# data[].attributes.body
Anne Hutchinson was an English midwife who moved to the United States in 1634 alongside fellow English people seeking to begin a new life in the American colonies. Hutchinson, like many other colonists, was a Puritan and sought refuge from religious persecution back in England. She would eventually become a follower of John Cotton, a Puritan minister who held certain heterodox views that were not congruent with mainline Puritan beliefs. Hutchinson would eventually become a preacher herself, yet remained unordained due to her being a woman. She would preach on the necessity of good works in salvation, which was in strict opposition to the traditional Puritan and general Protestant belief that only faith was necessary for salvation. Furthermore, Hutchinson dissented from Puritanism by opposing the doctrine of predestination, which she believed was incongruent with God's mercy and the teachings of Jesus. She would preach and organize her supporters in her own home, steadily forming a domestic community of Puritan dissenters which would eventually garner the attention of clergymen and church officials. Hutchinson would refuse to renounce her views time and again, and would eventually be excommunicated by local clergy and exiled from her community.

# data[].attributes.headline
June 18, 1779 | A Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom

# data[].attributes.subject
June 18, 1779 | A Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom

# data[].attributes.body
On June 18, 1779, "A Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom" was brought forth for consideration to the Virginia House of Delegates by its writer, Thomas Jefferson, who had drafted this bill two years prior. In this bill, Jefferson and others affirm that God has bestowed upon humanity the faculty of personal sovereignty—of free will. He expounds on this point, stating that all people have the right to ascribe to and practice any religious expression which they feel compelled to. Furthermore, he asserts that no person should be forced to practice a particular religious expression, and should have this freedom preserved by the government. This bill would become law in 1782 as Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. This law would become the benchmark for religious freedom and liberty across the colonies and the nation as a whole.

# data[].attributes.headline
1787 | Allen, Jones, & the Free African Society

# data[].attributes.subject
1787 | Allen, Jones, & the Free African Society

# data[].attributes.body
In 1787, African American clergyman Absalon Jones and Richard Allen founded the Free African Society. This religious organization's mission was to bring together Christian denominations in the spirit of collaboration and justice in order to support free black people⁠—those who were not enslaved⁠—as well as their descendents. Jones and Allen sought their organization to be an ardent advocate for free blacks, providing a plethora of services including financial aid, education, and job training. The Free African Society was unique in its nature as an organization founded by those in the black community and directed to help those in the black community, at a time when the institution of slavery had not yet been abolished and racism towards blacks remained heavily prevalent in American society.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Handsome Lake would often preach in longhouses, the common dwelling of some Native Americans tribes including the Iroquois.

# data[].attributes.body
In 1807, Handsome Lake, an Iroquois man, would have a vision that would later be embodied in a code of conduct that was both cautionary and prescriptive. It was cautionary in that it warned of the moral perils of widespread practices among Native Americans including drunkenness and magic. On the other hand, it was prescriptive in that it directed people to engage in practices such as learning English while retaining Native culture and avoiding sexual promiscuity, and shifting dynamics including placing emphasis on the nuclear family rather than the wider community. His visions and eventual 'code' would develop to primarily address social interactions and personal character. It would be from the 1810s to the 1840s that the Code of Handsome Lake would have a deep and widespread impact on many Native Americans.

# data[].attributes.headline
1848 | The African Methodist Episcopal (Zion) Church

# data[].attributes.subject
1848 | The African Methodist Episcopal (Zion) Church

# data[].attributes.body
The African Methodist Episcopal Church and the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church are Christian denominations founded in the United States by African Americans. They are distinctly black expressions of Christianity, being two of the few Christian denominations to have been founded by and specifically minister to African Americans. The African Methodist Episcopal Church was established by clergyman Richard Allen who, with fellow minister Absalom Jones, also established the Free African Society. The AME Church would ground itself in its identity as an expression of black Christianity that was separated from its white counterparts, distancing itself from the discrimination, segregation, and overall racism that was prevalent throughout the white Church. The AME Church's Zion counterpart was organized by minister Peter Williams, Sr in 1921, and adopted its official name with the addition of the title "Zion" in 1848.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Hundreds of people were put on trial during the Salem Witch trials, with many brought to court over accusations made towards them by neighbors.

# data[].attributes.body
The Salem Witch Trials, which lasted from 1692 to 1693, was a period in which hundreds of people were accused of practicing witchcraft, with dozens having been tried and some eventually executed. Having begun with accusations leveled at a group of local young women, the town of Salem, Massachusets soon became the epicenter of concerns over witchcraft. These concerns were further fueled by Salem's Puritan roots, which decried witchcraft and related folkloric practices as being evil and demonic, threatening the salvation of people's souls and the community's stability. In the end, 19 people were executed after being found guilty of witchcraft in trials led by both local officials and clergy, with 14 of the executed being women.

# data[].attributes.headline
February 3, 1870 | Abolition & the 15th Amendment

# data[].attributes.subject
February 3, 1870 | Abolition & the 15th Amendment

# data[].attributes.body
Abolition, the movement to abolish slavery in the United States, gained significant traction in the 1800s alongside other movements, especially Women's Suffurage and Temperance. Many of those active in the aformentioned movements were also Abolitionists. They likewise used their Christian beliefs, theologies, and scriptural interpretations to call for the abolition of slavery. To them, slavery was an unjust institution that has been wronglyfully justified with scripture. Furthermore, they believed that Christians who participate in slavery, including slave masters and traffickers, as well as slavery sympathizers were being severely hyprcritical to scripture and doctrine. While Abolition was not an entirely religious movement, many of those within it justified their beliefs and actions with scripture and theology. The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1870, would end slavery in this nation.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
The Pittsburg Platform remains a defining moment not only for Reform Judaism, but for Judaim in America itself.

# data[].attributes.headline
1885 | The Pittsburgh Platform & American Reform Judaism

# data[].attributes.subject
1885 | The Pittsburgh Platform & American Reform Judaism

# data[].attributes.body
The Pittsburg Platform was a document formulated by Reform Jewish leaders in 1885 at a conference of rabbis in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It consists of eight statements that both established and developed Reform Judaism in the United States; these statements existing principles of Reform Judaism while distancing itself from the traditional elements of Mosaic, kosher, and rabbinic law. The Patform sought to transform Judaism into a social movement that remains religious rather than devolving into a rigidly dogmatic institution. Furthermore, the Platform sought to abandon the concept of Zionism, or Jewish nationalism, and accepting the reality of the Jewish diaspora. This document was formulated at a convention convened by Reform rabbi Kaufmann Kohler.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Pope Leo XIII, the 256th Supreme Pontiff of the Catholic Church, served for 25 years.

# data[].attributes.body
In 1899, Pope Leo XIII would release the encyclical Testem Benevolentiae nostrae, "Witness to Our Good Will" in English. An encyclical is a pastoral letter written by the Pope with the intention that it be distributed universally and read by all Catholics as well as those outside the Church. The contents of encyclical letters are theological, yet often written in order to connect doctrine with relevant social issues. This encyclical, among other things, discussed Americanism, an ideology based on patriotism and nationalism that promotes the idea that the United States is exceptional in its history, government, and society, and that those within and outside of the United States should have deep admiration for the nation. In his encyclical, Leo XIII expresses the perceived grave nature of this ideology by identifying it as a heresy, believing that Americanism places more importance on temporal, human laws rather than divine law as articulated in divine revelation, scripture, and the decrees of the Church. Furthermore, Leo believed that the strict separation between church and state in the U.S. was a dangerous one; to him, the state should embrace the Church's role as a guide for morality and ethics. Many American bishops and prelates responded to Leo XIII's encyclical negatively, believing that Americanism was an ideology that was not prevalent in American society and, therefore, was not a threat either to the Church or the general public.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Women played a crucial role in the Prohibition Movement and the eventual ratification of the 18th Amendment.

# data[].attributes.headline
January 16, 1919 | Prohibition & the 18th Amendment

# data[].attributes.subject
January 16, 1919 | Prohibition & the 18th Amendment

# data[].attributes.body
The Temperance Movement, also known as Prohibition, as a movement that spanned the late-1800s to early 1900s which centered around the banning of the manufacturing, distribution, and consumption of alcohol. Many in this movement of them believed that the consumption of alcohol caused a plethora of societal issues such as absentee fathers and spousal and child abuse. For many Americans, their advocacy for Prohibition was driven by their religious beliefs; they believed that alcohol was a threat not only to the nuclear family, to society at large. They feared that widespread alcohol consumption would continue fuel depraved behavior and sin. Women were the backbone of the Temperance Movement, with some of them who were Christian forming the Women's Christian Temperance Union in 1874. Eventually, the Temperance Movement would achieve its goal when, on January 16, 1919, the 18th Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified. However, this amendment would later be revoked in 1933 with the ratification of the 21st Amendment.

# data[].attributes.body
Father Charles E. Coughlin was a Catholic priest who, throughout the 1930s,

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
President Kennedy was known to be spotted attending Sunday Madd.

# data[].attributes.headline
November 8, 1960 | JFK, America's First Catholic President

# data[].attributes.subject
November 8, 1960 | JFK, America's First Catholic President

# data[].attributes.body
On November 8, 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected to the presidency of the United States, becoming America's first Catholic president. An Irish-Catholic, Kennedy's campaign was marred by suspicions of him utilizing his Catholicism as a means of promoting a specific agenda that aligned with the Holy See rather than the general will of the American public. In other words, many were worried that Kennedy, if he became president, would allow himself to be a puppet of the papacy, allowing the pope and the Vatican to guide his administration. Throughout his campaign, Kennedy would refute these accusations, notably saying on one occasion that he is a candidate for the U.S. presidency who "happens to be a Catholic."

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
James Cone helped pioneer Black Liberation theology as well as Black theology at-large, having a widespread impact on the American Church and social justice.

# data[].attributes.headline
1969-1970 | James Cone & Black Liberation Theology

# data[].attributes.subject
1969-1970 | James Cone & Black Liberation Theology

# data[].attributes.body
James H. Cone was an African American theologian whose work mainly focused on the experience of black people in relation to both Christianity and historical experiences. Liberation theology has its origins in Latin America during the middle of the 20th century when clergy and laity alike began to frame their struggles for democracy and justice within the bounds of their Christian traditions. Cone approached liberation theology through the lenses of an African American and a person of African descent who lived in the midst of the Civil Rights movement. Cone built his approach to liberation theology upon its Latin American roots which focused on justice for the oppressed and the necessity to advocate with and for them. He applied liberation theology to the black experience by decrying the institutions of slavery and Jim Crow on a theological basis, calling for Black Americans to no longer be dehumanized and neglected in pubic life in light of divine law and the teachings of Jesus. An impactful writer, his published works on Black Liberation Theology include Black Theology and Black Power, published in 1969. A year later, he would release another book entitled A Black Theology of Liberation.

# data[].attributes.headline
1971 | Lemon v. Kurtzman & The Lemon Test

# data[].attributes.subject
1971 | Lemon v. Kurtzman & The Lemon Test

# data[].attributes.body
Lemon v. Kurtzman was a United States Supreme Court case that addressed the U.S. Constitution's Establishment Clause, and ultimately led to the Supreme Court formulating a set of guidelines known as the Lemon Test which would be used to determine if a law was in violation of the Establishment Clause. This case was brought to the Supreme Court after residents and educators in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island opposed these state's statutes allowing for state funding for schools that were not in the public education system, which included religious educational institutions. Its opponents believed that state funding for religious schools was a direct violation of both the Establishment Cause and the First Amendment. The Supreme Court would decide that the laws in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island were indeed in violation of both the Establishment Clause and the First Amendment, making the laws unconstitutional. The Court would subsequently formulate the Lemon Test, which stated that a law must be strictly secular, neither promote nor inhibit religious practice, and not lead the government to be engaged with religion. Lemon v. Kurtzman would further solidify and codify the separation of church and state in the United States.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Donald Aguillard (pictured above) was an assistant principle at a school in Louisiana and the defendant in the Supreme Court case Edwards v. Aguillard.

# data[].attributes.body
Edwards v. Aguillard was a United States Supreme Court case that addressed the teaching of the creationist perspective in public school science curriculum. The proposed Louisiana law "Balanced Treatment for Creation-Science and Evolution-Science in Public School Instruction Act" sought to hav ethe creationist perspective taught alongside the evolutionary perspective, with the Act's supporters arguing that it only furthered the cause of academic freedom. However, opponents of the Act, including a large group of educators, sought to strike down this bill in fear that this bill would impede on the separation of church and state. Their case eventually went to the Supreme Court, which decided that the Act was unconstitutional due to it infringing two principles in the Constitution, namely the Establishment Clause and the Fourteenth Amendment. After the Court's decision, the law was removed from consideration by the then Governor of Louisiana.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Peyote, a type of cactus, is often found in the souther United States (especially Texas) and in much of Mexico.

# data[].attributes.headline
1990 | Peyote, "Free Exercise," & the Supreme Court

# data[].attributes.subject
1990 | Peyote, "Free Exercise," & the Supreme Court

# data[].attributes.body
In 1990, the practice of consuming peyote, a type of cactus with psychedelic effects, in the context of Native religoous rituals was legally challenged on the national level. Alfred Smith and Galen Black of the Native American Chruch, which considers peyote a sacramental, were fired from their jobs because of their practice. Having been denied unemployment benefits by Oregon's state government on those same grounds, they appealed to the state courts and won due to the Constitution's caluse pertaining to "free exercise" which protected their consumition of peyote due to its religious significance. However, the case would later be appealed to the Supreme Court, which would eventually decide that "free exercise," including religious exercise, was not above state law. In other words, state law (when it is unbiased and fair) would take precedence over "free exercise."