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The Subarctic America includes most of present-day Canada and Alaska. It is located in the Northern Hemisphere just south the Arctic regions.

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Geography (physical features) and Climate 

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PHYSICAL FEATURES: coniferous forests and marshes

CLIMATE: The Subarctic region is composed of mostly boreal forests and tundra. (Boreal forests have coniferous trees, such as spruce, pine, and fir. These trees do not lose their leaves throughout every seasons. The tundra is the coldest biome. There are little trees due to the poor nutrients and low precipitation.) LONG AND EXTREMELY COLD WINTERS AND SHORT AND COOL SUMMERS WITH A SMALL PRECIPITATION

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Algonquian speakers like Innu, Cree, and Ojibwa and Athabaskan speakers like Chipewyan, Beaver, and Slave were the two large (linguistic) groups of major tribes.

There were also some Eskimo peoples in this area (although they are grouped with Arctic peoples).

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They HUNTED game animals like moose, caribou, bison, beaver, and fish, and GATHERED wild plant foods such as berries, roots, and sap.

They used bows and arrows, spear-throwers, and basket traps to FISH. To hunt, mobility also was important and they used vehicles like bark canoes and hardwood toboggans (from the fur trade period, dogs pulled toboggans) and travel aids like snowshoes and snow goggles.

They dried, smoked, and cached their food resources since starvation was always a potential problem.

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They built easily-built shelters using easily transported materials that were found easily nearby because they had to move around.

Wigwams were common among the Algonquian peoples and they were similar to the tipis of the Plains peoples. There were also other types of houses found in this area.

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After the growth of the fur trade (by Europeans), they started to provide pelts for the Europeans for resources instead of hunting and gathering.

Because of the harsh environment, the Subarctic peoples valued personal autonomy, competence, and responsibility. They acknowledged the scarcity of resources and focused on the reality.

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The American Arctic includes the northernmost parts of present-day Canada and Alaska. It is located near the Arctic circle.

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Geography (physical features) and Climate

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Geography (physical features) and Climate

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PHYSICAL FEATURES: The tophography is pretty flat. There are no trees in the region.

CLIMATE: mostly extremely cold temperatures throughout the entire year. Precipitation is mostly in the form of snow and there is very little precipiation (equal to or less than 10 inches/year), making the region a frozen desert.

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The Inuit’s View of Life - [Visit Greenland!]

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Eskimo (Inuit and Yupik/Yupiit) and Aleut are the major tribes in the region. Their traditional languages are of the same family: the Eskimo-Aleut family.

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Summer sunlight supports some growth of vegetation and draws large herds of big game animals. The coasts' diet manily consists of sea mammals and fish.

Eskimos hunted animals, including birds, caribou, seals, walrus, polar bears, whales, and fish. This provided nutrition for at least ten months. Aleuts also hunt, fish, and gather food.

For hunting, they would use bows and arrows (to hunt game animals) and for fishing, they would use traps, nets, and hooks. They used dog sleds for transportation.

In general, the Arctic peoples relied on hunting and gathering for food.

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Most Arctic peoples spent their winter in well-insulated houses had framework of timber of whalebone. Because of the cold climate, these houses were partly underground and had central heating.

Some Arctic peoples near the ocean built temporary houses called igloos. Hunters and fishermen used these.

They also built special large houses called kashim for public and ceremonial uses.

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Their religion was based on animism and they believed in reincarnation. For good luck, they carried objects called amulets which were believed to have special powers.

Their clothes were often made of animal skin and fur to keep them warm and away from the cold. They wore pants, boots, mittens, and parka. Caribou skin and sealskin were used a lot.

The Inuit are believed to have created the concept of kayaks.

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Northeast America includes northeastern parts of present-day U.S. and southeastern parts of present-day Canada. It is in the east by the Atlantic Ocean and in the west by the Mississippi River valley.

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Geography (physical features) and Climate

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Geography (physical features) and Climate

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PHYSICAL FEATURES: This area contains many types of biomes: temperate forests, meadows, wetlands, waterways, and coastal zones. There are some steep slopes, forests, a coastline, and lakes and streams.

CLIMATE: The climate is pretty mild with a high precipitation.

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There were plenty of different groups in this area.

Most peoples of the Northeast were of the Iroquoian, Algonquian, or Siouan language families (these language families were composed of very different peoples).

The Iroquoian language family included the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca.

The Algonquian language family the included Algonquin, Wampanoag, Mohican, Mohegan, Objibwe, Illinois, etc.

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Northeast peoples mostly farmed for food. To do this, they cleared the ground by burning trees and bushes and felled trees by girdling. The women planted corn, squash, beans, pumpkins, and gourds in their fields.

With these, they made soups and stews.

They also hunted and gathered.

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They built dome-shaped wigwams. Because they farmed for food, the Northeast peoples built clustered villages near resources of fresh water. The villages had a high fence to protect the peoples from other peoples' and animals' attacks. Their houses had a frame of small, flexible trees, or saplings. These also had fire in the center for heat and cooking.

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They formed loosely organized bands and villages based on shared language and culture. Bands were created in regions that had abundant natural resources while villages were created by people that needed to farm for food.

Warfare among different tribes was common and therefore groups of tribes often joined to form powerful confederacies. Also, because of frequent wars, military honors were the most important for men and tribes often raided others to captivate women and children.

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The Southeast culture area covers the present-day Southeastern United States. It stretches from the Southern part of the Northeast culture area to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississipi River valley.

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Geography (physical features) and Climate

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Geography (physical features) and Climate

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PHYSICAL FEATURES: This area consists of many different types of biomes: the coastal area has swamps, marshes, and savanna grasslands; the inner area has heavily forested rolling hills; to the west includes the Appalachian mountains..

CLIMATE: the climate is warm and has high enough precipitation for crops.

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There were tribes that Europeans called "the Five Civilized Tribes": the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole.

There were also the Natchez, Caddo, Apalachee, Timucua, and Guale peoples. Many of the Southeastern tribes descended from the Mississippians.

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Like the Northeast peoples, the Southeast peoples relied on farming for food. They grew crops like corn, beans, and squash. Many varieties of crops were consumed in different forms (baked, boiled, or roasted) and were often dried and stored.

Their farming method was to burn the remainders left from the previous harvest to fertilize their fields. Like the Northeast peoples, they girdled and burned trees for more land.

Because animals were abundant, they hunted deer, elk, black bears, beavers, squirrels, rabbits, otters, raccoons, and turkeys. Some even hunted turtles and aligators.

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Because they farmed for food, they built villages near places that had good soil. Most people lived in small, scattered villages near water sources, but some others built towns that were protected by fences.

They built different houses for the winter (circular and sealed tight) and the summer (rectangular and used clay).

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The Southeast peoples used bird feathers to decorate their ornaments and some people tattooed their skin.

Social ranking was developed and important in some societies. It is known that the Chitimacha had a caste system.

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This culture area covers the Great Plains of the present-day United States and Canada. It stretches from the present-day Alberta and Saskatchewan in Canada through the Gulf of Mexico

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Geography (phyisical features) and Climate

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Geography (phyisical features) and Climate

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PHYSICAL FEATURES: prairie. Missouri and Mississippi rivers drain the area; therefore, the valleys of this watershed are the major sources of water.

CLIMATE: The climate is continental, meaning that the area has cold winters and warm summers. There is low precipitation and humidity but much wind. There are sudden changes of temperature.

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There were six big American Indian language families in this area. Tribes were groups of peoples speaking the same language; there may be multiple bands in one tribe.

Algonquian: Blackfoot, Arapaho, Atsina, Plains Cree, Saulteaux, Cheyenne

Siouan: Mandan, Hidatsa, Crow, Assiniboin, Omaha, Ponca, etc.

Caddoan: Pawnee, Arikara, Wichita

Uto-Aztecan: Wind River Shoshone, Comanche

Athabaskan: Sarcee

Kiowa-Tanoan: Kiowa

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Before the introduction of horses, the Plains Indians relied on hunting and gathering then shifted to farming. They grew corn, beans, squash, and sunflowers in the land along the river bottoms. Farming was mostly handled by women, who also foraged for wild plants. Men mostly hunted and grew tobacco. They used dogs when hunting.

After the horses came, hunters started using horses and guns to hunt game animals. Many planted their crops in the spring, spent the summer as nomadic hunters, and returned to their villages in the autumn for the harvest.

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They built houses called teepees and lived in villages (most villagers lived in earth lodges). Many were farmers, so they built earth lodges with wooden frames that had great capacity.

Teepees were made of buffalo skins and had paintings representing the visions or war exploits of the eldest male of the family.

The lodges were dome shaped and made up of earth.

Some large groups formed camp circles which had ceremonial structures in the center.

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After the Europeans brought horses to the Americas, they became an important part of the Plains Indians' lives. They adopted equestrian hunting as they started riding horses and using guns, which helped them immensely. Therefore, their history is divided into two parts: before horses and after horses.

The Plains Indians are seen as the archetypical American Indians in popular culture.

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The Southwest culture area covers the present-day Southwestern United States (Arizona and New Mexico). It is located between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Madre.

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PHYSICAL FEATURES: There is a cool, arid plateau with canyons in the North. The higher plateau has slightly higher precipitation and therefore has some more vegetation. Areas away from the rivers of this area have desert plants. There are deserts and a basin and range system.

CLIMATE: the climate is very arid; because the precipitations are so low, droughts are common. However, the soil is fertile enough for vegetation.

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There were multiple North American Indian language families represented in this area: Hokan, Uto-Aztecan, Tanoan, Keresan, Kiowa-Tanoan, Penutian, and Athabaskan.

Many tribes (like the Hopi, the Zuni, the Yaqui and the Yumalived) lived in settlements called pueblos, while some others (like the Navajo and the Apache) were nomadic.

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Most Southwest peoples did farming and hunting and gathering for food. Depending on their proximity to water source, different tribes had different ways of farming: the tribes close to freshwater were able to rely almost entirely on farming but tribes far from freshwater would use irrigation for farming and rely more on hunting and gathering. Common crops were corn, beans, and squash.

The wild food resources varied depending on elevation and proximity to water. Higher areas had more precipitation and resources like rattlesnakes, rabbits, coyotes, bobcats, and mule deer. Lower areas had less precipitation and resources like grasses and antelope. River valleys had cottonwood, willow, mesquite, and sycamore trees, and mule deer, fish, and waterfowl.

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Many Southwest peoples lived in pueblos. These were made of stone and clay (as they were easy to acquire in this dry region). Pueblos had developed irrigation systems and were built near or in cliffs.

Others living close to water source lived in dome-shaped houses built with logs, straw, and clay. Some nomadic peoples built teepees and hogans (houses built with stone, logs, and earth) that supported more mobility.

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Family (kinship) was important for social organization. Because of this, children, since birth, were treated as important members of the family. For example, the Navajo people hung the cradleboard of babies on the wall so that they would face the other family members at eye level.

Not only the peoples were diverse in the way they obtained food, but they were also linguistically different.

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The Great Basin culture area covers most of present-day Utah and Nevada and substantial portions of Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming, and Colorado and smaller portions of Arizona, Montana, and California in the U.S.

It stretches from the Rocky Mountains to the Sierra Nevadas. (east-west)

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PHYSICAL FEATURES: The area looks like a bowl shaped by the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevadas, the Columbia Plateau, and the Colorado Plateau. There are deserts, salt flats, and lakes.

CLIMATE: The climate is dry with low precipitation. The basins collect the rainfall. This area includes a temperate desert with hot and dry summers and cold winters (there are hot days and cold nights too; the temperature range is wide).

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There were two major North American Indian language families represented in the area: the Hokan and Numic languages.

The Hokan language was spoken by the Washoe.

The Numic languages were separated into more specific languages: the Western Numic languages, spoken by the Eastern Mono, Northern Paiute groups, and the Bannockl; the Central Numic languages, spoken by the Gosiute, Timbisha, Western Shoshone, and the Comanche.

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Most Great Basin peoples foraged for food because of the dry climate. Because of this, they didn't settle in one area.

They consumed roots, seeds and nuts and hunted snakes, lizards and small mammals. Some fished or farmed (a little) if they had close proximity to lakes.

Their tools were the bow and arrow, stone knife, rabbit stick, digging stick, basket, net, and flat seed-grinding slab and hand stone.

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The Great Basin peoples built temporary and easy-to-build houses that were easy to carry because they needed mobility to hunt and gather wild plants and animals.

Their houses were called wikiups, and they were made of willow poles or saplings, leaves and brush.

Their villages in the winter were located close to water sources and wood, while in the summer they were moved often to search for food.

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The Great Basin peoples followed the seasonal cycles and looked for food in several different ecological zones.

The social organization was very fluid compared to other culture areas' peoples. They moved in small groups due to limited food sources and separated often. Thus, they did not have a political organization and remained that way even after the introduction of horses.

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The California culture area consists of the present-day California in the U.S. and the northern Baja-California in Mexico.

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Geography (physical features) and Climate

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PHYSICAL FEATURES: The California culture area is very diverse: there are many environments like seacoasts, tidewaters, rivers, lakes, rain forests, valleys, parched deserts, and mountains.

CLIMATE: The climate is mostly temperate except the deserts and the mountains.

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There were 100 different tribes and 200 different spoken dialects (derived from Penutian, Uto-Aztecan, Hokan, etc.) in California. Some major tribes were the Chumash, Diegueño, Hupa, Pomo, Yuma, and Yurok.

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California peoples hunted, fished, and foraged for food.

Most peoples throughout the area relied on acorns as they were a staple. They used acorns to get flour and made soup, mush, or bread out of it.

Many hunted for game animals. Some others in the coastal area fished for shellfishes and deep-sea fishes in mountain streams, and other game animals. Some others in the desert area consumed pinon nuts, mesquite fruit, and rabbits.

Their tools for hunting varied depending on the environment they lived in.

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They settled in one area to live and didn't move around. Sometimes, small groups would leave the settlement to hunt and gather food. In desert or mountain areas, some people were seminomadic. Coastal and riverine peoples lived the most settled life.

The type of houses varied throghout different regions (environments). Most were dome or cone shaped and were covered with grasses, brush, or bark. Others were wood-framed or earth-covered. Some others were temporary.

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They developed elaborate tales and epic poems through oral literature. There were also songs that told stories. They used drums, rattles, and whistles when singing.

There were many rock paintings in the area. Rock paintings showed individual and group rituals or trails.

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The Northwest Coast culture area stretches from present-day Alaska (southern) to British Columbia to the top of Northern California (covers a long and narrow belt of Pacific coastland and some islands).

It is located between the Pacific Ocean and the mountains of the Coast Range and the Cascades.

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The Plateau culture area covers present-day Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington in the U.S. and British Columbia in Canada.

It is located between the Rocky Mountains on the east and the Cascade Range and Canadian Coast Ranges on the west.

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PHYSICAL FEATURES: The area has a complex coastline and many waterways. The abundant rainfall supports forests.

CLIMATE: The climate is mild with dry summers and wet winters. This area has uneven but very high precipiation.

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PHYSICAL FEATURES: There are rolling hills, flat highlands, gorges, and mountains in the region. Most of the area is desert or grassland (some lower elevations), but some mountain slopes have forests.

CLIMATE: The climate is continental with low precipitation. Some rainfall is in the form of snow during the winters.

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The major groups in this area were the Kwakiutl, Nootka, and Haida.

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Plateau peoples spoke languages from the Salishan, Sahaptin, Kutenai, and Modoc and Klamath families.

The group that spoke the Salishan was called the Salish and they contained tribes like the Flathead, Coeur d’Alene, Kalispel, Lillooet, Shuswap, and Spokan.

Others included the Klamath, Klikitat, Modoc, Nez Perce, Walla Walla, and Yakima.

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Because there were forests with abundant rainfall, the Pacific Ocean, and other water sources, there were ample food resources in the Northwest Coast culture area. Salmons were the most important, and there were sea otters, whales, shellfishes, etc. in the waters.

The men built traps to capture a large amount of fish (mostly salmon), then the women dried the captured fish for longer preservation.

Although fishing was the major way of obtaining food, some did hunting and gathering like others for more food.

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They did not farm and relied on fishing and hunting and gathering wild food resources.

They mainly fished, fishing for fishes like salmon or trout. Like the people on the Northwest Coast, they dried the fish to preserve them for the winter. They also hunted for game animals, both small and big.

They also gathered many plants like roots and wild berries.

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Because there were a large amount of resources, the Northwest Coast peoples were able to settle in one area. They built villages near waterways or the coast.

In summer, they hunted and gathered food to prepare for the winter. Thus, they had multiple bases of operation and separated to work. In the winter, they moved into the village again and resided in their main family house.

They built rectangular houses with wood from nearby forests. The houses had a central fire pit.

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They built small, settled villages for the winters and during the summer, they would go out to camps in hunting and gathering spots. The villages were built near water sources so they can catch fishes during the winter.

The houses in their villages had two types: the pit house and the mat-covered surface house.

The mat-covered surface houses were sometimes used for the summer.

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People of high status in this area wore clothes made with sea otter fur, mountain goat wool, or even dog wool.

They are known for their woodworking. They used stone tools and sharkskin to make these. Their artwork were often very functional.

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The Plateau villages valued sharing resources, so they often shared their food. Village people shared their hunting spots as well.

Their religion was a mixture of animism and shamanism. One of their main rituals was the firstling rites, which is the celebrstion of the first foods that were caught in the spring.