality rate among infants 😰

Children played with dolls, toy soldiers, hobby horses, while some poorer children, in particular girls, played with dolls made of paper 🐴

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http://www.longhill.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Knowledge-Medicine-in-the-Renaissance.pdf

https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zh63vwx/revision/3

https://interestingengineering.com/health/13-medical-practices-of-the-renaissance-that-are-still-used-today

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SVek1hYgGU

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26065591/

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But we forget that many practices which we took as irrational have found scientific backing and fecal transplant is the new appendage. The accounts of fecal transplant are scarce and not well-recorded.

The enema was used to transplant fresh or fermented stools from a donor to the diseased. It successfully cures diarrhea and other gastrointestinal ailments.

The fecal transplant was used by veterinarians as well to treat animals. Fecal transplant works by restoring the microflora in the colon which eliminates the pathogens.

In modern times, fecal transplant serves as one of the most effective resistance to CDI, irritable bowel syndrome and other gastrointestinal conditions.

13. Cataract

Cataract surgery has been practiced for a really long time. It had its origin in India and Arabic physicians refined the process. The early surgeries were extremely dangerous and were called 'cataract couching'.

In this method, a sharp-tipped needle was used to remove the affected lens. Arabic practitioners developed a suction method to operate on cataract.

Jacques Daviel is credited as the first European to extract cataract from eyes. He achieved this feat in 1748 with a procedure similar to cataract couching.

Later advancements favored suction method and later Phacoemulsification and laser surgeries became the norm. It is clear that modern cataract therapy does not resemble the medieval one in any way, but they were Renaissance thinkers who begot fundamental principles of the science.

The 17th and 18th-century scientists like Kepler, Maître-Jan, Brisseau established the fact that lens was not the most important organ of vision.

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13 Medical Practices of the Renaissance That Are Still Used Today

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But we forget that many practices which we took as irrational have found scientific backing and fecal transplant is the new appendage. The accounts of fecal transplant are scarce and not well-recorded. The enema was used to transplant fresh or fermented stools from a donor to the diseased.

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-Dezmond Fulton

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Renaissance Sports                       Aaniya Williams 

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Renaissance Sports                       Aaniya Williams 

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Soccer/football

Now, you may think you know football, but it has changed a lot since the Renaissance

Similar to American football, it was called “dumb ball” and consisted of throwing a ball made of a pig’s bladder between two markers

In fact, it was so chaotic that in the 1300s, King Edward III banned it! This was not only because it took up too much of the young men’s time, but also, due to the fact that there were no referees, and therefore no one to stop the losing team from pulling a dagger on the other

Jousting

A sport where you charge each other with pointed lances

In a joust, the two jousters first charge back and forth at each other with lances. Once a knight had been unseated, you would fight man-to-man with swords, until someone surrenders.

Melee

A sport where you had to snatch a flag off your opponents back

This game is similar to tag that children play today

This was also a killing sport, players could carry axes, swords and clubs in order to kill their opponents.

Fencing

a combat sport that features sword fighting.

organised sport involving the use of a sword—épée, foil, or sabre—for attack and defense according to set movements and rules.

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Globe Theater Costumes -
The Globe Theatre Costumes were wonderful - sumptuous matters, vivid banner and extremely costly. The costumes did not continually reflect the correct ending of the Play. The Globe actors mainly wore the dress of their own opportunity. Some were specifically fashioned for the actors and some were granted by rich patrons. The Globe plays had expected produced in a excellent hurry in order to guarantee a rapid change of new material and performances for the wanting Elizabethan audience and to beat the competition from rival stages. Not enough time was vacant to build up a trite store of costumes that reflected the correct ending of the play. The costumes in a play, to a degree Julius Caesar, would have been easier to expand as togas are relatively smooth to make. In this instance a blend of Roman clothes and Elizabethan attire might well have existed together.

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The Life of a Globe Theater Actors -
The name of the early Elizabethan Actors was not good and some were viewed as no better than rogues and vagabonds - performers were not trusted. The standing of Elizabethan Actors revised when the purpose-erected theaters were made acquainted and some of the Globe Theater performers became the equivalent of modern's superstars.

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Elizabethan music is cool

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Elizabethan music is so awesome

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Music is fun

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