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The belief that "emphasizes the active construction of knowledge" (Tracey & Mandel Marrow, 2017). Constructivists work on teaching students to integrate new and background knowledge.

Constructivism was formed as a reaction to Behaviorism which was begin a decade earlier. Constructivism rejects this because not all behaviors are observable. Instead they focus on how we integrate our background knowledge with new knowledge (Unrau et al., 2019). During the second wave of constructivism there is a shift towards focusing on the way we naturally learn, thus this era becomes known as the Era of Natural Learning (Silvestri & Adams, n.d.).

Theorists of this time in the 60s and 70s encouraged teaching literacy skills in the natural context in which they occur as opposed to repeating drills in the way behaviorists suggested. They also focused on mistakes made during reading, also known as miscues, as instructors can learn a lot from the mistakes made (Alexander & Fox, 2019).

In connection to other theories, Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development also has roots in constructivist points of view, in that children construct knowledge on their own. Lev Vygotksy's Social Constructivism is considered a social theory as well as a constructivist theory as it focuses on construction of knowledge but in a group setting as opposed to an individual. The Engagement Theory can also be considered constructivist as well as affective due to the nature of the individual is actively learning or is engaged (Silvestri & Adams, n.d.).

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As time progresses, some researchers chose to look at literacy learning over time. These developmental theorists look at the patterns of child growth and learning longitudinally. Instructional techniques using this perspective involve using knowledge of child development (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

Developmental theorists arose at around the same time that behaviorists and constructivists were attempting to explain how we learn. None of these other theorists were looking at learning from a longitudinal perspective and analyzing growth over time. Developmental theorists took an approach that did study how we change over time and how knowing our developmental process can impact our learning.

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This lens focuses on the influence of emotion when it comes to being a successful learner. While Developmental theorists focus on how we develop as learners over time, Affective theorists tie in our mental needs to the learning process. As opposed to cognitive theorists, we see more of an emphasis on the impact of emotions on learning versus a deep study of our information processing. Here we see a shift towards a more emotional, student-centered belief (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

Beginning in the 1940s and 1960s, theorists like Abraham Maslow started to consider the affective impact on learning with the development of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, the attachment theory and the importance of teacher-student relationships. There was a resurgence in Affective theorists in the 1990s and 2000s with the emphasis now on motivation, self-efficacy, relationships and the development of the engagement theory (Silvestri, n.d.). We currently find ourselves in the Age of Personalized Learning, and therefore we find ourselves once again bringing emotion, motivation, and relationships to the forefront of classroom instruction (Alexander & Fox, 2019). With modern science, we are able to now use neuroscience to back up the theories that were developed decades ago (Silvestri, n.d.).

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As researchers began to open the door to understanding the importance of emotion when learning, there also began to be a shift towards the social impact on learning. Here, literacy development is seen as being learned through social interactions.

Up until this point, cognitive theories dominated the literacy world. Social learning theorists pointed out that the cognitive models did not "account for behaviors and results seen in specific applications, such as with particular populations with different types of textual materials and in variable classroom conditions" (Alexander & Fox, 2019, p. 43).  One particular study during this time was conducted by Gholnecsar Muhammad and his colleagues (2020) about the differences Black Americans face in education, and how cultural differences impact their learning experiences. There was an overall discussion regarding how social context and culture impacts learning.

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This is also known as the Era of Information Processing (Alexander & Fox, 2019). Here, researchers focused on how our brain is processing and making connections while we are learning literacy skills like reading and writing. Two main assumptions are that we are focusing on the inner activity of the brain which cannot be directly observed, and that information is to be processed, stored, and received.

This era was largely influenced by the development of computers, and the mechanisms we see used in technology (Alexander & Fox, 2019). These processes largely were used in the realm of special education, as learning about how our brain processes literary information can be useful in early-detection services (Silvestri & Wilson, n.d.).

In relation to other theories, cognitive processing is most directly a response to behaviorism. Behaviorism was only focused with observable behaviors, and cognitive researchers sought to discover what was beneath the surface. Cognitive-processing theories also tend to not consider any external forces, such as social, emotional, or other environmental factors. This goes against what we see in other realms of learning theories (Silvestri & Wilson, n.d.).

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John Dewey: Developed the philosophy of Inquiry Learning and is considered the founder of the Constructivist point of view.

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Louise Rosenblatt: Extended the Schema theory to incorporate reading, calling this the Transactional/Reader Response theory.

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Belief that we organize everything we know into structures called schema. We all have our own individual schemas! Our existing knowledge (schemas) greatly influence how we process new information (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

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We all have unique reading experiences as a result of "differences in the amount and kinds of background schemata each possesses" (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

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Psycholinguistic and Whole Language Theory 

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Psycholinguistic and Whole Language Theory 

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Psycholinguistics is the study of the way linguistic behavior and psychological processes relate to each other. This incorporates the language acquisition. An important component of this theory is that we as readers rely heavily on cues while we read quickly (Unrau et al., 2019). The whole language theory expands this idea beyond reading to oral language. This is a child-centered philosophy that believes in enriching literary environments having a positive impact on all areas of literacy.

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Metacognition is "how we think about thinking" (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017). When applied to literacy, it involves how we think about what we are reading and writing. When we think about our process more, our comprehension improves.

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This theory was used to describe how "children's thinking changes over time" (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017). Piaget described four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. These theorists found that our reading skills are positively correlated to our developmental level, meaning that as we develop cognitively our reading improves! This theory suggests tailoring instruction to developmental level.

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This theory recommends that students don't begin receiving reading instruction in school or at home until they reach the age of 6.5 years old! Researchers found that it was best to wait until a child's optimal stage of development for this skill or we could risk damaging their reading capabilities later on (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

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Fifty years after the Maturation Theory was first brought to the literary world, the Theory of Literacy Development was created. This theory encompasses the nature of literacy development, how we can use instructional strategies best for literacy development, and establishes the four processes fundamental to literacy development. In this theory we start as children with our parents reading to us and modeling what reading should be. As we grow we learn these skills ourselves (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

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This theory focuses on our literary growth from birth to our first time being able to read at a conventional level. Here, we consider the conventional level to be around a third grade level. Closely related to the Whole Language Theory, these theorists find that children grow and learn the connection between reading, writing, and speaking. By acknowledging the relationship between all literacy aspects, children improve their reading and emerge more skillful (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

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Family Literacy focuses on the idea that the family plays a role in literacy development. Researchers found that literacy-rich home environments resulted in higher achievement and overall success in their children's literary development. This theory mimics that of the Emergent Literacy Theory in emphasizing the role of the home as influencing child achievement, though this theory focusing directly on parent involvement.

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Jean Piaget: Founded the Theory of Cognitive Development, emphasizing the impact of child developmental stages on learning.

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Donald Holdaway: Founded the Theory of Literacy Development. He focused on literacy learning as we grow!

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Marie Clay: First to coin the term "emergent literacy". Marie shifted the way we view literacy learning towards the home environment.

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Mary Helen Immordino-Yang: Mary Helen is a cognitive and affective neuroscientist, she studied the impact of emotion on how we learn.

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Abraham Maslow: Created Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, in which he ordered our fundamental human needs. Based on this hierarchy, we see the importance of social and emotional security.

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John Bowbly: He studied attachment, and believed this to be a major influence in our development. He thus began the Attachment Theory, which was later further developed by Mary Ainsworth.

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Mary Ainsworth: Further developed what we knew about attachment, focusing on the relationship of mother and child. She developed the three attachment styles we see today.

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Established the idea that it is human nature to form attachments in which our lives revolve around. Starting in infancy we develop attachment styles which impact our literacy learning. Secure attachment styles are associated with positive mother-infant relationships and higher school success. Anxious-ambivalent and anxious-avoidant attachment styles all result in lower achievement as these children did not have healthy parental relationships (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

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Scientists began to study the impact of teacher-student relationships on learning. They found that healthy relationships where there was support and kindness resulted in higher student achievement. Attachment styles as discussed in the attachment theory can impact these relationships (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

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Scientists have begun studying how our brain functions, and research shows that learning cannot occur without emotion. Our cognitive processes and emotion are linked, so instructional practices should be mindful of this (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

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Louis C. Moll: Conducted numerous studies on the relation of the Socio-Cultural theory to literacy learning, focusing mainly on Hispanic cultures (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

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Lev Vygotsky: His beliefs were strongly rooted in the concept that our social relationships impact our learning. He was the founder of Social Constructivism.

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Albert Bandura: Developed the Social Learning Theory.

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Gloria Ladson-Billings: Known for her work regarding the Critical Race Theory.

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Here, researchers focus on the way culture in combination with social and historical factors influences how we learn. Researchers like Moll did not find the learning experience of non-white/non-middle class students to be the same as that of their white/middle class students. Our culture influences our background knowledge, and by incorporating this knowledge we can improve our literacy teaching (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017). For example, if working at a school that is in a rural area where most are children of farmers, it can be beneficial to build literacy skills by using topics students relate to. These particular students can build their self-esteem and literacy skills when asked to write about concepts related to life on a farm.

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This theory was developed to address an issue that Bandura had with Behaviorist explanations for learning. Behaviorists did not explain how we learn vicariously, by observing others. Thus, this theory emphasizes the value of modeling for our students to teach them. There is much that can be learned by observing others, and seeing how they do well or fail. This theory is closely related to the development of media, and seeing how children were absorbing information from televisions. The name of this theory was recently changed to the Social Cognitive Theory in order to address the self-efficacy we show when learning through observation. Bandura described there are four stages to learning through observation. This includes the attentional phase, the retention phase, the reproduction phase, and the reinforcement phase (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

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This theory focuses on how "education and literacy shape people’s lives and the ways in which people can use education and literacy to reshape society" (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017). This is based on the concept that education is not politically neutral, and not all children have equal opportunity in school. These theorists identify and "challenge privileges", acting against oppressive forces (Unrau et al., 2019). Educators who teach under this theory emphasize literacy as power and encourage students to question everything they read to seek for bias.

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Critical Race Theory is similar to Critical Literacy Theory, but it emphasizes topic of race. The main idea of this theory is that minority/non-white students fall victim to oppressive institutions and are unable to succeed as their white counterparts are (Unrau et al., 2019).

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With the rapid growth of technology, the multi-literacies theory was developed to incorporate electronic sources. What we consider literacy skills in todays society is not the same as what we considered several decades prior. As educators we need to prepare students to "compose using multiple modes, including images and graphics, moving images and film, music, color, layout of a screen, physical environment, and more" (Silvestri & McVee, n.d.). This is known as multi-modality. This theory can be considered critical as it goes against what is typically considered literacy.

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Philip Gough: Established "Gough's Model" which is a bottom-up method of understanding how we cognitively process while reading.

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David Laberge: Worked with Samuels to develop the Automatic Information Processing Model.

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David Rumelhart: Worked on the Parallel Distributed Processing Model, the Interactive Processing Model and the Interactive-compensatory Processing Model.

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S. Jay Samuels: Worked with Laberge on the Automatic Information Processing Model.

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The Information Processing theory "describes the processing, storage, and retrieval of knowledge from the mind" likely using state-by-stage models to explain how we learn (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017). In turn, models are used to visually display the cognitive processes we undergo when we are learning. Some of the models discussed under the information processing umbrella includes Gough's Model, Laberge and Samuel's Automatic Information Processing Model, Interactive and Interactive-Compensatory Model, and Phonological-core Variable Difference Model.

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Gough's Model is considered a "bottom-up" Information Processing Model, meaning that we start at lower levels of processing and move up to higher levels. In reading, Gough describes how we process information starting with looking at the page and taking in what features are there. After we recognize the words on the page, we begin to decode. To decode, we start by recognizing phonemes and work up towards constructing sentences. The final stage is the syntactic and semantic rules processor, which then involves the comprehension and understanding of what is read (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

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Laberge and Samuel's Automatic Information-Processing Model

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Laberge and Samuel's Automatic Information-Processing Model

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Similar to Gough's Model, this model is also considered "bottom-up". This model consists of "five major components: visual memory, phonological memory, episodic memory, semantic memory, and attention" (Silvestri & Wilson, n.d.). Visual memory is where unitization occurs, which is when we recognize letters together as words. Phonological memory is where sounds are connected to each word. Episodic memory is where we start to process context of what is being read. Semantic memory is where everything is stored (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017)..

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Like Gough, Laberge, and Samuels, this model still acknowledges the reading processing beginning with visual text stimulus. Rumelhart, who developed this model, diverged from the previous linear model and instead believed many processes converged at once. This suggests we process multiple aspects of reading like semantic, orthographic, and lexical information simultaneously. This simultaneous occurrence makes this an interactive model as opposed to a "bottom-up" model (Unrau et al., 2017). As for interactive-compensatory model, this was an extension of the Interactive model. This model additionally explained that if one process is not occurring or is weak, the other converging processes will compensate for it. This concept helps to explain differences in reading ability (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

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Phonological-core Variable Difference Model 

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Phonological-core Variable Difference Model 

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This model was created with the intent of explaining dyslexia, with researchers believing a phonological processing deficiency to be the cause. Stanovich, the man who developed this model, noticed how dyslexia caused struggles with literacy learning but not with any other cognitive functions. This meant the previous IQ based explanations did not apply (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

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Rumelhart, who was involved in the interactive processing model, also did research to develop this model. There are two key features to this model. The first is that we store cognitive information as connections between each other. The second is that we strengthen these connections through repetition. This theory then is a connectionist theory, as it believes in the idea that as we repeat information pairings, they get stronger (Silvestri & Wison, n.d.). There are believed to be four stages of processing according to this model. First is the orthographic processor, which is where we recognize text visually. Repeated exposure to the shapes of text helps us recognize and identify them faster over time. The meaning processor is next, which involves our vocabulary knowledge and assigning meaning to what we just identified. Next is the phonological processor, which "is where the sounds associated with words are processed" starting with phonemes (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017). Last is the context processor, which puts everything together. It is where we find meaning in phrases and paragraphs, resulting in smooth reading.

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Begun by Vygotsky, this is a blend of the social and constructivism movements. There are four key concepts proposed by Vygotsky. First is that we learn through our social interactions with others. Second is we develop as children using sign systems, which "include a culture's oral and printed language" (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017). Third is the concept of scaffolding, which is helping students build up knowledge with the support of adults and more advanced peers. The final, and most influential, concept is that of the zone of proximal development. Vygotsky believed that there was an optimal zone where we learn, which is where the task given is difficult enough to challenge us while getting slight support.

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Gholnecsar (aka Gholdy) Muhammad: Conducted research regarding the learning experiences of different ethnic groups. She also developed the culturally and historically responsive literacy framework, which draws on students' backgrounds to outline literacy instruction (Muhammad, 2020).

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This is a widely accepted psychological model which breaks down our human needs. According to the hierarchy, physiological needs are our most basic requirements. It is not until these needs are met that we can rise up through the hierarchy until ultimately we reach the top of the pyramid: self-actualization. Affective theorists use this hierarchy to explain that we have belongingness and love needs, and just like our safety needs, we need these need to be met to reach our full potential. With our basic and psychological needs met, children are able to focus on their learning more affectively (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

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This theory focuses on the differentiating between disengaged and engaged learners to determine how we as instructors can best format our lessons to increase engagement. In terms of literacy, we see engaged readers interacting more with the text, and are more mentally motivated (Tracey & Mandel Morrow, 2017).

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Frederic Bartlett: Credited for the creation of "schema" and developed the beginning of what is known as the schema theory.

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Ken Goodman: He developed the term "miscues" and this development helped lay the foundation for the Whole Language Theory.

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Critical perspectives is very closely connected to the Social dimension of learning theories, though they go more in-depth to the social issues of society, offering a critical lens.

Theories under this perspective range around a century. Karl Marx in the mid 1800's began looking critically at the way social inequity and power manifested throughout educational institutions. While many white males focused on class injustices, throughout history there were women and minority theorists who took a critical look beyond class. With the growth of black feminism in the 1900's we see a growth in the focus on the experience of women and Black Americans in education.

Critical perspectives assume that learning is inherently social, placing this under the social learning umbrella. Critical activists and theorists also reject the idea that learning literacy is strictly a cognitive practice, thus there is no overlap between cognitivists, behaviorists and even some developmental theorists (Silvestri & Newvine).

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Allan Luke:

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Django Paris:

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All dates were compiled using the information from Alexander & Fox (2019) and Tracey & Mandel Morrow (2017). 

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All dates were compiled using the information from Alexander & Fox (2019) and Tracey & Mandel Morrow (2017). 

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1. Problem solving in small groups.

2. Brainstorming and Webbing (KWL chart).

3. Post-reading activities (reader's theater, bookmaking, puppetry, story maps).

4. Modeling

5. Guided Reading

(Tracey & Morrow, 2017)

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1. Semantic organizers (charts and webs)

2. Use of big books

3. Pre-reading, reading, and post-reading discussions (Shared reading)

4. Manipulative letter exercises (magnetic letters, letter puzzles, letter stamps)

5. Thematic instruction

6. Literacy centers in the classroom

(Tracey & Morrow, 2017)

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1. Express feelings through drawing or writing

2. High quality literature to support communication

3. Dialogue journals to open communication

4. Personal storytelling in the classroom

5. Emphasis of student choice

(Tracey & Morrow, 2017)

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1. Literacy centers

2. Shared reading/paired reading

3. Guided writing

4. Literature circles

5. E-mail pals

(Tracey & Morrow, 2017)

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1. Literature circles where students tie in their own lives

2. Cross-age/Buddy readers

3. Literature from diverse authors

4. e-Pals Global Community

5. Teacher websites/Wikis to connect families and school

(Tracey & Morrow, 2017)

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1. Replicate drawn shapes or repeat auditory information

2. Follow multi-step directions

3. Guided reading

4. Rhyming games

5. Teach word families

(Tracey & Morrow, 2017)