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Quantifying Antiquity

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Quantifying Antiquity: A logistical approach

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The Hidden Engineering of Qanats: Ancient Persia's Water Secrets

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A Quick Intro to Nabataea and its Water Systems/Ingenuity

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A Quick Intro to Nabataea and its Water Systems/Ingenuity

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History Unveiled

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Kings and Generals

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Nabateans, Petra and the Lost Kingdom - Ancient Civilizations DOCUMENTARY

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Fall of Civilizations

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15. The Nabataeans - The Final Days Of Petra

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Infra Hub

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PETRA JORDAN and ITS WATER SYSTEM, ANCIENT DISCOVERY

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Uncoded Lore

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Desert Water MASTERY; Nabateans' Invisible Empire

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Ancient Nabataeans: Master of Desert Water Management

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Ancient Nabataeans: Master of Desert Water Management

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Ancient Nabataeans: Masters of Desert Water Management | Omrania

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Explore the ingenious water management techniques of the ancient Nabataeans, turning the desert into a paradise. Discover their sustainable solutions at Omrania.

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StoryMaps

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Dominick Lee, Petar Sahinov, James Landsman, Matthew Kukacka, Allen Lu, and Rover Polido

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“Petra is a brilliant display of man’s artistry in turning barren rock into majestic wonder” - Edward Dawson

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Civil Engineering

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Ancient Water Engineers: The Nabataeans of Petra

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THOUGH LESS influential than, say, the Roman Empire, the Nabataean kingdom, which flourished roughly from the second century BC to the first century AD,

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World of Change

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In the 1960s, the Soviet Union undertook a major water diversion project on the arid plains of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. The region's two major rivers, fed by snowmelt and precipitation in faraway mountains, were used to transform the desert into farms for cotton and other crops. Before the project, the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya rivers flowed down from the mountains, cut northwest through the Kyzylkum Desert, and finally pooled together in the lowest part of the basin. The lake they made, the Aral Sea, was once the fourth largest in the world.

Although irrigation made the desert bloom, it devastated the Aral Sea. This series of images from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Terra satellite documents the changes. At the start of the series in 2000, the lake was already a fraction of its 1960 extent (yellow line). The North Aral Sea (sometimes called the Small Aral Sea) had separated from the South (Large) Aral Sea.

The South Aral Sea had split into eastern and western lobes that remained tenuously connected at both ends. By 2001, the southern connection had been severed, and the shallower eastern part retreated rapidly over the next several years. Especially large retreats in the eastern lobe of the South Aral Sea appear to have occurred between 2005 and 2009, when drought limited and then cut off the flow of the Amu Darya. Water levels then fluctuated annually between 2009 and 2018 in alternately dry and wet years. In 2014, the eastern lobe of the South Aral Sea completely disappeared. Water levels in summer 2018 were not as low as they might have been, following a round of seasonal snowmelt in the spring.

As the Aral Sea has dried up, fisheries and the communities that depended on them collapsed. The increasingly salty water became polluted with fertilizer and pesticides. The blowing dust from the exposed lakebed, contaminated with agricultural chemicals, became a public health hazard. The salty dust blew off the lakebed and settled onto fields, degrading the soil. Croplands had to be flushed with larger and larger volumes of river water. The loss of the moderating influence of such a large body of water made winters colder and summers hotter and drier.

In a last-ditch effort to save some of the lake, Kazakhstan built a dam between the northern and southern parts of the Aral Sea. The Kok-Aral dike and dam, finished in 2005, separates the two water bodies and prevents flow out of the North Aral into the lower-elevation South Aral. The dam has led fisheries in the North Aral to rebound, even as it has limited flow into the South Aral. Between 2005 and 2006, water levels in the North Aral rebounded significantly and very small increases are visible throughout the rest of the time period. The differences in water color are due to changes in sediments and water depth.

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A massive irrigation project has devastated the Aral Sea over the past 50 years. These images show the decline of the Southern Aral Sea in the past decade, as well as the first steps of recovery in the Northern Aral Sea.

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NPR

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The Aral Sea has nearly disappeared over the last 60 years. Now, its source rivers are depleting.

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The Aral Sea: Before the Streams Ran Dry

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The Aral Sea: Before the Streams Ran Dry

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The Aral Sea, Before the Streams Ran Dry

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In 1964, it was the world’s fourth largest lake. Thanks to irrigation projects, now it is mostly gone.

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Earth.Org

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Once a spectacular water heaven in the very heart of Central Asia, the Aral Sea today stands as a harsh reminder of the devastating impact of the inadequate irrigation policies that led to its disappearance, compounded by the exacerbating effects of climate change on one of the world's most captivating ecosystems. As waters receded, they left behind salt-encrusted plains, a rather inhospitable environment where little can thrive.-
When we observe the open, sandy, and sparsely vegetated areas, it is difficult to grasp that these were once the depths of a magnificent and vast lake, nestled in the middle of Central Asia. The stark reality is that the Aral Sea, formerly the fourth-largest freshwater lake in the world with an area of 68,000 square kilometres (approx. 26,300 square miles), has transformed into the expanses of the Aralkum Desert that emerged in its place. As the lake dried up, it divided into two distinct bodies of water - the Big South and Small North Aral Seas. Only the latter remains today, with just over 10% of the water currently discernible through satellite imagery.

On the barren shores, where water once lapped against the land, the remaining flora struggles to survive in the harsh, salty environment. Plants like the saxaul shrubs, camelthorn, and other halophytes now dominate the landscape, adapting to the arid conditions left behind by the retreating sea. However, even these hardy plants face challenges as the desertification process accelerates, with saline soils and lack of freshwater threatening their fight for survival.

Background

In the 1960s, the Soviet Union began diverging the Aral Sea's main inflowing rivers - the Amu Darya originating from the Pamir Mountains and the Syr Darya from the Tien Shan mountain ranges - for irrigation purposes, primarily for cotton farming. This led to catastrophic consequences, including biodiversity loss, the displacement of communities reliant on fishing, and the emergence of health hazards due to the exposure of toxic sediments.

Dust and salt storms, fueled by the exposed seabed, spread across the region, affecting air quality and agricultural productivity. The loss of the sea's moderating influence altered local climates, leading to temperature extremes and disruptions in weather patterns, such as the intensification of the Siberian high in winter and the weakening of the Central Asian warm low in summer.

Once teeming with diverse aquatic life, including fish species like the Aral trout and endemic sturgeon, the shrinking water levels have devastated these populations, disrupting the entire aquatic food chain. Many species have either become extinct or are on the brink of extinction.

But besides aquatic species, the Aral Sea used to be a crucial stopover point for millions of migratory birds traveling along the Central Asian flyway. These birds, including pelicans, flamingos, and various waterfowl species, relied on the sea's wetlands as breeding and feeding grounds. However, as the sea shrank, wetland habitats vanished, forcing birds to alter their migration patterns or face severe challenges in finding suitable resting and foraging sites.

As the Aral Sea ecosystem underwent profound changes, human-wildlife conflicts also emerged.

Diminished fish stocks have led to increased competition between wildlife and local communities for limited resources. Additionally, the loss of wetland habitats has brought certain species, such as wild boars and foxes, into closer proximity to human settlements, resulting in conflicts over crop damage and livestock predation.

Paradoxically, the receding waters of the Aral Sea have also created new habitats. Exposed mudflats and salt pans provide breeding grounds for certain bird species and saiga antelopes, while the shallow, brackish waters that remain support adapted fish populations. These new habitats, however, often lack the complexity and biodiversity of the original wetlands, presenting challenges for the long-term conservation of wildlife in the region.

Climate Change Impact

The lengthening and intensification of summers in the Aral Sea Basin due to climate change exacerbate several environmental challenges, particularly in western Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan.

First, prolonged heatwaves accelerate evaporation rates, hastening the depletion of already dwindling water resources. This not only fuels the shrinkage of the sea itself but also reduces the availability of freshwater for irrigation, agriculture, and domestic use.

The increased salinity of the remaining water aggravates the challenges faced by plant life, as many species are unable to tolerate such high levels of salt. This leads to further desertification and loss of vegetation cover, accelerating soil erosion and degradation. Ultimately, these changes cascade through the ecosystem.

Furthermore, the shorter, colder winters disrupt natural rhythms and ecological processes, affecting wildlife behavior, migration patterns, and reproductive cycles. This can lead to population declines and loss of biodiversity as species struggle to adapt to rapidly changing conditions. Moreover, long warmer falls and shorter winters may also impact agricultural practices, affecting crop yields and food security in the region.
You might also like: 'Sobering' WMO Report Shows Asia Hit Hardest By Climate Change in 2023
Initiatives for Restoration and Sustainability

Although the Aral Sea's disappearance was considered the lost case by many, efforts to address "one of the planet's worst environmental disasters," as it was described by the former UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon, have seen some success today, with projects aimed at restoring water flow and replenishing the sea's shrinking basin.

However, the challenges remain immense, requiring coordinated action at both local and international levels. Integrated solutions, investment projects, and scientific collaboration are key drivers of sustainable development and regional integration, supported by the harmonization of legal frameworks and establishment of basin authorities with sufficient powers to ensure continuity in water resource management.

The governments of Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, where the lake is located, have taken proactive measures to address the environmental crisis caused by the shrinking of the Aral Sea, involving multiple stakeholders. The projects entail constructing dams, planting erosion-stopping vegetation such as saxaul shrubs over millions of hectares, establishing water diversion channels, and implementing water-saving technologies in agriculture to alleviate pressure on the sea's inflowing rivers.

For example, the 13-kilometer Kok-Aral dam has already facilitated a significant revival of fish stocks by increasing water volume in the North Aral, resulting in a nearly quarter expansion of the lake since its completion in 2005. Salinity also decreased, enabling a diverse range of fish species to thrive and leading to profound increases in fishing limits. The restoration also led to the return of rain clouds and potential changes in the region's microclimate, offering hope to struggling farmers.

The International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea, comprising Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, collaborates on joint interstate environmental, scientific, and practical initiatives to preserve the Aral Sea, enhance the regional environmental situation, and address shared social and environmental challenges.

Additionally, efforts are being made to promote sustainable land management practices and enhance the resilience of local communities to adapt to changing environmental conditions.

Among the latest projects is the collaborative oasis-making initiative between Kazakhstan and the US Agency for International Development (USAID) aimed at restoring the environment. Japan's involvement in aiding Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan in Aral Sea recovery projects, particularly through funding innovative agricultural techniques and climate-resistant practices, underscores its commitment to environmental cooperation in Central Asia. UN-based programs, such as those for cleaning drinking water and constructing water supply networks in local communities, are also invaluable contributions to the region's sustainability efforts. As part of the broader Belt and Road Initiative, China is actively participating in the "Green Silk Road" program, which focuses on ecological projects in Central Asia. The nation is deeply involved in addressing the environmental degradation in the Aral Sea region by implementing water-saving and ecological protection measures through collaborative efforts and innovative approaches, which have so far successfully improved the region's ecological sustainability.

Conclusion

The Aral Sea's plight, along with other emblematic cases like Lake Chad in Africa or Lake Urmia in Iran, serves as a poignant example of the detrimental effects environmental malpractice and climate change can have on natural ecosystems. Its rapid deterioration shows the pressing need for coordinated efforts to address the root causes of environmental degradation and implement sustainable restoration strategies. The complexities of the challenges faced by the Aral Sea region necessitate transboundary cooperation and engagement from a diverse array of stakeholders.
Featured image: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center/Flickr
National strategies in the region prioritize further growth in water use for irrigation and hydropower, necessitating a coordinated regional water policy to balance water resources use and improve the ecological situation. Although strides have been taken, achieving complete recovery poses a formidable challenge, necessitating ongoing commitment and investment in environmental conservation endeavors to protect the Aral Sea.

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Explainer: What Happened to the Aral Sea? | Earth.Org

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The Aral Sea, formerly the fourth-largest freshwater lake in the world with an area of 68,000 sq km, has transformed into a desert.

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Aral Sea: the Sea that dried up in 40 Years

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Aral Sea: the Sea that dried up in 40 Years

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BBC

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Aral Sea: The sea that dried up in 40 years - BBC News

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Geographics

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UNESCO

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The Persian Qanat

Throughout the arid regions of Iran, agricultural and permanent settlements are supported by the ancient qanat system of tapping alluvial aquifers at the heads of valleys and conducting the water along underground tunnels by gravity, often over many kilometres. The eleven qanats representing this system include rest areas for workers, water reservoirs and watermills. The traditional communal management system still in place allows equitable and sustainable water sharing and distribution. The qanats provide exceptional testimony to cultural traditions and civilizations in desert areas with an arid climate.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Le qanat perse

Dans l'ensemble des régions arides de l'Iran, des établissements agricoles et permanents sont soutenus par l'ancien système de qanats qui puisent l'eau des sources aquifères en amont des vallées et la font circuler par gravité le long de tunnels souterrains, souvent sur de nombreux kilomètres. Les 11 qanats qui représentent ce système comprennent des aires de repos pour les travailleurs, des réservoirs d'eau et des moulins à eau. Le système de gestion communautaire traditionnel encore en place permet un partage et une distribution de l'eau équitables et durables. Les qanats fournissent un témoignage exceptionnel sur des traditions culturelles et des civilisations de zones désertiques au climat aride.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

القناة الفارسية

في المناطق القاحلة في ايران، يستخدم نظام القنوات القديم في ري الأراضي الزراعية حيث يتم سحب المياه من مصادر المياه الجوفيّة في الوديان ثم يتم نقلها بفضل الجاذبيّة الأرضيّة عبر الأنفاق المجهزة تحت الأرض والتي تمتدّ أحياناً لبضعة كيلومترات. هذا وتمتلك القنوات الإحدى عشرة التي يضمها هذا الموقع، مناطق راحة للعمال وخزانات للمياه وطواحين مائية. ويمكّن نظام الإدارة التقليديّة المستخدم حتى يومنا هذا من توزيع المياه على نحو متساوٍ ومستدام. وتشهد هذه القنوات على التقاليد الثقافيّة وعلى الحضارات التي تعاقبت على المناطق الصحراويّة ذات المناخ الجاف.

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

波斯坎儿井

在伊朗干旱的地区，坎儿井这一古老水利系统的支持使得农业和定居成为可能。坎儿井利用重力，将上游河谷的水通过长达数千米的地下暗渠引到下游。构成这个水利系统的不仅有组成这一遗产地的11条坎儿井，还有工人休息区，小水库以及水磨坊。时至今日仍在实行的传统管理方式，使当地得以可持续地平均分配和共享水源。坎儿井是干旱气候下沙漠地带传统文化和文明的独特证明。

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Персидский кяриз

В засушливых районах Ирана для нужд сельского хозяйства используется древняя система кяризов. Данная технология позволяет производить сбор воды из водоносных источников, расположенных на верхних участках долин, а затем, под действием силы тяжести, перемещать её по подземным туннелям зачастую на многие километры. Данный объект представляет собой систему из одиннадцати кяризов, включающую также зоны для отдыха рабочих, водохранилища и водяные мельницы. Всё ещё действующая традиционная система управления обеспечивает справедливое и устойчивое использование и распределение воды. Кяризы являются уникальным свидетельством культурных традиций и обычаев народов, проживающих в пустынных районах с засушливым климатом.

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

El qanat persa

En el conjunto de las regiones áridas de Irán, la agricultura es sostenida por el antiguo sistema de riego de los qanats, que toman el agua de los acuíferos en lo alto de los valles y la hacen circular por túneles subterráneos que a menudo miden varios kilómetros. Los once qanats que componen este sitio y representan este sistema comprenden también zonas de reposo para los trabajadores, depósitos de agua y molinos hidráulicos. Este sistema tradicional de gestión del agua todavía funciona y permite un reparto equitativo y sostenible del recurso. Los qanats aportan un testimonio excepcional de las tradiciones culturales y las civilizaciones de zonas desérticas de clima árido.

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

イランの地下水路カナート

乾燥した砂漠の文明が生んだ灌漑システム。イランの乾燥地域では、農業を営む恒久的な集落は、古代のカナートによって支えられている。カナートとは、水が渓谷の上部沖積地の帯水層から、時には何キロにもわたり、重力に従って地下トンネルを流れるという灌漑システムである。11のカナートはこのシステムを代表し、労働者たちの憩いの場や貯水槽・水車場なども提供するもので、伝統的な地域社会の管理システムとして、現在も適切かつ公平で持続的に水を分配して供給している。カナートは、乾燥気候の砂漠地帯における文化的伝統と文明の極めて重要な証拠である。

source: NFUAJ

Het Perzisch Qanat

In de droge regio's van Iran worden agrarische en permanente nederzettingen vaak voorzien van water door het eeuwenoude qanat-systeem. Met behulp van de zwaartekracht tapt men via ondergrondse tunnels - vaak van kilometers lang - water af uit hoger gelegen grondwaterhoudende bodemlagen, ook wel aquifers genoemd. De elf qanaten waaruit het systeem bestaat bevatten rustplaatsen voor arbeiders, waterreservoirs en watermolens. Het traditionele gemeenschappelijke watermanagementsysteem functioneert nog altijd en maakt een gelijkwaardige en duurzame vorm van waterverdeling mogelijk. De qanaten zijn een exceptioneel voorbeeld van culturele tradities en beschavingen in droge woestijngebieden.

Source: unesco.nl

Outstanding Universal Value
Brief synthesis
Throughout the arid regions of Iran, agricultural and permanent settlements are supported by the ancient qanat system of tapping alluvial aquifers at the heads of valleys and conducting the water along underground tunnels by gravity, often over many kilometres.

Each qanat comprises an almost horizontal tunnel collecting water from an underground water source, usually an alluvial fan, into which a mother well is sunk to the appropriate level of the aquifer. Well shafts are sunk at regular intervals along the route of the tunnel to enable removal of spoil and allow ventilation. These appear as craters from above, following the line of the qanat from water source to agricultural settlement. The water is transported along underground tunnels, so-called koshkan, by means of gravity due to the gentle slope of the tunnel to the exit (mazhar), from where it is distributed by channels to the agricultural land of the shareholders.

The levels, gradient and length of the qanat are calculated by traditional methods requiring the skills of experienced qanat workers and have been handed down over centuries. Many qanats have sub branches and water access corridors for maintenance purposes, as well as dependant structures including rest areas for the qanat workers, public and private hamams, reservoirs and watermills. The traditional communal management system still in place allows equitable and sustainable water sharing and distribution.

Criterion (iii): The Persian Qanat system is an exceptional testimony to the tradition of providing water to arid regions to support settlements. The technological and communal achievements of the qanats play a vital role of qanat in the formation of various civilisations. Its crucial importance for the larger arid region is expressed in the name of the desert plateau of Iran which is called "Qanat Civilisation". Dispersion of primary settlements on alluvial fans of the inner plateau and deserts of Iran is immediately related with the distribution pattern of qanat system across the country. The system also presents an exceptional living cultural tradition of communal management of water resources.

Criterion (iv): The Persian Qanat system is an outstanding example of a technological ensemble illustrating significant stages in the history of human occupation of arid and semi-arid regions. Based on complex calculations and exceptional architectural qualities, water was collected and transported by mere gravity over long distances and these transport systems were maintained over centuries and, at times, millennia. The qanat system enabled settlements and agriculture but also inspired the creation of a desert-specific style of architecture and landscape involving not only the qanats themselves, but their associated structures, such as water reservoirs, mills, irrigation systems, and gardens.
Integrity
The eleven qanats forming this property are still active water carriers and have retained not only their architectural and technological structures but also their function. They continue to provide the essential resource water sustaining Iranian settlements and gardens and remain maintained and managed through traditional communal management systems. These management systems have remained intact and been transferred from the distant past thanks to the collaboration of people and users.

To ensure the continued functionality of the qanats, the water catchment areas are included in the buffer zone and have been committed to highest protection levels considering their essential function in the provision of the water resources. Likewise, the agricultural areas illustrating the distribution and use of the water resources have been protected through buffer zones to allow the full long-term protection of the qanat system.
Authenticity
The authenticity of the eleven qanats has been respected regarding design, technology, building materials, traditions, techniques, management systems as well as intangible heritage associations based on knowledge of the natural environment, material technology and the indigenous culture. Qanats have been founded and constructed based on social collaboration, communal trust and honesty as well as common sense. Furthermore, their stability and functionality has been managed, preserved, expanded and developed based on such joint cooperation.
Protection and management requirements
The eleven qanats comprising this series are included in the national register of monuments of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Their catchment and irrigation areas have been included in specifically designed protective zones with status of buffer zones. The further elaboration and completion of an inventory of the eleven components will assist in monitoring and communicating the full scope of protected attributes.

The overall management of the serial nomination is coordinated by a Steering Committee comprising representatives of the Qanat Councils and relevant government departments including the Cultural Heritage Handicrafts and Tourism Organisation (ICHHTO), Natural Resources, Agriculture, Energy, Road and Urban Development, Environment Protection Organisation, Rural Housing Foundation and NGOs relating to cultural heritage and the environment. Daily management concerns are considered through the ICHHTO National Qanat Base which acts through ICHHTO's provincial offices. A Management Strategy and Action Plan was outlined at the time of nomination, which will be further developed into management and maintenance plans for the individual components These will include interpretation and tourism management plans as well as risk preparedness and disaster response strategies.

The eleven qanats are managed under traditional supervision of qanat councils, each qanat with its local qanat council composed of those knowledgeable in the respective region. The traditional management systems of the inscribed qanats contribute to their unique value but are also essential to their continued preservation and transmission to future generations. Historical knowledge and craft skills preserved over many generations need to be continuously handed down to ensure the future viability of this property. This management system, set up by owners, distributors, consumers and ordinary people, has developed and evolved with the passage of time which has made qanats survive until today and will be the key to their future conservation.

The eleven qanats are further supported by financial and technical means through national resources, and conservation and management measures at all qanats are underway respecting their authenticity and integrity.

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The Persian Qanat Throughout the arid regions of Iran, agricultural and permanent settlements are supported by the ancient qanat system of tapping alluvial aquifers at the heads of valleys and conducting the water along underground tunnels by gravity, often over many kilometres. The eleven qanats representing this system include rest areas for workers, water reservoirs and watermills.

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The Qanat System: Ancient Technology for Sustainable Water Use

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The Qanat System: Ancient Technology for Sustainable Water Use

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Revolve Media

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The Qanat System: Ancient Technology for Sustainable Water Use

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Originally developed in ancient Persia, the qanat system of water channels was introduced to Arabia and then across the Mediterranean region by the Arabs, f…

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World Wonders

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The Ingenious Persian Qanat: Iran's Ancient Water System

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Water History

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Our objective is to explore prehistoric and historic water projects worldwide. We are particularly interested in the effect that water has on the quality of life.

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Iransafar

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Several thousands of years ago, ancient Iranians invented a new system called Qanat or Kariz. With this unique invention it was possible to collect significant amounts of underground water and bring it to the surface, which, like natural springs, reaches its surface throughout the year without any help from inside the earth.
The word Qanat (Ghanat) is Arabic but this aqueduct system has been originally called Kariz in Iran.
Most central Iran is warm and dry. Living in these areas without sufficient rain and running water is impossible, but Iranians have used the Qanat techniques to meet their water needs and fertilize dry deserts. Warm and dry regions of the rest of the world, such as Australia, are uninhabited, but thanks to this achievement, many cities and villages exist at the heart of deserts and their agricultural products including fruits, vegetables and oilseeds are exported.
According to Ministry of Energy statistics, about 36300 Qanats have been identified in Iran. These aqueducts are also found in countries that have been part of Iran or had cultural ties with Persia. In Mesopotamia, especially Iraq and Syria, Pakistan and Afghanistan, western China, southern Russia, young Persian Gulf states, North Africa and southern Europe, but the number of Qanats within Iran alone exceeds the total number of aqueducts outside Iran.

The oldest Qanats of Iran

In 2014, traces of an old Qanat which dates back to the third millennium BC were found near the Seimareh Dam (West Iran). It shows that this system was wide spread around the country and not only applied in the desert. Sargon I, Assyrian ruler mentioned an aqueduct in his attack on Lake Urmia in the early seventh century BC.
In 2003, after the Bam earthquake, an aqueduct was discovered that is more than 2000 years old and was dug in the late Achaemenid period.

Qanats of Gonabad

Qanats of Gonabad are ranked among the oldest in Iran. The still active QASABA qanat in Gonabad town dates from Achaemenid period, 6th to 4th C BC, when Qanat system became very common, and this was probably one of the Achaemenid victorious achievements against the Medes because they could use Qanats to develop more agricultural lands and thus more population. Herodotus also referred to their agricultural activities as a reason of Achaemenid rise.
Silakes, The military commander of Darius I, who conquered Egypt, completed the construction of an aqueduct in Egypt in 518 BC. Later Egyptian and Syrian aqueducts were built in the Roman era.

Qanat System Definition

It's good to know that the Achaemenids' knowledge of digging was also applied in their attacks on cities with defensive walls. The Achaemenids used tunnels beneath the walls to gain access to the city or castle. These types of military tunnels have been documented in some conquests in Turkey and Cyprus.
Ghanats should be maintained regularly every year. Each spring, experts go inside the qanats to spot and solve its problems ... This is why Persian Qanats have survived over two thousand years and some are still in use. However, the famous Roman aqueducts have all become archaeological sites.

Greek Polybius describes a Qanat in a Persian desert in the second century BC, saying that Iranians were mysteriously bringing water from depth of earth to the surface. Vitrovius (80 BC) describes the Qanat in a book and reveals some of the technical secrets of this engineering phenomenon. At the request of Abdullah ibn Taher Khorasani, a group of writers wrote" Qouni" book in the 8th century AD describing the construction of the Qanat

The first step is to identify the water upstream, usually at the foot of the mountain and at the beginning of the plain. The location of this underground water table is conjectured by Qanat experts then they test it by drilling test wells to make sure it is stable. Then the diggers begin digging the aqueduct well. The mother well is usually one meter in diameter. If the diggers are lucky, they will reach water in depth of less than 16 meters, but may sometimes go much deeper.

Drilling should be done in the fall, which is a dry season, allowing the well to be dug deeper.
The next step after determining the location of the mother well is to calculate the route and slope of the underground channel based on the Qanat outlet location. The slope of the Qnant is usually gentle. If the slope is too low, water will stagnate, and if the slope is high, water will cause erosion and qanat would collapse.

Persian Qanats listed in UNESCO world heritage list

At its 40th meeting in Istanbul, Turkey on July 10, 2016, the World Heritage Committee listed four new sites from China, India, Iran and Micronesia on the World Heritage List. Eleven Iranian Qanats were listed as the 20th in the list of Iran's UNESCO World Heritage Sites. At the World Heritage Committee meeting, representatives of various countries commented on Qanat case presented by Iran and most countries including Kazakhstan Azerbaijan and Poland supported this Iranaian ancient architectural phenomenon to be registered in UNESCO World Heritage List. Most member states acknowledged the historical importance of Iran's aqueducts, their sophisticated and civilized systems, and their environmental benefits.
The names of the registered Qanats are: Qassabah (in Gonabad), Baladeh (in Ferdows), Zarch (in Hassan Abad), Mirza Nasrollah Water Mill (in Mehriz), Juppar (in Kerman), Akbarabad and Qasemabad (in Bam), Moon (in Ardestan), Wezwan and Mazdabad (in Isfahan) and Ibrahim Abad (in Arak)
UNESCO expert visiting Iranian Qanats of Yazd, 2016
Read more about Persian Qanats in UNESCO website

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Qanat is an Iranian invention of collecting underground water and bringing it to the surface like natural springs in some deserts of Iran.

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National Geographic

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Beneath Iran's Dusty Desert Lie Ancient Water Tunnels Still in Use | National Geographic

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Learning about Energy Crises from Ancient Nabataea

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Learning about Energy Crises from Ancient Nabataea

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Climate change is bringing new challenges to communities around the world. These include nearly three billion people worldwide who depend on solid fuels for household cooking and heating. In Africa, the proportion of residents dependent on solid fuels is increasing and is almost 80%. In Southeast Asia, 61% of the population still utilize solid fuels. More than a third of the people in the Eastern Mediterranean also use solid fuel-primarily wood and charcoal. Social unrest and natural disasters can lead to years long power outages that force everyone back to the basics of fuel wood and charcoal. With permanent reconstruction of the devastated power grid of Puerto Rico still pending seven years after hurricane damage, outages have become longer and more recurrent in recent years.

Lessons from the past can help improve energy and resource management today and for the future. The ancient Nabataeans used a wide range of energy resources. Their expertise enabled the capital city of Petra to prosper and support as many as 30,000 people two thousand years ago. Much can be learned from their energy management. While some studies of energy use at that time in Rome and Pompeii have been done, the analysis of energy use in the provinces away from Rome has lagged.

The energy needs of the Nabataeans were met with a wide range of resources and this diversity provided resilience in the face of climate variability and social change. The primary energy resources were biofuels with no net impact on climate change gases. Their complex energy system provided some protection against scarcity caused by drought, locusts, wildfire, war or disease. The primary energy sources included fuelwood, shrubwood and prunings, olive oil, olive pomace, grape vine prunings, charcoal, dung, food and fodder.

Many of these biofuels are little-studied and not widely understood or promoted today. A better understanding of these resources can help families and communities in Ethiopia, Sudan, Syria, Mali, Mexico, Lebanon, India, Nigeria, Chile, Laos and many other countries and regions where people still rely on these fuels. The Nabataean's expertise can be of use for many today to more sustainably manage energy while restoring forests and shrub lands.

Fuelwood

Wood was one of the most important sources of energy for the households, visitors, and businesses in Nabatea. The gross caloric potential of fuelwood is around 20 GigaJoules per ton of dry wood (a gigajoule is about equal to 26 liters of gasoline or 277 kilowatt hours). Nabatean fuel woods included oak, pistachio, juniper, hawthorne and other trees. The Nabataean demand for fuelwood and timber eventually eliminated most of the Jordanian forests. Repeated cutting with resprouting (coppicing) can work if the harvest is not too severe or repeated too often. Oaks (Quercus sp.) ( baluwt) were preferred fuel wood and also provide food. Acorns are still harvested and eaten in many places including Portugal, the American Southwest, and Korea.

We don't know for certain how much fuelwood they used, but we can look at comparable areas where fuel wood was the primary energy source. A study in the American Southwest found annual fuelwood consumption in Cochise County, Arizona in the late 1800s was about 2 cubic meters or 1.5 tons per capita., Detailed studies of the potential fuelwood harvest from a comparable blue oak woodlands in California found it could provide about 10 tons of fuelwood per hectare. Thousands of hectares would have been cut every year to support the Nabatean capital and towns. Making charcoal at 10-20% efficiency would consume even more trees.

Camels or donkeys could bring fuelwood from sources far from town. A camel could carry 200 kg, a mule 150, and a donkey 25-50. Carts may also have been used on the high road Via Nova Traiana. People would carry fuelwood in as well. The forests would have gotten smaller and more barren year by year If we could go back in time, we would likely see 'wood' roads reaching out from Petra. As a resident of Tombstone, Arizona, noted in the late 1800s, "There were wood roads fanning out from Tombstone like the veins of a leaf, some were just tracks, others well worn." When the demand for fuelwood is very high the roots of trees and shrubs are dug up and burned. Roots can be good fuelwood but their removal eliminates the possibility of resprouts and increases the risk of erosion, floods and landslides. As fuelwood costs rose, the use of prunings, pomace, dung, and imported fuels would have intensified.

Looking at the highlands and mountains of Jordan today it is hard to imagine the forests of pistachio, juniper, oak, cypress and other drought-tolerant trees and shrubs that once graced the hillsides and wadis.. The forests and woodlands have been severely reduced by human activity., But they can and should be restored.

Shrub Wood and Pruning

Some shrub species were much better fuels than others and were also over-harvested. The nitrogen fixing Retama raetam has been a highly desirable fuel for cooking and heating from ancient times. Retam shrubs could provide 2-15 kg of wood each. If a household relied on shrub wood they might use 10 kg of shrubs from a hectare every month. The capital city of Petra alone might have used 4,000 ha of shrubs a year. Retam was also favored because it was not grazed heavily, but would be eaten by camels. Artemisia sieberi ( s heeh) is still stockpiled in some areas for cooking fuel. Research has made it clear that restoring healthy shrub lands is possible with water harvesting and grazing management. Within five years after planting there can be a considerable harvest every year. Multipurpose species are preferred. They can provide fuel, food, fodder and medicine.

Olive trees and other fruit and nut trees in the Nabataean agroforestry system were pruned regularly. The heating value of olive pruning debris ranged from 16.7 GJ/ton to 19.8 GJ/ton. Olive orchards will yield 1-4 tons of olive pruning per hectare or about 50 GJ ha. However, soil health will decline if most of the organic matter is removed every year.

Nabataean wine was traded overseas and achieved a formidable international reputation. The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, dated around 280 CE, contains a contract for labor in a vineyard. Grapevines are pruned to improve yield and quality. The energy content of grapevine prunings ranges from to 7-18 GJ/ton. The fuel quality depends on the cultivar, the season, and management. The basket method ( kouloura) of pruning is ideally suited to arid, windy sites, and might have been used., Pruning might amount to 1.4-1.8 tons per hectare for perhaps 19 GJ/ha. Vine prunings are still used for heating and as fuel in bakery and restaurant ovens. Vine prunings are the preferred fuel for piglet roaster restaurants in the Bairrada region of Portugal.

Olive oil, Olive Pressing Waste (pomace, Jift)

Olives were an essential resource in Nabatea and olive presses have been found at almost all agricultural production sites in Jordan. Thirty-one presses were identified in the Brown University Petra Archeological Project. An ancient receipt from Umm al-Biyara and abundant traces of Nabataean agroforestry suggest the main commodity being produced was not grain but olives. Olive trees were planted on slopes and terraces as well as in more favorable locations. Olive trees were also grown within the towns and cities. Wild subtypes of olives ( Olea europaea subsp. oleaster) are still found in the area.

The olives were collected, crushed, and pressed to release the oil. Olive oil has an energy content of 39 GJ/ton. The old, traditional olive production system in dry-farmed areas around the Mediterranean uses tree spacing from 7.6-18.3 meters apart with 30-173 trees/ha. Olive yields were between 1.1-4.5 t/ha with a long delay before full production (15-40 years) and significant changes in yield due to alternate bearing.

On average 100 kg of olives will produce 14-20 kg of oil. Each 1,000 kg of olives brought in to a mill may also result in 500 kg of olive pomace ( jift). The amount and the oil content of the jift depend on the growing season, ripeness, cultivar, crushing method and type of press. Jift is well suited for heating and cooking as well as firing pottery and lime kilns. The caloric value of jift runs from 17-24 GJ/ton. Olive pits also burn well with 19 GJ/ton.

Traditional rain-fed olive plantations could yield 3.5-7 tons of jift per hectare each year. Olive orchards would provide jift for use at homes, bakeries, potteries, and lime-makers. Replanting the olive groves with water harvesting should be possible. In other countries native multipurpose trees with fruits, nuts, pollen and nectar for bees, and other resources can be substituted.

Charcoal

Charcoal was used for cooking, heating water and coffee, space heating, metalwork, and smelting in Nabatea. Charcoal was expensive and this limited its use in pottery kilns. But olive pits were used as a fuel and were found in the Zurrabah kiln excavations. Charcoal would have been made in both pits and mounds. Oak was preferred, but other species and most small shrubs and prunings could be used. A ton of branches or shrubs could yield as much as 150 to 250 kg of charcoal.

Charcoal vendors probably imported significant amounts of charcoal to the capital city, but competition for charcoal by the copper mining and smelting area of Feinan may have kept the price high . Like Rome, charcoal and wood would have been taken to a central market in Petra and sold, first by wholesalers to retailers who could afford to buy relatively large quantities, and then to individual householders, who could not. Records show that in 301 CE Rome the wholesale cost of a mule load of 140 kg of firewood was the same as a retail bundle of just 7 kg. A profitable return!

The Bedou 'Ammareen (sub-clan of al-Sa'idiyeen) of the Petra region were known in the nineteenth century for their charcoal trade with Egypt. Charcoal could provide a small source of cash for individuals as well. One of EA's friend's grandfather would chop down a Pistacia atlantica while traveling, make charcoal, then trade it and wild game for soap, tea, sugar, and other household goods in Nablus (350 km away). Charcoal production undoubtedly contributed to the deforestation across Nabatea. Charcoal has received more attention than other biofuels, but much more could be done.

Dung

Animal dung has been used for heating, cooking, and firing pottery in many areas of the world. Camels played an essential role for most of the Nabatean era. A camel will produce about 8 kg per day. It is dry and odorless and has an energy value of 12-14 GJ/ton. Camels were essential in the spice trade caravans and a caravan might have hundreds or even thousands of camels. Camels were also bred and trained for war and the Nabatean cavalry may have had thousands of camels in service. These numbers were not matched again until WWI when the Imperial Camel Corps had 20,000 camels.

Donkey dung is also fairly dry and odorless. Sheep, goats and oxen dung are also useful fuels when dried. In preparation for cooking bread or meals an oven, even today, may be heated overnight with slabs of sheep dung set around the exterior. In some areas women would store large supplies of this sheep dung.

Animal dung can be used to fire pottery without kilns in a process called bon-firing (aka clamp firing, raku). Sheep dung has been used this way by ancient and modern potters in the American Southwest. Pots fired in the domestic hearth may leave no trace. Potters in villages in northern Jordan still make pottery this way. Bon-firing temperatures in a range of studies have reached between 600-900°C. Dung would also be in demand as a fertilizer for gardens and crops and burning much of the dung would eventually result in diminished soil fertility and crop yields.

Food for people

The agroforestry system developed in Nabatea was a complex mix of olives, grape vines, fruits, vegetables and grains. Wheat cultivars and barley were the important grains. The yield of emmer wheat might have been 1-3 tons per hectare. The city of Petra needed 15 tons of wheat a day and 5,000 tons a year. Grain imports probably came from the Negev highlands or even further away. Studies suggest the total area of agricultural fields in the Central Negev Highlands may well have been more than 4,000 ha. Harvests over hundreds of years with little return of micronutrients to the soil no doubt led to lower yield and less nutritious crops. The water harvesting techniques they developed and used to grow crops in the desert are needed around the world.

Fodder for Animals

Most of the energy demand for the animals in Nabatea was met by open grazing. Grains might be fed at times. The soils around towns and cities were quickly laid bare by intensive grazing but highly mobile herds could seek out the best pasture even many kilometers from towns. Edible shrubs and tree seedlings would gradually disappear. Browse lines would be clear on shrubs and trees.

Overview: How Nabatean energy demand was met

Household uses: Fuelwood, shrub wood, charcoal, pomace, pruning, dung, solar energy, olive oil, etc.

Bread and Bakery: Fuelwood, shrub wood, pomace, pruning, dung

Cooking and lighting: Fuelwood, shrub wood, charcoal, pomace, olive oil

Heating and hypocaust heating: Fuelwood, charcoal, pomace

Pottery: pomace, olive pits, pruning

Smelting: Charcoal from fuelwood and shrub wood

Food for animals: Browse and feed

Food for people: Wheat, barley and other foods
Olive oil for food and lighting
Burning these fuels in the confined wadis, towns and capital would have led to significant air pollution problems. On a still day in winter it would have been very smoky. This would have adverse health impacts.

Nabataean energy use was ultimately not sustainable, but the remarkable performance of their resource management over the centuries is impressive and in many ways has never been duplicated. The take away lessons from Nabatea is to make full use of water, 'wastes' as resources, anda wide range of species. This complexity increases resilience. Hopefully this first attempt at understanding energy use in Nabatea will lead to more detailed research providing revelations as informative as those from the engineering analysis of the water system of Petra.

Application of Nabataean soil and water management strategies could double or triple the current wheat and barley yield per hectare in Jordan. Today, Jordan produces only 100,000 tons of wheat a year with yields of just a ton per hectare. In contrast, the Nabateans used a wheat variety that may have produced 3.5 tons/ha in the Negev. Rediscovering the Nabataean expertise could help keep some of the money now spent importing grain in Jordan in Jordan, reducing vulnerability and creating jobs. Mobile kilns and briquette makers could produce high quality charcoal from shrub wood and prunings.

Supporting rediscovery of the complex agroforestry systems developed in Petra could help olive and fruit and nut growers, vineyards, and farms prosper while improving biodiversity and providing renewable biofuels., The issue of securing local energy supplies is often critical for areas and countries with limited supplies of fossil fuel. Countrywide and regional instability around the world makes local self-reliance ever more important.

The restoration of shrubs and trees can result in more local, renewable biofuels and will also sequester carbon. Restoration of trees, shrubs and crops will also reduce the risk from flash floods. Better control of grazing with revived use of the hima system can foster recovery of ecosystems.

Social factors, economic pressure, tenure (land use rights), and neglect of the value of Nature's Services have also rarely been considered. Some of the critical social aspects of ancient Petra are unknowable due to a lack of records. Obstacles to the spread and adoption of innovative systems are often complex, but not insoluble. Research over the last fifty years has demonstrated the feasibility of restoring damaged arid lands, but many challenges, primarily socio-cultural, remain.,, Getting local communities engaged is critical.

The experts of ancient Nabatea have much to offer the World in inspiration and technique. Climate change and political instability makes action to restore lands and improve use of biofuels ever more important.

References

. Al-Mughrabi Nidal. "Gazans turns to firewood as energy prices soar." Reuters. January 5, (2023). https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/gazans-turns-firewood-energy-prices-soar-2023-01-05/

. Acevido, Nicole. "Outraged Puerto Rico residents express frustration over widespread power outages." NBC News. June 13 (2024).

. Veal, Robyn J. "Wood and Charcoal for Rome: Towards an Understanding of Ancient Regional Fuel Economics. In The Economic Integration of Italy: Rural Communities in a Globalizing World, edited by Tymon de Haas and Gijs Tol. Brill. (2017): 388-406. Veal, Robyn J. "Fuel Supplies for Pompeii. Pre-Roman and Roman Charcoals of the Casa delle Vestali." In Charcoals from the Past: Cultural and Paleoenvironmental Implications, edited by G. Fiorentino and D. Magri. Oxford: Archaeopress BAR Series 1807. (2008): 287-297.

. Select Papyri, 1.18. Contract for labour in a vineyard and lease of a fruit garden.
http://www.attalus.org/docs/select1/p18.html
. Vagelis Gavalas, 2023, personal communication. Gavalas Winery, Megalochori, Santorini, Greece.

. Stratos Xyrafis, personal communication.

. 'Amr, Khairieh. "Wadi Musa in der Antike." In Petra. Wunder in der W üste, edited by Antikenmuseum and Sammlung Ludwig, 142-147. Berlin: Schwabe Verlag, (2012)

. It is not always easy to tell a wine press from an oil press site.

. Wikipedia, s.v. "Energy Content of Biofuel." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#:~:text=The%20energy%20content%20in%20the,%2C%20sugarcane%2C%20or%20sweet%20sorghum.

. Vossen, Paul. "Olive Oil: History, Production, and Characteristics of the World's Classic Oils." HortScience 42 no. 5 (2007) 1093-1100.

. Encinas, Enrique Enciso, Rosa Colomer, Pedro Regato Pajares, and Francisco M. Martinez. "Thermal Biomass for Lebanon." Mediterranean Mosaics Project (MM). Shouf Biosphere Reserve (SBR), (2015).

. Kropff, Antony. "An English Translation of the Edict on Maximum Prices, Also Known as the Price Edict of Diocletian." Academia.edu, April 27, (2016).

. Erin Addison, personal communication.

Virginia Cooperative Extension. 2024. Charcoal making resources. https://ext.vt.edu/natural-resources/charcoal/charcoalmaking.html

. Studer, Jacqueline and Annegret Schneider. "Camel use in the Petra region, Jordan: 1st century BC to 4th century AD." Persee/. MOM Éditions Année (2008) 49 pp. 581-596.

. The Imperial Camel Corps. Formation and expansion, URL: https://nzhistory.govt.nz/war/camel-corps/formation, (Manatū Taonga - Ministry for Culture and Heritage), updated 2-Sep-(2014). https://nzhistory.govt.nz/war/camel-corps/formation

. Ward, Andy. "How Pueblo Pottery Is Made." Ancient Pottery. https://ancientpottery.how/how-pueblo-pottery-is-made/

. Nature Conservation Monitoring Center. "Mainstreaming Biodiversity in the Sylvo-Pastoral and Rangeland Landscapes in Pockets of Poverty in Jordan." Jordan: IFAD, GEF, Ministry of Agriculture. (2015).

. Myint, Moe, and Vanja Westerberg. "An Economic Valuation of a Large-Scale Rangeland Restoration Project through the Hima System in Jordan." Report for the Economics of Land Degradation (ELD) Initiative by International Union for Conservation of Nature, Nairobi, Kenya, (2014).

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Nabatea and The Neglected Global Energy Crises | EcoMENA

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Climate change is bringing new challenges to communities around the world. These include nearly three billion people worldwide who depend on solid fuels for

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Prairie Farmers Adapt Ancient Water Systems

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Prairie Farmers Adapt Ancient Water Systems

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Smart Water Magazine

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This year witnessed one of the hottest and driest summers in recent history for Western Canada and the American Southwest. The resulting droughts adversely affected food supply and helped send meat prices rising three times faster than inflation.

Despite the severity of these droughts, the worst may be yet to come. Extreme weather events are expected to become increasingly severe and frequent in the Prairies, with longer dry periods coupled with the risk of floods from intense rainstorms.

While Canada benefits from a world-class agricultural technology industry, lessons can also be drawn from low-tech solutions developed by ancient societies that flourished in arid climates. One such society was the Nabataean culture, which thrived in the hyper-arid deserts of Jordan, northern Saudi Arabia and southern Israel 2,000 years ago. For over a decade, I have worked on Nabataean and Roman archeological sites of this region, exploring their building practices and innovative strategies for overcoming environmental limitations.

Masters of hydraulic engineering

Known for their rock-carved monumental facades at the UNESCO World Heritage sites of Petra (their capital) and Hegra, the Nabataeans grew rich from trading incense between southern Arabia and the Mediterranean. But it was another skill that allowed them to flourish in their arid homeland.

Drawing on local techniques as well as those adopted from neighbouring cultures, the Nabataeans became masters of hydraulic engineering. They constructed complex water management systems that included dams, catchment systems, underground cisterns and aqueducts. These systems were designed to maximize the amount of rainwater collected and stored during the wet winter months and to minimize the amount of water lost through evaporation during the dry summer months.

(AP Photo/Sam McNeil)

At Petra, the Nabataeans constructed a network of dams to protect their capital from flash floods and covered channels to deliver water to the city centre. In the surrounding hillsides, they built terraces to absorb runoff, mitigating flood risk and supporting agriculture. So effective were these catchment and delivery systems that the Nabataeans built open-air pools and monumental fountains in Petra as ostentatious displays of their wealth and power.

South of Petra, at the archeological site of Hawara (modern Humayma), Canadian archeologists have explored and documented the settlement's extensive water supply system. Here, catchment systems directed rainwater runoff to large cisterns that stored it for use in the dry season. These cisterns were roofed to prevent evaporation and were furnished with settling basins to collect sediment. A 26.5-kilometre spring-fed aqueduct also supplied this settlement with drinking water. Much of this system is still in use today.

Ancient techniques for a modern problem

Despite being developed and constructed two millennia ago, efforts are currently underway to revitalize the Nabataean water management systems around Petra to help with flood control and support agricultural development. Elsewhere across the globe, archeology has advanced our understanding of sustainable farming and holds the potential to contribute meaningfully to contemporary water politics. While implementation of these historical solutions may not by themselves solve the complex issues we currently face, they will likely play an important role in helping us adapt to a warmer and dryer climate.

Although the climate and hydrology of the Canadian Prairies are very different from the deserts of northern Arabia, some similarities exist. Just as winter rains in northern Arabia sustained life during the summer months, runoff from snow melt in the Prairies plays an important role in recharging groundwater and represents a significant portion of stream flow during the spring.

Like the underground cisterns built by the Nabataeans, excavated depressions known as dugouts are an important source of water for Prairie farmers. While these human-made reservoirs can be supplied by groundwater, they often rely on spring snow melt. During the drought conditions of this past summer, however, many of these dugouts dried up, forcing many farmers to rely on pumped groundwater, which comes with its own set of issues.

Adopting sustainable practices similar to those used by the Nabataeans to maximize the amount of water collected and minimize the amount lost to evaporation can help increase the effectiveness of these reservoirs. Just as the Nabataeans placed their cisterns to maximize the catchment of runoff, dugouts should be strategically located in fields to collect as much snow melt as possible. The amount of snow melt captured can be further increased by the use of well-designed shelterbelts, which comprise rows of trees and shrubs that act as a windbreak and can also encourage the accumulation of snow.

Settling tanks such as the ones the Nabataeans built to prevent the accumulation of sediment in their cisterns, could also be used to prevent sedimentation in dugouts, improving both storage capacity and water quality.

The Nabataeans were also careful to avoid evaporation, and modern dugouts may benefit from being covered to minimize water loss. Global studies have shown the effectiveness of physical covers at slowing the rate of evaporation, and recently California proposed covering its canals with solar panels to help conserve its water supply while also producing green electricity.

Part of an integrated strategy

While greater investment in water storage systems will improve water security in the Prairies and mitigate the affects of prolonged droughts, these storage systems may also have the added benefit of reducing flood risk by retaining runoff.

Although the adoption of these low-tech and sustainable solutions will not by themselves drought-proof the Prairies, when combined with innovative cropping techniques they may play an important role in helping Canada's farmers mitigate the growing impacts of climate change.

Craig A. Harvey, Postdoctoral Associate, Department of Classics, Western University

This article was originally published in The Conversation. Read the original.

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How ancient water management techniques may help Prairie farmers experiencing drought

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This year witnessed one of the hottest and driest summers in recent history for Western Canada and the American Southwest. The resulting droughts advers...

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