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STEP 1:   Find the theory that was assigned to you (see below):

STUDENTS WITH LAST NAME A-D are assigned to Precaution Adoption Process Model

STUDENTS WITH LAST NAME E-I are assigned to Diffusion of Innovation Theory

STUDENTS WITH LAST NAME J-L are assigned to Social Cognitive Theory

STUDENTS WITH LAST NAME M-N are assigned to Transtheoretical Model

STUDENTS WITH LAST NAME O-Q are assigned to Theory of Planned Behavior

STUDENTS WITH LAST NAME R-S are assigned to the Health Belief Model

STUDENTS WITH LAST NAME T-Z are assigned to the Social Ecological Model

STEP 2:   Choose one (1) concept from the theory that was assigned to you.

STEP 3:   Find a photo, picture or video that is an example of the concept that you have chosen

STEP 4: Post the following:

Title: name of your concept

Photo, picture or video that represents your concept

Explanation of how photo/picture is related to concept

STEP 5:   Comment on at least 2 posts from your classmates

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The transtheoretical model has five steps: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance. The image I chose shows maintenance because it represents how an individual stayed committed to being smoke-free. There has been no relapse, the old smoking behavior has changed, and the lifestyle change has lasted for more than 6 months.

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This image represents the Theory of Planned Behavior because it shows the decision-making process that people go through when deciding whether or not to take part in a behavior. According to the model, a person's attitude toward the behavior (believing quitting is healthy), personal expectations (family, friends, or coworkers encouraging them to quit), and perceived behavioral control (confidence in their ability to quit) all work together to influence their behavioral intention and, in this case, the path chosen. The crossroads image represents the internal balancing of beliefs and social pressures that determines whether someone will act.

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This image represents the Health Belief Model because it is showing one of the core concepts of this model which is perceived severity. This is when the beliefs about the consequences and seriousness of a condition start to settle in and affect an individuals health decision making. In the image, we can see that Terrie was a former smoker and lost her voice due to throat cancer. This is showing the severity of the risks that come with smoking and showing the consequences of it. By showing the damage that has been caused by smoking, it is encouraging others to take the potential consequences seriously.

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This visual diagram represents the Precaution Adoption Process Model. The PAPM model is the seven stages of an individual's journey to acting/maintaining, or disregarding behavior. In this case, the PAPM model is being applied to breast cancer screening, and the decision to either go for a mammogram or not. The PAPM model begins with uncertainty or a lack of awareness, then advances through stages of becoming aware, deciding whether to ignore or maintain/change behavior. The visual diagram represents a journey for those undergoing screenings. For those undergoing breast cancer screenings, individuals may not understand the dangers of breast cancer & their chances of having it. As the individual advances in gaining an understanding of breast cancer & the importance of screening, they can either advance or remain unengaged. Soon thereafter, the individual faces decisions to either act or not act. Then the stages of action and maintaining follow-up.

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This image represents the communication channels concept in the Diffusion of Innovations Theory. When I first learned about this theory and specifically the communication channels concept, I thought of social media. This theory focuses on the how new ideas, products, and social practices are spread in society and other societies. This theory is used to study how certain health behaviors are adopted and that different factors affect how fast and successful the innovation is adopted and spread to others. Communication channels are ways a new idea is spread from one person to another. In today's society, I believe that social media is one of the main ways ideas are spread to individuals and leads to individuals being aware about certain events or behaviors. Individuals who use social media a lot will notice certain information and share it to others, leading to individuals adopting certain behaviors. I personally get a lot of new information and recent news from social media like Instagram and usually I share it with my friends and family. Diffusion of certain innovations can help with promoting certain health behaviors and can lead to positive effects. Overall, communication channels can connect to the idea of social media.

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This image shows multiple levels of the health belief model. The health belief model is more focused on our internal motivations to engage in healthy behavior. This image works in all 6 categories of the model. First of all, perceived susceptibility: Parents will recognize that their child could contract serious illnesses without vaccination. Next, perceived severity: The photo implies the needed awareness of the potential consequences of preventable diseases. Perceived benefits are shown by implying that vaccinating the child reduces the risk of illness, protecting both the child and the community. Perceived barriers occur when the reminder in the photo can help address common barriers such as forgetfulness, cost, or access concerns. The image shows a Cue to action when the text says “Stay up to date,” which acts as a cue, prompting parents to act. Finally, Self-efficacy is shown when the image shows that the mother can successfully follow through with vaccination by being happy and intimate with her baby in the picture, reinforcing confidence in her ability to act and make sure her baby is healthy.

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This visual diagram shows how the stages of the Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM) apply to the decision making process of the HPV vaccination. The PAPM begins with a complete lack of awareness, where individuals may not know what HPV is or that a vaccine exists. As knowledge increases, people move into the awareness stage, where they recognize the vaccine but may not feel personally engaged or at risk. The next stages involve whether or not to act, followed by either deciding against vaccination or deciding to get vaccinated. Applying PAPM to HPV vaccination shows how health behaviors are not usually adopted all at once but instead progress through specific stages. Many individuals remain stuck in the early stages due to misinformation or the lack of proper education about HPV. HPV vaccination is a strong example of the PAPM because it clearly shows how awareness, decision-making, and preventive action unfold over time.

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Diffusion Process Through Communication Channels 

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Diffusion Process Through Communication Channels 

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This image illustrates the fundamental components of Diffusion of Innovation Theory because it highlights how information about the COVID-19 pandemic is being spread to individuals throughout different forms of communication channels. All of these technologies display signs, such as “Outbreak”, “Stay Home”, and “Lockdown”, which may represent different social media platforms and news outlets. This type of communication channel helps deliver messages from public health officials/journalists, who are considered innovators, to the public so that they are aware of what is going on. Those who immediately pay attention to the news update and follow certain protocols of social distancing are considered the early adopters. As the media continues to inform the public about the virus and people start to adopt health behaviors after being influenced, they are considered the early majority. As rules are being enforced and start to become a reality, such as wearing masks in public places and social distancing, these individuals will be considered as the late majority. The laggards are those who resisted following the guidelines of the COVID-19 pandemic and considered the last to adopt and follow all of the restrictions when it was no longer optional but rather a requirement that is being heavily enforced to help stop the spread of the virus. Overall, this image represents the concept of how information and behavior related to the COVID-19 pandemic spread through society over time to influence how people will respond and follow guidelines/ideas that health officials are passing to protect themselves and others from the virus.

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WIC recipe card: grain bowls. This photo symbolizes the social cognitive theory model.

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Social Cognitive Theory in Action: Healthy Behaviors Through WIC

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Social Cognitive Theory in Action: Healthy Behaviors Through WIC

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Hi class,

The WIC program demonstrates Social Cognitive Theory through its approach to nutrition education, which encourages healthy behavior change by addressing all core components of the model. Participants build behavioral capability by learning how to prepare balanced meals through recipe cards and classes. Observational learning occurs as they watch instructors or peer models demonstrate healthy eating behaviors. WIC staff help build self-efficacy by guiding participants through small, manageable steps, such as incorporating more fruits and vegetables into meals. These positive experiences, like seeing children enjoy nutritious foods and thrive, shape expectations and reinforce the belief that healthy eating leads to real benefits. Reinforcements, such as praise from educators or internal satisfaction from making better choices, increase the likelihood of repeating these behaviors. This entire process is shaped by reciprocal determinism, where personal beliefs, learned skills, and the supportive environment of WIC all interact to promote sustained behavior change.

And if you’re wondering if this recipe turned out to be good, yes it was. My toddler and I really enjoyed it. (-: It’s great for people who have busy schedules or are looking into incorporating more fiber, and fresh produce in their daily diets.

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The image below demonstrates the health belief model in the sense that it shows a sense of perceived susceptibility/illness. That is seen in the form of the person in the picture having a stoma which is aiding the individual with breathing because they developed a breathing issue from smoking. It also shows a perceived benefits of quitting smoking because stopping smoking can increase ones chances of not having any future issues.

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The Transtheoretical Model for Changing Behavior

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The Transtheoretical Model for Changing Behavior

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Hi class,

This photo shows the Transtheoretical Model (TTM). It explains how people often change their behavior through five steps:

1. Precontemplation - Not considering change yet.

2. Contemplation – Recognizing that change is necessary.

3. Preparation – Getting ready to implement change.

4. Action – Taking steps to make the change.

5. Maintenance – Sustaining the change over time.

The model helps us understand that changing behavior is a step-by-step process, which can be useful when trying to adopt new habits.

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Above is a photo of a 1940's cigarette ad currently for sale on ebay. https://www.ebay.com/itm/115880705373

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This class introduced me to the precaution adoption process model. I appreciated the text pointing out how it differs from models like the stages of change model, because I was having a hard time understanding the distinction. Because of that, I wanted to point to that difference in my example. I thought this was a good example of the first construct, "Unaware of the Issue". Tobacco is such a striking example of something that people saw as good for them or at least health-neutral that most people today would immediately recognize as harmful. The dissemination of evidence-backed health knowledge is easy to take for granted, of course we know what is and is not healthy. But understanding that health literacy is not a sure thing is essential to reaching underserved audiences.

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This image represents the Social Ecological model. The Social Ecological models is comprised 5 levels of influences which consist of:

1. Intrapersonal Level: Individual characteristics that influence behavior, such as knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and personality traits

2. Interpersonal Level: Interpersonal processes and primary groups, including family, friends, and peers that provide social identity, support, and role definition

3. Community Level: Rules, regulations, policies, and informal structures, which may constrain or promote recommended behaviors.

4. Community Factors: Social network and norms, or standards which exist as formal or informal among individuals groups and organizations

5. Local state and federal policies and laws that regulate or support healthy actions and practices for disease prevention early detection, control, and management.

These concepts all describe various environments that a person can encounter. The photo attached represents all 5 of these factors. It can give us a better look at a individuals interaction with their physical and sociocultural environments. According to the model, the ecological perspective emphasized the interaction between and interdependence of factors within and across all levels of a health problem.

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The Transtheoretical Model for Changing Behavior

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The Transtheoretical Model for Changing Behavior

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Hello everyone,

The image above shows the Cycle of Change within the Transtheoretical Model.

The cycle of change explains how people go through different stages when they are making an effort to change a behavior. It starts with not seeing a problem, which is called precontemplation. Then moves to thinking about change, which is called contemplation. From there, people start planning, this is the preparation. Finally they then take real steps to change, which is what is known as action. If they keep up the new habit, they enter maintenance. It is important to know that setbacks or relapses can happen along the way. What makes this model useful in this course and for the transtheoretical model, is that it shows change isn’t a straight line and it is not linear, it’s a process, and people often move back and forth between stages before making lasting progress.

Thank you!

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Explanation:
This photo represents subjective norms from the Theory of Planned Behavior because it shows how individuals are influenced by actions and expectations of their peers. When students see their classmates participating in recycling they are more likely to do the same since social approval and group behavior encourage positive environmental actions. This goes to show how people’s decisions are often shaped by what they think others expect them to do. By following group norms individuals feel like they are contributing to a shared purpose and being accepted by their peers.

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This image captures the process someone goes through when they are learning about health problems, focusing on individuals’ attitudes and beliefs towards health behaviors. In the image, you can see a person’s perceived threat of the health problem, its severity and susceptibility which influences their motivation to act. At the same time, they evaluate the behavior itself by weighing in the perceived benefits of taking action against the perceived barriers. All of this combined shape the likelihood of engaging in health behavior, meaning that people are most likely to take preventative health actions when they feel at risk.

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The photo above exemplifies the concept of multiple levels of influence within the ecological perspective. This example pertains to childhood obesity and how each level contributes to the child's overall health outcome. There are five levels: intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional, community, and public policy factors. At the intrapersonal level, we have the child’s personal attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge towards food. This can also include his personality traits. Assuming the child is obese and has no underlying health conditions that we can attribute to his weight, we might think that he does not fully understand nutrition or healthy physical activity. The interpersonal level describes the influence of family, friends, and peers. The eating behaviors of parents may be unhealthy and are ultimately reflected in the child’s eating patterns. The same goes for peer eating behaviors. The social context of the meals and what is being served to the child also play a role. If meals are part of a structured routine and are infused with positive familial interactions, then the child’s weight outcome would be healthier in comparison to a family that eats separate meals, leaving it up to the child to feed themselves. At the institutional level, we have regulations and policies, such as school meals. School breakfasts and lunches are prepared under strict nutritional and financial guidelines that ensure dietary needs are met. The next level is community factors. In this case, screen viewing habits and the physical environment affect the child’s unhealthy weight outcome. The media the child consumes can reflect community attitudes and norms that can influence unhealthy behaviors. The built environment of the child may also play an essential role, as a lack of safe neighborhoods or recreational facilities can discourage physical activity. The last level of public policy focuses on food accessibility and availability. Zoning regulations can affect how accessible fast food and convenience stores are. The possibility that the child resides in a low-income neighborhood could mean that there are more grocery stores, but also more fast food restaurants.

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The Transtheoretical model demonstrates the five main stages of changing a behavior. (not a linear process; circular)

1. Precontemplation- the individual has no intention of changing their behavior

2. Contemplation- the individual has the intention of changing their behavior

3. Preparation- the individual is taking steps towards changing their behavior

4. Action- the individual has taken action towards changing their behavior

5. Maintenance- the individual is trying to sustain that changed behavior

The image represents the fourth stage of behavior change, as the individual is actively taking action to modify their behavior by attending Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). The next step is to maintain this commitment; however, relapse remains a possibility, which could lead the individual to repeat the cycle. These stages are circular rather than linear, as individuals may find themselves at different points in the behavior change process. For example, some may already be aware of their behavioral issue and want to change it (contemplation), while others may be in the process of actively making changes (action). It varies based on the type of behavior change!

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The transtheoretical model has five steps: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance. The image I chose shows maintenance because it represents how an individual stayed committed to being smoke-free. There has been no relapse, the old smoking behavior has changed, and the lifestyle change has lasted for more than 6 months.

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This image represents Perceived Benefits because it highlights the positive outcomes of staying hydrated. In the Health Belief Model, people are more likely to change their behavior if they believe it will lead to good results. The image shows six different benefits of drinking water, which reinforces the idea that a simple habit like hydration can have a big impact on overall health. By seeing these benefits, individuals are encouraged to drink more water as part of their daily routine.

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The image above displays a popular model used in public health called the Social Ecological Model. This model distinguishes different levels of how influence can be achieved. Individual, also referred to an interpersonal level, focuses on an individual's personal perspective and characteristics to encourage change, whereas an interpersonal level primarily focuses on how to implement change within another individual. An organizational, community, and public policy concept of change all target groups of individuals with the purpose of promoting specific health behaviors based on the specific issue they are addressing within the group, community, or citizens. Here the photo shows the order of number of individuals affected to implement health change (top to bottom).

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How Knowledge and Awareness can Result in Action

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How Knowledge and Awareness can Result in Action

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This diagram displays a visual of the Precaution Adoption Process. In this process their is seven stages, it all begins with lack of awareness on a subject. Then a person becomes aware and is faced with making a decision and acting on it or not. The diagram explains the process a parent might go through when deciding to vaccinate a child against HPV. Many parents are unaware it is a health issue and that children can get the vaccine. Once they learn about it they make a decision on if they will give their children the vaccine or not. I have personally gone through the stages when making decisions about my health, it shows how acting on things is not always simple and people go through stages in order to decide. It is sometimes scary making a choice when you are uncertain.

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An example of diffusion of innovation theory could be wanting a community to have lower diabetes rates. This could be done by offering more healthy foods to the community by ensuring they have access to grocery stores with fresh produce. Making sure there is a grocery store every couple of miles gives more people access to healthy foods.

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The visual diagram shows how the Precaution adoption process model is applied to decision making of getting a cervical screening. It starts off with no awareness and not being aware of the issue. We then move onto knowing that the the screening may exist but may push it off till later because they think it may not apply to them. The following stages then include if they should move forward with doing a cervical screening and if they chose to do so then they can make an appointment and then follow through with getting it done. When applying PAPM to cervical screenings were shown how someone may move through these different stages and they process they go through. Cervical screening is a good example of PAMP because it shows the importance of being aware about preventive measures such as these screenings.

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Relative Advantage  Diffusion of Innovation Theory

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Relative Advantage  Diffusion of Innovation Theory

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This image shows the concept of Relative Advantage from the Diffusion of Innovation Theory. Relative advantage means people see an innovation as better than what came before it. Electric scooters have clear benefits compared to cars or buses they cost less to use, cut down on traffic, are better for the environment, and make short trips easier. Because these benefits are easy to notice, scooters have quickly become popular in many cities.

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The third stage of the Precaution Adoption Process Model occurs when a person decides to act on the issue at hand, after it has been brought to their attention as a problem. In this comic, a man jokingly refers to the health benefits of quitting smoking. This conversation between the man and his friend, who is also a smoker, shows the thought process of a smoker who may be considering quitting because he is aware of the health risks linked to smoking. The man is still smoking, so though he acknowledges the risks and suggests cessation, he has yet to make a decision.

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This image represents the transtheoretical model as it shows all 5 stages.

Precontemplation stage: is when the individual has no intention of taking action with 6 months. In the picture this is represented by the individual aware and okay with their life choices.

Contemplation stage: is when the individual has intention to take action within the next 6 months. This is represented by the individual wanting to make a change.

Preparation stage: Is when the individual will take action within 30 days and their behavior is changing to adjust to upcoming change. This is shown by individual reading and preparing what changes will occur in their lifestyle.

Action Stage: Is when the individual behavior has changed for less than 6 months. This is shown by the individual exercising.

Maintenance Stage: When the individual has changed behavior for more than six months. This is shown by the individual eating healthier.

In this image a relapse point is shown. Relapse in not a stage however it is something that can occur, as this model is not a linear model. This model is a circular model is which individuals may go forward and then relapse backwards, in which they can start the process multiple time.

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Transtheoretical Model and Stages of Change

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Transtheoretical Model and Stages of Change

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Hello everyone, this is a video about the Transtheoretical Model and Stages of Change. The steps through this model are explained throughout and in order are Pre-contemplation, Contemplation, Preparation, Action, Maintenance, and Relapse. This video goes in depth about what each step entails. A common example found throughout this thread is the ability to quit smoking. If this model were to be in action regarding smoking, it would begin with someone wanting to quit smoking, such as being aware of the negative health effects it has on a person. Contemplation is similar to pre-contemplation, however it is a stage people typically last months to years in, weighing whether or not they would realistically want to quit smoking. Preparation stage is typically making a change slowly, perhaps smoking less times per day or even week, depending on the quantity of cigarettes being consumes. Action stage is where a person would finally quit smoking, typically difficult to quit cold turkey as mentioned, but effective for some. Maintenance stage is where one is putting their plan into action and maintaining their ability to quit smoking. Something not mentioned in the textbook that I thought was important to highlight was this video talked about a relapse stage. Relapses occur 40-60% of the time and although not for everyone, it is important to have a plan of what to do if relapse does occur. I thought it was important to mention if relapse does occur, to not beat yourself up, rather reflect and think of how you can change if another relapse were to occur.

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Transtheoretical Model and Stages of Change (Examples)

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This visual diagram shows the stages of PAPM applied to social interventions for earlier diagnosis of retinoblastoma. The goal is to provide families with clear information about the urgent need for treatment, from other parents, and illustrations of what recovery might look like in the early stages, when they may not know much about retinoblastoma or feel involved. Parent groups also provide hope and demonstrate that families can overcome obstacles. Psychologists, social workers, and health professionals offer support and encouragement in individual sessions as families carefully consider their options. Parents can confront their worries, combat stigma, and envision a bright future for their child by attending meetings with survivor families. When families are ready to create a plan, child life specialists and patient navigators help them along the way, assist with scheduling and resources, and teach kids age-appropriate coping mechanisms. In addition, reminders, support plans, and advice from parent specialists help families remain committed once they have decided to begin treatment. Missed appointments and care termination are avoided with additional support such as calendars, text reminders, phone calls, and family buddy systems. These resources help families gradually go from being unaware of the condition to actively participating in and completing therapy.

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The Precaution Adoption Process Model and Driving Behavior of Older Adults

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The Precaution Adoption Process Model and Driving Behavior of Older Adults

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The image shows the Precaution Adoption Process Model, which is applied to the driving behavior of older adults and helps us understand how people progress through different stages of awareness and decision-making regarding whether continuing to drive safely is still a good option for them, or if they need additional skills or should consider stopping altogether. The process starts with stage one, where the individual is unaware of the issue (though this isn’t shown in the image), and then moves into stage two, where they have not yet started thinking about their driving abilities. As older adults become more aware of changes in their driving, such as reaction time or vision problems, they enter stage three, where they are undecided about whether action is needed. At this point, they might either continue driving without making any changes (stage four) or start planning to take action (stage five), which could include driving less, avoiding night driving, or stopping altogether (stages six and seven).

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Precaution Adoption Process Model and Weight

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Precaution Adoption Process Model and Weight

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The image exemplifies the Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM) by showing the 7 stages of a person becoming aware of how their weight can affect their health and well-being. In the example, the person is unaware and unengaged about how their weight affects their health. (stages 1-2) In the third stage, the person is deciding if they should act on the issue. Stages 4 and 5 show different scenarios where it is decided whether the issue should be acted upon or not. In the example, it is shown that the person has decided to make a change by altering their diet to keep their weight in control. Thus, showing how the person is acting upon the issue. Finally, in the 7th stage, it shows how the person has started to engage in healthy behaviors by changing their attitude and exercising. Overall, the example shows how one starts with a lack of awareness and goes through the stages to adopt/maintain healthy behaviors.

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Self-Efficacy is an Important concept in Social Cognitive Theory 

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Self-Efficacy is an Important concept in Social Cognitive Theory 

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Self-efficacy, or the belief in one's ability to accomplish a goal, is central to Social Cognitive Theory. This photo of people lifting weights demonstrates this because weight training requires confidence, persistence, and the expectation that effort will lead to progress. Reinforcement supports this process, since visible progress, increased strength, and encouragement from peers or trainers reward the lifters to keep them motivated. This example also shows how other Social Cognitive Theory concepts connect to self-efficacy. Reciprocal determinism is present because people's beliefs in their abilities, their effort in lifting, and the supportive gym environment also influence each other. Observational learning happens when the lifter watches others and copies their techniques, while behavioral capability means having the knowledge and skills to perform the exercises safely. Overall, these elements show self-efficacy and help shape behavior.

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Diffusion of Innovation Through Communication Channels

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Diffusion of Innovation Through Communication Channels

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The image represents communication channels through the diffusion of innovation theory because the Watch Duty app can represent how information is spread to people. For example, earlier this year there were huge fires that happened and a lot of people were worried about their safety. Many people were going through different sources of media to help them understand what was going on, but ultimately, people started to lean on the Watch Duty app once they saw everyone using it. It became a reliable source of information. This is related to Public Health because it helped a lot of people feel safe and provided reliable information if they needed to evacuate. Overall, this is an example of diffusion of innovation because people have created these different sources of communication that can help people get accurate information.

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The image represents communication channels through the diffusion of innovation theory because the Watch Duty app can represent how information is spread to people. For example, earlier this year there were huge fires that happened and a lot of people were worried about their safety. Many people were going through different sources of media to help them understand what was going on, but ultimately, people started to lean on the Watch Duty app once they saw everyone using it. It became a reliable source of information. This is related to Public Health because it helped a lot of people feel safe and provided reliable information if they needed to evacuate. Overall, this is an example of diffusion of innovation because people have created these different sources of communication that can help people get accurate information.

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The Precaution Adoption Process Model and Smoking 

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The Precaution Adoption Process Model and Smoking 

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This image shows the application of the Precaution Adoption Process Model to smoking and the stages involved in smoking cessation. The PAPM diagram starts with an individual's awareness of the issue that comes with smoking (cancer). Becoming aware and beginning to think about the consequences of engaging in a behavior like smoking can be the start of a shift away from such behavior. The next stages involve determining whether they are willing to act or not, and if so, maintaining their smoking cessation. Utilizing the PAPM for smoking cessation allows health specialists to understand how to get someone to stop a behavior like smoking, which is a process. With this understanding, health specialists can tailor programs that motivate individuals to progress through those stages and take action.

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Precaution Adoption Process Model Smoking 

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This chart represents two different thought processes that could happen during decision making. This chart shows that theory of planned behavior can stem from two areas, the recognition that this certain behavior is favorable and the pressure of ideals to act a certain way. Both lead to an outcome to a favorable ending. The social pressure to perform a certain behavior can come from the desire to be socially accepted, while the other can stem from the realization that a certain behavior can lead to a more positive reaction.

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This image illustrates the Diffusion of Innovation Theory in real-life applications. This image illustrates how smartphones have become widely adopted by society and are becoming increasingly universal. Just like health programs, the spread of smartphones shows how innovations move from a small group to the mainstream. Everyone has a smartphone because of its usefulness, visibility, and easy access to the outside world, where people can do almost anything with just one tiny device.