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Throughout the play I always thought how rude and self centered Agamemnon was. The profound arrogance that he had made him seem like he thought he was a god. This made me think that during the time set in these plays, a society that had literal Gods and Goddesses they worshiped. It must have been possible that a leader like Agamemnon would actually believe in his divinity.

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During the end part of the play (pg 46-48) Cassandra states to the chorus that Agamemnon and herself will be killed after walking in the house. She was given the power of prophecy from Apollo, but I don't understand how she couldn't stop it from happening. Agamemnon wouldn't listen to her, but for Clytemnestra to get the upper hand and kill them both seems so unlikely that I have to think it just made the story better.

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My favorite part of the play was when Clytemnestra finally kills Agamemnon. Even though she may be supposed to be the villain of that story, she is the opposite for me. Agamemnon thinks so highly of himself and treats Clytemnestra like garbage. He believes (and so does the chorus) that because he is good at fighting wars he deserves all of his praise. This makes me think of the gender roles of the time. Women have always been oppressed in a patriarchal society, and this is no different. Clytemnestra is seen as evil because she has the guts to stand up against such a man. She even killed him in the most embarrassing way he would have thought, showing that she was strong and calculated in her actions. This display of female rage is completely justified considering the lack of rights that women had in that time and makes he my favorite character in the play.

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Although ancient Greek Society was dominated by the male citizen, with his full legal status, right to vote, hold public office, and own property, the social groups which made up the population of a…

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Similar to my complaint in Agamemnon, it seems like at the end of the play as Orestes kills Clytemnestra, it feels like Clytemnestra is killed without any trouble. Just as she killed Agamemnon and Cassandra so easily, she was easily disposed of. There were no soldiers protecting her, no witnesses, she just tried to talk her way out of it. You would think that if you just killed your husband, you would have precautionary measures for if someone wants to avenge them.

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The violence in Ancient Greece seems very excessive. I am reminded of this when Orestes is able to kill his own mother. Even though Apollo says it is ok, I still have a hard time imagining how he was able to go through with that. He does say that he gained no joy or pride out of it, but I still take an issue with it. Was life so desensitizing and cruel that it made people more violent, or did he really think his murder was justified. I just don't think that I could ever do that to my mother, no matter the circumstances.

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In ancient times, Greece was known for its rich culture, influential philosophers, and stunning architecture. However, it's also important to acknowledge that ancient Greece had a dark side - a brutal nature that cannot be overlooked.

The Rise of the City-States

Ancient Greece consisted of various independent city-states such as Athens and Sparta. These city-states were constantly at odds with each other, engaging in frequent wars and battles. The competitive nature of the Greeks often led to brutal conflicts.

Slavery and Social Hierarchy

Another aspect of ancient Greek society that highlights its brutality is the widespread practice of slavery. Slaves were considered property and had no rights or freedom. They were subjected to harsh treatment, abuse, and physical punishment.

The social hierarchy in ancient Greece was rigidly structured. At the top were wealthy landowners who held all the power and influence.

They lived extravagant lives while the lower classes struggled to survive. This stark economic inequality further contributed to the brutal nature of ancient Greek society.

Athens: A Center of Culture and Cruelty

Athens, often regarded as the birthplace of democracy and intellectual enlightenment, had its share of brutality. While it may have been a hub for philosophy, art, and architecture, Athens was also known for its harsh legal system.

In Athens, crimes such as theft or vandalism could result in severe punishment like public floggings or even death. The Athenians believed that harsh penalties would deter others from committing similar offenses.

The Brutality of Spartan Society

Sparta is notorious for its militaristic society and emphasis on physical strength and discipline. Boys were taken from their families at a young age to undergo rigorous training in military camps.

The Spartans were known for their ruthless approach to warfare. They believed in achieving victory at any cost and would go to great lengths, including using brutal tactics against their enemies.

The Importance of Acknowledging the Brutality

While ancient Greece undoubtedly made significant contributions to human civilization, it's vital to recognize and acknowledge the brutality that existed within its society.

By understanding the darker aspects of ancient Greek culture, we can gain a more comprehensive understanding of history and appreciate the progress made in terms of human rights and social justice.

In conclusion,

Ancient Greece was indeed brutal. The city-states' constant warfare, practice of slavery, rigid social hierarchy, and harsh legal systems all contribute to this perception.

However, it's crucial to remember that no society is entirely defined by its brutality. Ancient Greece also produced great thinkers, artists, and philosophers who shaped our modern world.

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Was Ancient Greece Brutal? - HistoryDisclosure

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In ancient times, Greece was known for its rich culture, influential philosophers, and stunning architecture. However, it's also important to acknowledge that ancient Greece had a dark side - a brutal nature that cannot be overlooked. The Rise of the City-States Ancient Greece consisted of various independent city-states such as Athens and Sparta.

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Throughout the readings of these plays, I've realized how much of an influence the chorus really has. They are so opinionated and biased depending on who the writer of the play is. Such as in this play, the chorus is always against Clytemnestra, clearly expressing how they feel about the situation. The chorus is supposed to communicate with the audience to help them understand what is happening, but it often feels like the audience is being told what to think as well.

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The role of the chorus in Greek theatre was integrally linked to the performance and the narrative. A staple component of Classical Greek dramas, the chorus typically consisted of a group of actors, traditionally ranging from 12 to 50 performers. The chorus was present throughout the entirety of a performance, except in cases where they were explicitly dismissed from the stage.

The fundamental function of the chorus was to provide commentary on the play's events, present a collective viewpoint, and reveal the broader social and ethical context in which the narrative unfolded. As a collective entity, the chorus could represent any multitude of groups relevant to the drama's narrative or setting, such as the elders of a city, a band of soldiers, or a group of women.

Role of the Chorus in Greek Theatre

1. Narrative Intermediary

As a narrative intermediary, the role of the chorus in Greek theatre was pivotal in bridging the gap between the audience and the characters on stage, ensuring that the audience could follow and comprehend the unfolding events and themes of the play. This function was executed through several key tasks.

1.1 Exposition and Contextualisation

One of the most important roles of the chorus was to provide exposition, often relating relevant past events or background information that shaped the current narrative but took place outside of the play's time frame. This sometimes involved recounting historical events, explaining a character's past actions, or describing off-stage actions, thus providing essential context to the audience.

Example

In Aeschylus' "Agamemnon," the chorus of Argive elders provides extensive exposition at the play's beginning, describing the Trojan War's events and Agamemnon's role in it. This contextualises the action of the play, which takes place upon Agamemnon's return to Argos.

1.2 Interpretation and Analysis

The chorus often offered an interpretation or analysis of the events occurring on stage, often unpacking the motivations or intentions of the characters, discussing the ethical implications of their actions, or exploring possible future consequences. This analysis deepened the audience's understanding of the play and promoted critical engagement with the narrative.

Example

In Sophocles' "Antigone," the chorus analyses and interprets the unfolding events, offering insights into the actions and motivations of the characters. For instance, they contemplate Creon's harsh law against Polynices' burial and Antigone's decision to defy it, helping the audience understand the moral complexities at hand.

1.3 Emotional Guidance

The reactions and sentiments of the Greek theatre chorus provided an emotional barometer for the audience, guiding them on how they should respond to the play's events. This emotional guidance, often rendered through song and dance, offered a lens through which the audience could view the narrative.

Example

In Euripides' "Medea," the chorus of Corinthian women plays a critical role in guiding the audience's emotional response to Medea's plight. Their sympathy for Medea elicits similar feelings in the audience, yet their horror at her ultimate actions in killing her children ensures that the audience's emotional response remains balanced.

1.4 Reflection of Societal Norms and Beliefs

The chorus also embodied societal norms and values, allowing the audience to comprehend the narrative within a broader social context. This often involved expressing popular moral perspectives, religious beliefs, or social customs of the period, providing an interpretive framework for the audience.

Example

In Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex," the chorus of Theban elders embody Theban society's traditional beliefs and values. Their reactions to Oedipus's transgressions, including his patricide and incestuous marriage, reflect societal norms and offer a moral measuring stick for the audience.

1.5 Transition Between Scenes

The chorus often facilitated smooth transitions between different scenes or acts, narrating the passage of time or shifts in location. This transitional role helped maintain the continuity of the narrative and ensured the audience could follow the progression of the story.

Example

In Euripides' "The Bacchae," the chorus of bacchants often functions as a transitional device, performing choral odes between episodes. Their performances provide both a narrative and physical transition, allowing for changes in time and place, while maintaining the drama's momentum and coherence.

2. Collective Character

The chorus's function as a collective character is of significant interest. The chorus contributed substantially to the narrative progression, dramatic tension, and thematic exploration of the play.

2.1 Unified Entity with Individual Presence

While the Greek theatre chorus consisted of multiple members, it often functioned as a singular, unified entity, speaking and reacting as one. This collective character often had a distinct identity tied to the setting of the play, such as the elders of a city, a group of citizens, or a band of soldiers, and was thus able to interact with the individual characters, either passively or actively.

Example

In "Antigone" by Sophocles, the chorus consists of Theban elders who collectively represent the societal order and the views of the city's citizens. They serve as a unified entity, commenting on the action, interpreting the unfolding events, and collectively interacting with the individual characters.

2.2 Participant in the Drama

As a collective character, the chorus was not merely an observer but a participant in the drama, with the ability to engage in dialogue with individual characters. The chorus's dialogue often took on the form of stichomythia (a rapid exchange of single lines), contributing to the dynamic interplay and rhythm of the scene. This active participation provided additional perspectives and responses to the unfolding events, adding depth and complexity to the narrative.

Example

In "The Eumenides" by Aeschylus, the chorus of the Furies plays a significant role in the drama, directly engaging with characters such as Orestes and Apollo, and participating actively in the trial at the heart of the play.

2.3 Reactive Role

The chorus also had a reactive role, responding collectively to the play's events. Their reactions could reflect the ideal or expected responses from the society they represent, thereby guiding the audience's understanding and emotional response to the events on stage.

Example

In "The Bacchae" by Euripides, the chorus of bacchants reacts emotionally to the tragic fate of Pentheus, thus intensifying the audience's response to his downfall.

2.4 Amplifier of Dramatic Tension

Through their collective reactions, the chorus sometimes amplifies the dramatic tension in the play. Their collective fear, joy, or sorrow, expressed through choral odes, often heightens these emotions in the audience, contributing to the overall dramatic effect.

Example

In "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles, the chorus of Theban elders enhances the dramatic tension throughout the play, particularly as Oedipus edges closer to discovering his true identity. Their reactions of fear and dread amplify the emotional intensity of the narrative.

2.5 Moral and Ethical Dimension

As a collective character, the chorus often embodied the moral or ethical norms of the society they represent. Their collective judgement, approval, or disapproval of the actions of the individual characters often underscores the moral or ethical implications of the narrative, thus serving a didactic purpose.

Example

In "Agamemnon" by Aeschylus, the chorus of Argive elders frequently comments on the moral implications of the characters' actions, particularly those of Clytemnestra. They underscore the tragedy of Agamemnon's murder and question the moral repercussions of Clytemnestra's act of revenge.

3. Reflection of Public Opinion

The role of the chorus in Greek theatre also included being the voice of the polis, or city-state, reflecting societal norms, moral codes, and public sentiment. This representation of collective public opinion significantly impacted the dramatic narrative and the audience's interpretation of the unfolding events.

3.1 Mirror of Societal Values

The chorus often embodied the prevalent values, traditions, and norms of the society they represented, whether it was the citizenry of a city, a group of soldiers, or a band of women. Their collective viewpoints provided an insight into the societal framework within which the narrative unfolded and the characters operated.

Example

In Euripides' "Medea", the chorus is comprised of Corinthian women who express the societal norms of the time. They sympathise with Medea's plight but also voice disapproval of her plans for revenge, mirroring societal expectations and moral codes.

3.2 Interpreter of Actions

By responding to the actions of individual characters, the chorus helped shape the audience's understanding and evaluation of those actions. Whether they expressed approval, disapproval, fear, or hope, their responses could reflect how society might judge the same actions, thus providing a moral and ethical barometer for the audience.

Example

In Sophocles' "Antigone", the chorus of Theban elders often comment on the actions of Antigone and Creon. They reflect societal views about the conflict between divine law (as represented by Antigone's actions) and man-made law (as represented by Creon's decree)

3.3 Expression of Collective Emotion

The chorus also served to reflect the collective emotional response of society to the unfolding events. Their shared emotional reactions, expressed through choral odes, often intensify these emotions in the audience, reinforcing the narrative's emotional impact.

Example

In "The Persians" by Aeschylus, the chorus is composed of Persian elders who express collective sorrow and despair over the Persian defeat at the Battle of Salamis, effectively conveying the national tragedy to the audience.

3.4 Representation of the Democratic Ideal

In the context of Athenian democracy, the chorus's reflection of public opinion held particular significance. The chorus represented the idea of 'kratos' (power) of the 'demos' (people), reflecting the democratic process of collective decision-making and public discourse.

Example

In Aristophanes' comedy "The Knights", the chorus is made up of Athenian citizens. Their critique of the protagonist, a thinly veiled satire of a contemporary Athenian political figure, reflects the democratic ideal of public discourse and criticism of the powerful.

3.5 Advisory Function

The chorus often served an advisory role, cautioning or counselling individual characters based on societal wisdom and experience. This function can be seen as a reflection of the collective wisdom of society.

Example

In "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles, the chorus of Theban elders frequently advises Oedipus, offering wisdom and urging caution. Their role as advisors reflects the societal expectation of elders imparting wisdom to younger generations.

4. Mood Setting and Foreshadowing

The role of the chorus in Greek theatre also included mood setting and foreshadowing, employing their unique collective voice and dramatic techniques to influence audience emotions, build suspense, and hint at upcoming events.

4.1 Mood Setting

The chorus was particularly effective in establishing a scene's emotional tone or mood. Using choral odes-structured songs often composed of strophe and antistrophe sections-the chorus could evoke a wide range of emotions in the audience, from fear and sorrow to joy and anticipation. The mood created by the chorus often reflected or contrasted with the emotional states of the individual characters, thereby enhancing the overall emotional texture of the narrative.

Example

In "Antigone" by Sophocles, the choral odes often set the emotional tone for the scene. One particular ode, known as the "Ode to Man," reflects on the achievements and the follies of mankind, setting a contemplative and sombre mood that underscores the play's tragic events.

4.2 Building Tension

The chorus often built suspense and tension, preparing the audience for significant dramatic moments. This was variously achieved through the rhythm and tempo of their songs, the intensity of their dances, and the urgency of their dialogue. By modulating these elements, the chorus escalates tension or provides relief, influencing the audience's emotional engagement with the drama.

Example

In Aeschylus's "Agamemnon", the chorus of Argive elders helps build tension through their dialogues and songs, particularly in anticipation of Agamemnon's return and the impending disaster they sense but cannot quite articulate.

4.3 Foreshadowing

The chorus often used their songs or dialogue to provide hints or warnings about impending events, a literary device known as foreshadowing. This often involves references to future calamities, prophecies, or ominous warnings. Foreshadowing heightened suspense and prepared the audience for future plot developments, ensuring dramatic events did not seem abrupt or unheralded.

Example

In "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles, the chorus frequently hints at future events. Their comments on the nature of prophecy and their fear of what Oedipus's investigation might foreshadow the tragic revelation of Oedipus's true identity.

4.4 Manipulation of Time

The Greek theatre chorus also had a unique capacity to manipulate perceived time within the narrative. Through their songs or dialogue, they could indicate the passage of time, creating anticipation for future events or a sense of retrospection for past actions. This time manipulation was critical in setting the mood and foreshadowing events.

Example

In Euripides' "The Trojan Women", the chorus of Trojan women sings of their past happiness and the recent siege, effectively indicating the passage of time and building a sense of retrospection that deepens the sense of tragedy.

4.5 Evoking Audience Empathy

The chorus's collective voice and emotional expressiveness evoked empathy in the audience. By mirroring or responding to the emotions of the individual characters, the chorus enabled the audience to share in the narrative's emotional journey, enhancing their emotional investment in the drama.

Example

In "The Bacchae" by Euripides, the chorus of bacchants elicits empathy from the audience through their passionate songs and dances. Their wild celebrations of Dionysian rituals and their lamentation for the suffering Dionysus contrast sharply with the rationalist views of Pentheus, inviting the audience to empathise with the god's followers and understand their perspective.

5. Rhythmic and Aesthetic Elements

The role of the chorus in Greek theatre also involved a rhythmic and aesthetic element. This role manifested through incorporating choral odes, dance, music, and poetry, which enhanced the narrative structure and contributed to the overall dramatic spectacle.

5.1 Choral Odes

The choral odes were a distinctive feature of Greek tragedy, characterized by their structured lyric poetry set to music. These odes were often composed of strophe and antistrophe sections, with the chorus moving in one direction during the strophe and in the opposite direction during the antistrophe. This alternating movement provided a rhythmic structure punctuating the drama and enhancing its momentum.

Example

In "Antigone" by Sophocles, the chorus sings the "Ode to Man," a renowned choral ode, between episodes. The rhythm and structure of this ode, alternating between strophe and antistrophe, provide a rhythmic pulse that punctuates the dramatic action.

5.2 Integration of Dance and Music

The chorus's role was not confined to the spoken or sung word. Dance was vital to their performance, bringing a kinetic dimension to the dramatic narrative. Choreographed movements in unison added to the spectacle and emphasized the chorus's collective character. Similarly, the use of music, whether instrumental or vocal, contributed to the rhythmic structure and mood of the play, evoking a range of emotional responses from the audience.

Example

In "The Bacchae" by Euripides, the chorus of bacchants frequently engages in ecstatic dances and songs in honour of Dionysus. Their dances and songs contribute to the rhythmic structure and mood of the play, creating a kinetic spectacle that enhances the dramatic narrative.

5.3 Aesthetic Appeal

The combination of music, dance, and poetry in the choral odes created an aesthetic experience that was visually, sonically, and intellectually engaging. This enriched the performance beyond the main narrative, providing a multi-sensory spectacle that amplified the dramatic impact.

Example

In "The Persians" by Aeschylus, the chorus of Persian elders adds to the aesthetic appeal of the performance with their lamentations for the Persian defeat at the Battle of Salamis. Combining poetic language, music, and movement, their choral odes create a visually and sonically rich spectacle.

5.4 Respite from Tension

The choral odes, performed between episodes of the main plot, offered a pause from the escalating tension of the narrative. This served to regulate the emotional intensity of the drama, providing moments of reflection, relief, or anticipation for the audience.

Example

In "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles, the choral odes serve as a pause from the escalating tension of Oedipus's investigation into the cause of Thebes's plague. These interludes offer the audience moments of reflection and anticipation, effectively regulating the emotional intensity of the drama.

5.5 Orchestration of Time and Space

The chorus's movements around the orchestra (the performing space) and their rhythmic chanting helped create the dramatic space and time. Their presence and performance underscored the rhythm of the unfolding drama and marked the passage of time within the narrative, thereby enhancing the sense of temporal and spatial continuity.

Example

In "Agamemnon" by Aeschylus, the chorus of Argive elders' movements around the orchestra and their rhythmic chanting help orchestrate the dramatic space and time. Their presence and performance underscore the rhythm of the unfolding drama and mark the passage of time within the narrative.

6. Moral and Philosophical Commentary

The chorus frequently provided moral and philosophical insights, often reflecting on the ethical implications of the character's actions and decisions. This aspect underscored the educative function of Greek drama, promoting reflection and discourse among the audience.

6.1 Ethical Evaluation

The chorus often provided an ethical lens through which the drama could be interpreted. They reacted to the actions of the individual characters, expressing approval, disapproval, or uncertainty, thereby providing an ethical evaluation of their choices and conduct. This assessment played a vital role in reinforcing or challenging the moral norms of society, engaging the audience in an exploration of ethical issues.

Example

In Sophocles' "Antigone", the chorus, comprised of Theban elders, often comments on the actions of Antigone and Creon. They question Creon's decision to deny Polynices a proper burial and Antigone's rebellious action, expressing uncertainty and concern about the ethical implications of their choices.

6.2 Philosophical Commentary

Beyond ethics, the chorus also contributed philosophical insights into the unfolding drama. They pondered on the nature of human existence, fate, the divine, justice, and other philosophical concepts that were woven into the narrative. Through their songs and dialogues, the chorus invited the audience to contemplate these profound themes, enriching the intellectual depth of the drama.

Example

In Euripides' "The Bacchae", the chorus of bacchants frequently reflects on the power and mystery of the gods, particularly Dionysus. Their songs praise the god's dual nature as both a bringer of joy and a terrifying force, encouraging the audience to contemplate the complex and unpredictable nature of the divine.

6.3 Didactic Function

The moral and philosophical commentary of the chorus underpinned the didactic function of Greek theatre. Greek drama was not merely a form of entertainment but was also a medium of education and social discourse. The chorus's commentary encouraged reflection and discussion among the audience, promoting ethical understanding and philosophical inquiry.

Example

In Aeschylus' "Agamemnon", the chorus of Argive elders reflects on the destructive consequences of hubris, as seen in Agamemnon's decision to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia and his arrogant behavior upon his return from Troy. Their commentary offers a didactic lesson on the dangers of excessive pride.

6.4 Collective Wisdom

The chorus often symbolized the collective wisdom of the community, a reflection of societal norms and expectations. Their commentary represented the communal voice, providing counsel, caution, or critique in response to the characters' actions. This communal perspective added a layer of societal validation or critique to the individual experiences depicted in the drama.

Example

In Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex", the chorus of Theban elders represents the community's collective wisdom. Their reactions to Oedipus's investigation into the cause of Thebes's plague provide a societal perspective, expressing caution and fear about the potential consequences.

6.5 Emotional Resonance

The chorus's moral and philosophical commentary resonated emotionally with the audience. Through their collective voice, they expressed feelings of fear, hope, sorrow, joy, and confusion in response to the moral and philosophical dilemmas presented in the drama. This emotional resonance helped the audience engage more deeply with the ethical and philosophical themes of the drama.

Example

In Euripides' "Medea", the chorus of Corinthian women expresses sympathy for Medea's plight as a foreign woman betrayed by her husband. Their emotional reactions resonate with the audience, encouraging empathy and deeper engagement with the drama's moral complexities.

7. Religious Function

The origins of the Greek theatre are closely connected to religious festivals, particularly those dedicated to Dionysus, the god of wine, agriculture, and fertility of nature, who was also the patron god of the Greek stage. The chorus maintained a religious tone and helped imbue the drama with a sense of reverence and ritual.

7.1 Dionysian Festivals

Greek theatre emerged from the Dionysian festivals, where choruses would sing and dance in honor of Dionysus. The chorus in the theatre maintained this link to the original Dionysian context. Their songs, dances, and dialogues contributed to the sacred atmosphere and served as a constant reminder of the theatre's religious origins.

Example

In Euripides' "The Bacchae," the chorus of bacchants, followers of Dionysus, perform hymns and dances in honor of the god, reminiscent of the Dionysian rituals that were the roots of Greek theatre. The chorus's ecstatic worship maintains the strong connection to the play's religious origins.

7.2 Ritual

The chorus's performance was inherently ritualistic. Their synchronized movements, rhythmic chants, and the cyclical nature of their odes had a mesmerizing, almost hypnotic effect. This ritualistic element, combined with their songs' spiritual content, helped create a reverential aura and connected the audience to the divine.

Example

In Aeschylus' "The Eumenides," the chorus of Furies provides a strong ritualistic element with their rhythmic chants and synchronised movements. Their haunting presence and ritualistic performance instil a sense of dread and reverence, emphasizing the sacred nature of their role as avenging spirits.

7.3 Religious Commentary

The chorus often provided religious commentary, reflecting on the role of the gods in human affairs, the nature of fate, and the moral and spiritual implications of the characters' actions. This commentary served to reinforce the religious themes woven into the drama and encouraged the audience to engage with the spiritual dimensions of the narrative.

Example

In Sophocles' "Antigone," the chorus of Theban elders frequently reflects on the role of the gods in human affairs, particularly the consequences of defying divine laws. Their reflections and comments imbue the drama with a strong sense of religiosity.

7.4 Representing the Divine

The chorus sometimes served as a mouthpiece for the gods, delivering divine messages, prophecies, or judgements. This function further underlined the religious function of the theatre, establishing a direct link between the divine realm and the dramatic action.

Example

In Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex," the chorus communicates the prophecies of the Oracle of Apollo to Oedipus, effectively serving as a messenger of the gods. Their role underscores the divine presence in the unfolding tragedy.

7.5 Catharsis

The chorus also contributed to the cathartic experience of the drama. The shared emotions expressed by the chorus, and the wisdom imparted through their commentary, facilitated a communal purging of emotions - a catharsis, that had spiritual significance. This cathartic function is a crucial part of the religious aspect of Greek theatre.

Example

In Euripides' "The Trojan Women," the chorus of Trojan women contributes to the cathartic experience of the drama. Their shared lamentations and reflections on the devastating consequences of war facilitate a communal purging of emotions, reflecting the spiritual dimension of catharsis in Greek drama.

Playwrights' Use of the Chorus

Ancient Greek playwrights each had unique styles and approaches to utilising the chorus in their works. There were differences in not only the number of chorus members but also the function and engagement of the chorus in the narrative.

Aeschylus

Known as the 'father of tragedy', Aeschylus was the first of the three great ancient Greek tragedians. In his early works, Aeschylus typically used a chorus of fifty, following the tradition of the Dionysia festival. However, he reduced this number to twelve in his later works. Aeschylus often made the chorus a central participant in the play's main action. For instance, in "The Persians", the chorus represents the council of Persian elders who react to the news of their army's defeat.

Sophocles

Sophocles was the second of the three renowned Greek tragedians. He made significant innovations in Greek theatre, including reducing the traditional chorus from fifty (as was often employed by Aeschylus) to fifteen members, a convention that became standard in later Greek tragedies. This change perhaps allowed for more focus on individual characters. Sophocles often used the chorus to explore the philosophical implications of the dramatic action, as seen in "Oedipus Rex" where the chorus reflects on the mystery of human life and destiny.

Euripides

Euripides, the third of the great tragedians, continued to use a chorus of fifteen members, following the convention set by Sophocles. However, he often employed the chorus in a significantly different way. While the chorus had been an integral part of the action in the works of Aeschylus and Sophocles, in Euripides' plays, they were often more detached from the plot, serving more as observers and commentators. Euripides frequently used the chorus to convey the emotional atmosphere and provide philosophical commentary. In "The Bacchae", for instance, the chorus of bacchantes often intensifies the atmosphere of wild religious ecstasy.

Aristophanes

Aristophanes was a comic playwright whose approach to the chorus was distinctly different from the tragedians. His plays often incorporated a chorus of twenty-four members, which was typical for Old Comedy. Aristophanes creatively employed the chorus not only as commentators but also as active participants in the comedy. The choruses in Aristophanes' plays are diverse and could be composed of clouds, wasps, birds, or even frogs, as seen in his play "The Frogs".

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The Role of the Chorus in Greek Theatre: 39 Critical Facts - The Drama Teacher

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The role of the chorus in Greek theatre was integrally linked to the performance and the narrative. A staple component of Classical Greek dramas, the chorus typically consisted of a group of actors, traditionally ranging from 12 to 50 performers.

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One thing that made me think after reading this play was the concept of the Oedipus complex. The name of course comes from this play but the psychological terminology refers (in short) to the desire of a child to marry their same-sex parent and view their opposite-sex parent as a rival. Majority of the time it is when a son wants to sleep with his mother and kill their father (like the play). This confused me because in the play, Oedipus didn't want to do any of that and had no idea it was happening. It seems like it would refer to the subconscious and the power that it has. While the play is a horrific tragedy, the Oedipus complex is seen (in some circles) as an inherent attribute for children to have.

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Also called the oedipal complex, the Oedipus complex is a term used in the psychosexual stages of development theory by Sigmund Freud. The concept, first proposed by Freud in 1899 and not formally used until 1910, refers to a male child's attraction to their parent of the opposite sex (mother) and jealousy of their parent of the same sex (father).

According to the controversial concept, children view the same-sex parent as a rival. Specifically, a boy feels the need to compete with his father for the attention of his mother, or a girl will compete with her mother for the attention of her father. The latter concept was termed the "Electra complex," by a former student and collaborator of Freud, Carl Jung.

The controversy centers on the theory that a child has sexual feelings towards a parent. Freud believed that though these feelings or desires are repressed or unconscious, they still have a significant influence on a child's development.

The complex is named after Oedipus Rex - a character in Sophocles' tragic play. In the story, Oedipus Rex unknowingly kills his father and marries his mother.

According to Freud's theory, the psychosexual development in childhood happens in stages. Each stage represents the fixation of libido on a different part of the body. Freud believed that as you grow physically, certain parts of your body become sources of pleasure, frustration, or both. Today, these body parts are commonly referred to as erogenous zones when talking about sexual pleasure.

According to Freud, the stages of psychosexual development include:

Oral. This stage happens between infancy and 18 months. It involves fixation on the mouth, and the pleasure of sucking, licking, chewing, and biting.

Anal. This stage occurs between 18 months and 3 years of age. It focuses on the pleasure of bowel elimination and developing healthy toilet training habits.

Phallic. This stage runs from age 3 to 5. It's believed to be the most important stage in psychosexual development in which boys and girls develop healthy substitutes for their attraction to the opposite-sex parent.

Latency. This stage occurs between 5 and 12 years of age or puberty, during which a child develops healthy dormant feelings for the opposite sex.

Genital. This stage occurs from age 12, or puberty, to adulthood. The maturation of healthy sexual interests happens during this time as all of the other stages are integrated into the mind. This allows for healthy sexual feelings and behavior.

According to Freud, the first five years of life are important in the formation and development of our adult personalities. During this time, he believed we develop our ability to control and direct our sexual desires into socially acceptable behaviors.

Based on his theory, the Oedipus complex plays a significant role in the phallic stage, which happens between approximately 3 and 6 years of age. In this stage, the child's libido is focused on the genitalia.

The symptoms and signs of the Oedipus complex aren't as overtly sexual - if at all - as one might imagine based on this controversial theory. The signs of Oedipus complex can be very subtle and include behavior that wouldn't make a parent think twice.

The following are some examples that could be a sign of the complex:

a boy who acts possessive of his mother and tells the father not to touch her

a child who insists on sleeping between parents

a girl who declares she wants to marry her father when she grows up

a child who hopes the parent of the opposite sex goes out of town so that they can take their place

The Electra complex is referred to as the female counterpart of the Oedipus complex. Unlike the Oedipus complex, which refers to both males and females, this psychoanalytic term refers only to females. It involves a daughter's adoration for her father and her jealously toward her mother. There's also a "penis envy" element to the complex, in which the daughter blames the mother for depriving her of a penis.

The Electra complex was defined by Carl Jung, one of the pioneers of psychoanalysis and former collaborator of Freud's. It was named after the Greek myth of Electra. In the myth, Electra persuades her brother to avenge her father's murder by helping her kill her mother and her lover.

According to Freud, a child must overcome conflicts at each of the sexual stages to be able to develop healthy sexual desires and behaviors. When the Oedipus complex is not successfully resolved during the phallic stage, an unhealthy fixation can develop and remain. This leads to boys becoming fixated on their mothers and girls becoming fixated on their fathers, causing them to choose romantic partners that resemble their opposite-sex parent as adults.

The Oedipus complex is one of the most discussed and criticized issues in psychology. Experts have, and will likely continue to have, differing views and opinions on the complex and whether or not it exists and to what degree.

If you're concerned about your child's behavior, speak to your child's pediatrician or a mental health professional.

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The Oedipus complex is one of the most discussed and criticized issues in psychology. Learn more about its origins and hypothesis here.

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As we read Oedipus, it seemed so strange to watch Oedipus stop at nothing to find the truth while also being so blind to it. Looking over the text again, I found a lot more understanding of his situation. It started with such normal intentions, I feel like all of us would be driven to find out the truth about our parent or what happened to them. At the same time, I also understand why someone would be so willfully blind to the reality. I don't think any of us could begin to grapple with such a twisted situation without intense denial. I read it as almost a comedy because the situation is so comically bad, but to imagine that actually happening to somebody reminds me of Oedipus's humanity.

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This may be dark, but I honestly don't know how or why Oedipus did not kill himself. In all seriousness, the gravity of Oedipus's situation is too much to handle. Even though I like how blinding himself was a physical representation of how blind he was to the truth the whole time, it still is confusing why he didn't take his own life. Being blind does help his situation, in fact it makes it worse because now all he has are past memories. It seems like it his vailed attempt to take an honorable punishment for his actions. This is flawed because the honorable thing, as in the case of Orestes, was to kill the man who killed his father. In Oedipus's case, even the honorable thing would have been to kill himself.

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Just as pride made Creon resistant to changing his beliefs, the same happens to Antigone. She was too prideful to let the law be carried out, her devotion to her family caused her to have a lack of judgment. This makes her more of a tragic hero, because the reason was the love she had for her family, but what she did was still ill-advised. The loyalty to her family was her downfall.

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A theme that has been very clear in almost every play we have read is pride. Pride and ego have plagued many of the characters in these tragedies, especially Creon. Fearing that his authority would be undermined by Antigone, he remains stubborn in his belief, leading to his own downfall. The way he was so blindly prideful of his commands shows that he did not learn anything from Oedipus. Oedipus would not listen to Creon, and now Creon would not listen to Antigone. Pride seems to eliminate all reason and perspective from somebody and just makes them focus on not having their masculinity threatened.

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As I discussed in Agamemnon, the gender dynamics in Antigone are also very apparent. The basis for Creon's stubbornness is because Antigone is a woman wanting to "disobey" his orders. Antigone seems to me like an early feminist with the way she stands up for herself and what she believes in. Men are used to imposing their will/commands onto women, and any rejection of that paradigm is seen as a slight against their masculinity. So, Antigone questioning and rebelling against Creon's laws is an excellent portrayal of a strong woman standing up to a man. She is a strong and admirable character that battles against the normative gender structure of her time.

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Feminism in Antigone is a crucial step in the breakthrough of gender roles in modern-day media; Sophocles' play held various influential themes that tackle societal issues that transcend up to this very day. One of which is the controversial topic of feminism. Feminism, by definition, is the radical belief in the egalitarianism of both sexes, which includes political, societal, and economic equality.

Written in a time where women are subject to fewer rights than men, our Greek writer's take on the portrayal of femininity and women's rights held great importance to both the women of its time and the women of today. The patriarchal society in which the play was made dramatically affects the people's psyche. Still, Sophocles stripped all predisposed societal influence to create the woman that is Antigone.

Antigone and Feminism

Feminism can be seen in various points of the play and is portrayed at different levels, giving the viewers a glimpse of the varying faces of femininity. The tragedy premiered in 441 BCE, where women were greatly influenced to solely take care of their children and family.

Career-driven women in Ancient Greece were few, with female Spartans and courtesans as their only career choices. That is why the portrayal of a strong woman opposing a man in power for the sake of justice is such an essential portrayal of feminism for feminists, and Antigone was one of the very first plays to tackle this.

To fully grasp Sophocles' representation of feminism, we must go over the play and focus on the women in Antigone, their struggles, and how they deviated from the societal expectations of their male-dominated upbringing.

Antigone

At the beginning of the play, we see Antigone discussing Creon's unjust laws to her sister, Ismene. The two siblings argue over what to do with their brother's body as both have opposing ideas on the matter. Antigone, unwavering in her version of justice, urges her sister to join her in her tryst to bury their brother's body, but Ismene shakes her head, fearing for both of their lives.

Antigone portrays a brave, headstrong woman who brazenly faces obstacles that come her way, which opposes the portrayal of women of that time. In ancient Greece, women were portrayed and even urged to be submissive and soft to appeal to the men of their times. Yet, Antigone is described as a headstrong woman who bows to no man, contradicting the gender roles in Antigone.

On the other hand, Ismene is portrayed as a fearful and submissive woman, true to the characteristics of ancient Greek women, which cements the importance of representation and the varying role of women in Antigone. Even though they're siblings, Antigone and Ismene could not be any more different. Despite this, they love each other dearly.

In the next scene, we witness Antigone bury her brother, and she gets caught by two palace guards who compare her to a wild animal, an image believed to be unfit for a woman. This comparison gives rise to the pressing matter of misogyny in the play.

Antigone honored the Divine law, making her the heroine of Thebes, while King Creon, who strongly opposes Antigone for her bold act, sentences Antigone to death. This act re-establishes Creon's masculinity and cements his position in power, allowing fear to rule his reign. Thus, Sophocles portrays misogyny negatively with the use of politics and the ever-old argument of church vs. state.

Women of Antigone

As Antigone is sentenced for her crimes, Ismene cries and begs to join her sister in her punishment. The fear of losing her only family overcoming her fear of death. This scene is essential to emphasize the fact that beliefs can be changed, and solidarity is important.

It also shows both sisters' bond and the familial duties brought upon their shoulders by their brothers' actions. In this sense, Ismene chooses to face her fears of death for her sister's sake, representing the impact of heroic acts and how they can sometimes influence others to do the same.

As Ismene declares her intention of joining her sister in death, Creon's misogyny is shown as he proclaims: "They are, but women and even brave men come running in the face of death." Despite his assumption, neither of the two sisters run away from death nor beg for his forgiveness. This act illustrates the strength and character of the women in Antigone.

Haemon and Gender Roles

The next bout of feminism we witness is in the character of Haemon, Antigone's lover. Haemon begs his father, Creon, to free the woman he loves and forgive her for her sins. With his father's refusal, Haemon marches into Antigone's cave to free her. Upon arrival, Haemon sees Antigone's corpse hanging from above. Determined to join his lover in death, Haemon takes his life. In Antigone, Haemon is portrayed as a submissive lover, willing to leave everything behind for the woman he loves.

Haemon exists as only that of a lover, while Antigone lives amid confusion and war. Antigone struggles as she faces the unjust tyranny of Creon, while Haemon's major crisis is the imprisonment of his lover. Sophocles reverses the stereotypical gender roles portrayed even in modern-day media and reiterates the importance of representation; that women can be protagonists instead of lovers and men can exist as lovers instead of protagonists.

In the end, Creon loses his son and wife to grief. This tragedy could be translated as his punishment for his hubris and misogyny. He wanted to punish Antigone for defying him and ended up killing his son in the process. His only remaining sons' death leads to his wife's suicide, leaving him alone in the mortal realm.

Antigone and Its Importance in the Modern World

Contextualizing Antigone and comparing it to modern society helps us understand that humanity isn't as advanced as we like to think. The issues unresolved in the year 441 BCE are rampant despite the many years that have come.

Sophocles' play contains various obstacles that transcend to modern-day struggles. The play talks about issues on politics, gender roles, and religious faith that we have yet to fix. From ancient times up to the modern age, these issues have yet to be resolved. However, they are slowly being acknowledged, and this is due to media consumption and education.

Sophocles' take on these issues plays an essential role in influence; the play educates viewers on the adverse effects of misogyny, bringing light to the problematic nature of patriarchal hubris, tyranny, and religion. Sophocles' play has influenced various literary works that pass down the same teachings and educate the new generations to come.

Conclusion

Now that we've talked about feminism, its meaning, role in Antigone, and how it's impacted modern-day literature, let us go over the key points of this article.

Feminism, by definition, is the radical belief in the egalitarianism of both sexes that include equality in politics, economics, and societal demands.

Feminism in Antigone plays a crucial role in the breakthrough of gender roles in modern-day media, shaping and changing the definition of femininity along the way.

The different levels of feminism can be seen in bouts throughout the play, from the first scene until the last.

Sophocles' play tackles a handful of themes that transcend to modern-day struggles; it talks about politics, religious faith, and gender biases that have been imprinted onto us.

Antigone illustrates the flexibility of gender roles by creating a strong-willed woman as a protagonist and a submissive man as her lover instead of the stereotypical reverse.

The women in Antigone provide us a clear picture of solidarity despite differences that despite differing opinions, love cannot be erased; this is seen through Ismene, who attempts to join her sister in death in fear of losing her.

Antigone represents the rebellion against injustice and the strength and bravery needed to combat it.

Antigone's wit, bravery, and strength make her a strong character that any woman can stand behind.

Sophocles' play has influenced various literary works that pass down numerous lessons on the struggles we face today; for example, tyranny; because fascist regimes have a long history of ruling, democracy emerged to combat the unjust sentences.

Antigone also teaches us that we do not need to conform to societal demands; gender roles do not exist, and you can be a submissive man like Haemon or a strong independent girl like Antigone.

In conclusion, feminism in Antigone has influenced modern-day society into the semi-progressive state it is in now. Albeit slow, the progress and acknowledgment of these issues would not have come to light without influence from the media, and Antigone is one of the first forms of media that shed light on such important matters.

Because of feminism in Antigone and others, these issues were addressed, and their negative implications were recognized. We can start by slowly building awareness and fixing the mistakes and notions our forefathers have made. Feminism in Antigone, its importance in modern-day literature, and other issues the play shed light on.

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Feminism in Antigone and Its Impact on Modern Literature

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Feminism in Antigone holds great importance to the breakthrough of gender roles in modern society, how you may ask? Read here to learn more.

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One of the main thoughts I have when reading the Odyssey can be applied to a lot of other pieces of media both in this time and in today's time. It is always the glorification of violence and masculinity. It has become more modernized, but the sentiments remain the same. War is glorified, being manipulative is glorified, being physically strong is glorified, etc. This notion I find a constant in the media today as well. Whether it be military propaganda, movies, video games, etc., there are always these themes that are used as "entertainment." I am not saying that these themes could never be used well in media, I just shows how long these motifs have been used for.

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This may be more of a general thought of this time period as it centers around Mythology. I understand that a time without our technology would make it harder to understand the world around us, it is just interesting to see the evolution of this. It seems that since the world was less discovered and observed, their myths were more everyday things. The ocean is controlled by Poseidon, there are huge Cyclops's living in caves, things like that. Very apparent in nature these things and seeming only believable if you were completely ignorant to the reality of life. This is contrasted with modern day religions, as today, we have a seemingly vast knowledge of the world around us. Religion has no daily miracles, not supernatural occurrences, and there are not people controlling parts of the world. Instead, it is The ENTIRITY of reality that is controlled. It seems since we've needed less explanation of the daily occurrences due to modernity that we need a more encompassing "myth/religion." I am aware that monotheism and polytheism have different dynamics, but it seems like the myths in this time were a huge part of the daily reality.

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On Quora, I have noticed there seems to be an endless number of questions dealing with the same overall theme: "Did the ancient Greeks and Romans really believe in their gods?" and "Did the ancient Greeks really believe in their myths?"

I think these questions are born from a strange discordance that people have noticed between the ancient Greeks' reputation for rational skepticism and the stories we still tell about their gods and heroes-stories that-let's face it-in most cases are pretty unbelievable to say the least.

Thus people have wondered, "How on Earth could a people so supposedly enlightened believe in such absurd stories?" As it turns out, though, believing in the Greek deities and believing in Greek myths are two different things; many people in ancient times believed in the deities without necessarily believing in all the stories attached to them.
A deeply religious culture
There is no doubt that the vast majority of people in ancient Greece wholeheartedly believed in the existence of the Greek deities. This is evidenced by countless pieces of evidence gathered from a vast array of different kinds of sources. For one thing, the Greek deities are almost constantly mentioned in classical Greek texts as though they were actual beings. People are described as praying to them and swearing oaths by them, which wouldn't make much sense unless most people believed in them.

Furthermore, the ancient Greeks built countless temples to their deities. Many of these temples are colossal structures that were certainly extremely labor-intensive, time-consuming, and expensive to produce. Take, for instance, the Parthenon, the Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens, or the Temple of Artemis at Ephesos. All of these were monumental structures dedicated as houses for the gods. People don't usually build massive, often extremely expensive temples to deities that the majority of them don't even believe in.

ABOVE: Photograph from Wikimedia Commons of the ruins of the Temple of Olympian Zeus, a massive ruined temple in Athens, Greece, which was begun in the Archaic Period and completed in the Roman Era. People don't usually put massive amounts of time, effort, and money into building colossal temples like this one to deities they don't believe in.
Likewise, the ancient Greeks made sacrifices to their deities on an almost daily basis. As I discuss in this article I wrote back in September 2019, animal sacrifice was a normal part of existence in the ancient world. In ancient Greece, pretty much any time people in ancient Greece ate meat from any animal other than a fish was after a sacrifice.

As I discuss in this article from November 2019, there is even one report from Ploutarchos of Chaironeia's Life of Themistokles that, on at least one particularly desperate occasion, the classical Athenians may have even engaged in human sacrifice in effort to win the favor of the gods. People don't normally perform sacrifices-let alone human sacrifices-to deities that most of them don't believe in.

People in ancient Greece didn't just talk about the gods almost constantly, build temples to them, and offer sacrifices to them; they also made efforts to communicate with the gods. People frequently consulted oracles in effort to learn what the gods thought about things.

They didn't just consult oracles for major decisions; sometimes people consulted oracles about matters that seem to us thousands of years later endearingly mundane. For instance, at some point between the sixth and third centuries BC, a man named Agis posed the following question to the oracle of Zeus and Dione at Dodona, as translated by Pierre Bonnechere:

"Agis asks Zeus Naios and Dione about his pillows and blankets, whether he has lost them or whether someone else has stolen them."

ABOVE: Detail of a Paestan red-figure bell-krater dating to c. 330 BC or thereabouts depicting the oracle of Delphoi sitting atop a tripod The outliers
The question has survived through an inscription, but the oracle's reply has been lost to time.

I could go on and present more evidence, but I think most of my readers probably get the picture; the ancient Greeks were, on the whole, a very deeply religious people and the vast majority of them certainly believed in the existence of the gods.

The evidence I have presented so far is more than enough to demonstrate that most people in ancient Greece believed in the deities. Nonetheless, this evidence does not demonstrate that everyone necessarily believed in them, since individuals are, of course, capable of disagreeing with other members of their society. People were every bit as capable of disagreeing with each other back then as they are today and all it takes is a look at any internet discussion to know that people today hold a wide range of diverse opinions.

I wrote an extremely detailed article back in September 2019 about what evidence there is for the presence of atheism in ancient Greece. I highly recommend reading that article, but I will briefly summarize some of its main points here. Basically, there is ample evidence for the existence of people who questioned traditional ideas about religion and the nature of the gods, but there is precious little evidence for the existence of people who outright denied the existence of all deities entirely.

The ancient Greeks did have the word ἄθεοι ( átheoi), which literally means "godless ones." Nonetheless, this was a largely meaningless snarl-word that was applied pejoratively to anyone who did not conform to traditional religious norms. Very few of the people to whom this term was applied in antiquity would be considered atheists today. The closest we probably come to a true ancient Greek atheist is the Sophist Protagoras of Abdera (lived c. 490 - c. 420 BC), who wrote in the surviving fragment from his now-lost treatise On the Gods:

"Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they exist or not, nor of what sort they may be, because of the obscurity of the subject, and the brevity of human life."

By any definition, Protagoras would be considered an agnostic if he were alive today.
What the majority thought of the outliers
There were some people in ancient Greece who saw the deities through a philosophical lens as more-or-less personified beings. This kind of belief is attested in variety of sources, most notably in the Derveni Papyrus, a philosophical treatise from the late fifth century BC that has survived through a surprisingly well-preserved papyrus roll discovered in 1962 at the site of Derveni in northern Greece.

ABOVE: Democritus and Protagoras, painted between 1663 and 1664 by the Italian Baroque painter Salvator Rosa. Protagoras was what we might describe today as an agnostic.

I think I have now established that most people in ancient Greece believed in the existence of deities, but some people held unconventional views about what these deities were like and a few people seem to have even had doubts about the gods' existence. Now I imagine that many of my readers are probably wondering whether people who held unconventional religious views in ancient Greece were persecuted. The answer is that, in general, they usually weren't, but that is not a hard-and-fast rule.

One point that is essential to emphasize right from the start is that ancient Greek religion was centered on practice, not belief. In ancient Greece, it generally wasn't considered especially important what you personally thought the deities were like; what mattered was that you worshipped the deities ordained by the state, that you took part in public religious activities, and that you abided by conventional religious rules and norms.

As long as you acknowledged the gods of the state and did all those other things, most people generally didn't really care that much about what you personally thought the gods were like. The ancient Greeks had no concepts of "heresy" or "orthodoxy." The closest concept they had to "heresy" was ἀσέβεια ( asébeia), which is usually translated as "impiety." This term typically refers to the act of refusing to acknowledge the gods of the state.
Believing in myths versus not believing in myths
People were sometimes brought to trial for impiety, but, in nearly all recorded cases of people being brought to trial under this charge, there is known to have been some other political motive at play. For instance, most famously, the philosopher Socrates (lived c. 470 - 399 BC) was accused of impiety, but the actual reasons why he was brought to trial are suspected to have been because influential people found him annoying and because he had some unsavory connections to political figures such as the general Alkibiades and Kritias, the leader of the Thirty Tyrants, the murderous regime installed by the Spartans after Athens' defeat in the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC that is estimated to have killed roughly one twentieth of Athens' population.

ABOVE: Alcibiades Being Taught by Socrates, painted in 1776 by the French Neoclassical painter François-André Vincent

It is quite apparent that the vast majority of people in ancient Greece believed in the existence of the Greek gods, but they had differing conceptions of what those gods were like. Some people believed in the anthropomorphic deities of the Homeric poems; whereas other people envisioned the deities in a more abstract sense. Nearly everyone, though, believed in deities of some kind.

When it come to the question of whether or not the ancient Greeks really believed in their myths, however, matters are far more complicated. People in ancient times were far more likely to doubt the veracity of myths and stories than they were to doubt the existence of the gods. There were certainly many people in ancient Greece who seriously doubted and sometimes even outright rejected the literal truth of the Greek myths.

References to people doubting the truthfulness of the Greek myths are all over the place in surviving works of ancient Greek literature. One of the earliest Greek writers to criticize traditional mythology was the poet Xenophanes of Kolophon (lived c. 570 - c. 475 BC), who savagely critiqued the traditional idea of the gods as anthropomorphic beings capable of immoral actions. Here are three surviving fragments of Xenophanes's writings, translated by Kathleen Freeman:

ABOVE: Fictional seventeenth-century engraving depicting how the artist imagined Xenophanes of Kolophon might have looked. No one knows what he really looked like. The spread of mythology skepticism

"(FRG 14) But mortals believe the gods to be created by birth, and to have their own ( mortals') raiment, voice and body. (FRG 16) Aithiopians have gods with snub noses and black hair, Thrakians have gods with grey eyes and red hair. (FRG 15) But if oxen [and horses] and lions had hands or could draw with hands and create works of art like those made by men, horses would draw pictures of gods like horses, and oxen of gods like oxen, and they would make the bodies [of their gods] in accordance with the form that each species itself possesses."

Other surviving fragments of Xenophanes's writings clearly indicate that he still believed in the existence of divine beings, but he was resistant to the idea of them being anthropomorphic.

There is a great deal of evidence from later writings that, by the end of the fifth century BC, a very large number of Greek intellectuals had serious qualms with accepting the traditional myths at face value and many of them were convinced that these stories couldn't possibly be true-or at least not in the way that most people believed them to be.

ABOVE: Detail of an Apulian red-figure oinochoe by the Salting Painter depicting the wind-god Boreas abducting the Athenian princess Oreithyia, dating to c. 360 BC On Incredible Tales by Palaiphatos
For instance, in Plato's dialogue , the Athenian aristocrat Phaidros is portrayed walking with the philosopher Socrates outside of Athens by the Ilissos stream. Phaidros asks Socrates whether the place where they are walking is the place where Boreas, the god of the north wind, carried off the princess Orethyia, the daughter of King Erechtheus of Athens. Socrates replies that the actual spot was some distance away.

Then Phaidros asks Socrates whether he believes the story. Socrates replies that all the wise and clever men say that the story is false, but that he himself is happy to believe that it is true, since that is what the common folk believe and, since he does not know himself, he does not feel it would be his place to speculate about things that are not his concern.

There are several surviving ancient Greek texts that attempt to offer up rational explanations for various traditional myths and stories. My favorite is a rather amusing work titled On Incredible Tales, which was written by an obscure author named Palaiphatos.

It is unclear when exactly Palaiphatos lived, but he most likely lived at some point between the end of the fifth century BC and the middle of the second century BC. The Souda, a tenth-century AD Byzantine encyclopedia, appears to claim that he was a contemporary of Aristotle (lived 384 - 322 BC), but it is unclear whether this is in fact correct.

Palaiphatos's On Incredible Tales has probably not survived to the present day in its original complete form, since the Souda references the work as having been composed of five books, but only one book of it has survived to the present day. The surviving book may be a summary of Palaiphatos's original or merely a portion of Palaiphatos's original.

In any case, the work that has survived opens with the following introduction, as translated by Jacob Stern:

ABOVE: Ancient Roman mosaic from the dining room of Hadrian's Villa, dating to between c. 120 and c. 130 AD, depicting a centaur alongside various wild animals

"Here is a work I have written entitled 'On Unbelievable Tales.' Now some people, who have no acquaintance with philosophy or science, are too credulous and believe everything that is said to them. Others, of a more subtle and inquisitive nature, totally disbelieve that any of these tales ever happened. My own belief is that there is a reality behind all stories. For names alone without stories would hardly have arisen: first there must have been deeds and thereafter stories about them."

The remainder of the work goes through many of the best-known stories from Greek mythology involving supernatural elements and tries to find rational explanations for them. For instance, Palaiphatos's first chapter deals with the centaurs, mythical creatures who are said to have had the bodies of horses, but the heads, arms, and torsos of men.

Palaiphatos realizes that creatures of this sort certainly never existed, but he comes up with the creative explanation that perhaps stories about centaurs arose from people seeing raiders riding on horseback from behind at a great distance so that all they could see were the horses' bodies and the upper bodies of the men riding them. Thus, Palaiphatos argues that they must have mistaken the men on horseback for men with the bodies of horses.

Ironically, many Palaiphatos's explanations are even more fanciful than the original stories themselves. Take, for instance, the story of Medeia. In traditional Greek mythology, Medeia is said to have been a sorceress from the land of Kolchis who tricked the daughters of the tyrant Pelias into killing their father by showing them how she could make an old goat young again by chopping it to pieces, boiling it in a cauldron full of magic herbs, and pulling it out, fully rejuvenated. Pelias's daughters-who were apparently not very bright-therefore chopped their father into pieces and boiled him in a cauldron, thinking that this would make him young, but they did not put in the right magic herbs, so he died and did not come back to life.

ABOVE: Illustration from 1894 by Dugald Sutherland MacColl after a scene from an Attic black-figure amphora from Etruria, now held in the collection of the British Museum depicting the ram rising from the cauldron rejuvenated The myths no one questioned
Palaiphatos in his On Incredible Tales chapter 43, takes a completely different interpretation of the story. According to Palaiphatos, Medeia actually invented the steam bath, which helped reduce wrinkles and made people look younger, but those who were ignorant thought she was boiling people alive. Pelias, Palaiphatos reasons, only died because he was extremely old and weak and could not handle the heat.

Of course, I imagine most of my readers can tell why this approach is silly right from the get-go. Quite simply, Palaiphatos starts out with the unjustified assumption that there must be a definitive grain of truth behind every story and he does not consider the possibility that all of the stories he examines may simply be made up entirely. Consequently, Palaiphatos concocts all sorts of wild tales of his own in effort to discredit the traditional stories.

Using exactly the same reasoning as Palaiphatos, we might interpret the novel The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien as a misunderstood and conflated tale about four humble farmers from the English countryside (who just happened, by sheer coincidence, to be abnormally short) standing up against an evil factory corporation known as MorDor (whose logo is obviously a giant burning eye) that is taking over their village and driving townsfolk out of their jobs. Clearly, this would be absurd.

ABOVE: Photograph

ABOVE: Photograph Conclusion from Wikimedia Commons of a portion of the walls of Troy VII from Wikimedia Commons of the walls of the acropolis of Troy VII
Some myths were doubted more frequently than others. Many people seem to have doubted the truth of some of the more outlandish stories, such as the whole story about Medeia tricking Pelias's daughters into murdering him. The less outlandish stories, however, were almost never doubted. For instance, we have no record that I am currently aware of that anyone in ancient Greece ever seriously doubted the historicity of the Trojan War.

People did question the truth of specific myths related to the Trojan War, but the historicity of the war itself basically went unquestioned. This is not especially surprising, though, when you consider that many people even today in the twenty-first century still believe many of the stories about the Trojan War, even though, as I discuss in this article from March 2019, there is very little evidence to substantiate that anything worth calling the "Trojan War" actually happened.

Troy was a real city that existed in the late Bronze Age and it is possible that there may have been several military conflicts between various Mycenaean kingdoms and the city of Troy. Nevertheless, it is highly unlikely that there was ever a ten-year-long sustained siege of Troy, that legendary figures like Agamemnon, Helene of Troy, Hektor, Achilleus, Odysseus, or Aias ever existed, or that there was ever a real Trojan horse.

The vast majority of people in ancient Greece really believed in the Greek gods, but there were some dissenters who questioned traditional ideas about the gods and a few people who were not completely sure about the gods' existence. For the most part, people who had doubts about the gods do not seem to have been widely persecuted. Although these individuals could be legally brought to trial for impiety, this seems to have been rarely done except when there was political motivation to do so.

Many people doubted the truth of the more outlandish stories from Greek mythology, but the less outlandish stories were more widely believed. The historicity of the Trojan War seems to have basically gone more-or-less unquestioned.

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Did the Ancient Greeks Really Believe in Their Myths? - Tales of Times Forgotten

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On Quora, I have noticed there seems to be an endless number of questions dealing with the same overall theme: "Did the ancient Greeks and Romans really believe in their gods?" and "Did the ancient Greeks really believe in their myths?" I think these questions are born from a strange discordance that people have noticed ...

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Throughout the Odyssey, Odysseus is constantly losing his crew as they keep dying to various things. By the end, it is just him who remains. I often think of the concept of a "captain going down with the ship." This mentality is very apparent in modern society as a true leader of a group is willing to sacrifice themselves for the good of the people their are leading. This is specifically about ships on water, but is often applied to many other situations. Even in some cases, it is seen as legally required by the leader. Unfortunately, this is not always the case as there are countless events that show captains abandoning others to protect themselves, which is seen as dishonorable. Even though Odysseus seems to mourn his lost crew members, it is he who gets the glory. This shits my perspective on what a "hero" is as he is so obsessed with his own story and destiny.

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Are Captains Required To Go Down With Their Ships?

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Sappho's works are compelling on their own, but it is even more interesting to think about how most of them are lost in history. Especially being a female playwright, women's works are especially lost or not appreciated. This always makes me think of everything else that has been destroyed or never discovered at all. Even today, there are millions of profound works that never see the light of day. I love thinking about the beautiful things that have been created over thousands of years. It is a melancholy feeling because it is so fascinating to think about but also so sad to know I will never be able to see it.

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1. The Colossus of Rhodes

One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, this massive bronze statue of the sun god Helios towered over the Greek city of Rhodes for most of the 3rd century B.C. The behemoth stood 110 feet tall, and reportedly took the sculptor Chares of Lindos a full 12 years to complete. But while the Colossus surely proved an incredible sight for visitors to the city's bustling harbor, it stood for only 56 years before toppling in a 226 B.C. earthquake. The once mighty statue then lay in ruins for another several centuries before Arab merchants sold off its remains for scrap. No drawings of the Colossus of Rhodes survive today, but ancient sources note that Helios was depicted standing with a torch held in his outstretched hand. These descriptions later served as an inspiration for Frederic Bartholdi's design of the Statue of Liberty.

2. Leonardo da Vinci's "Medusa Shield"

Several of Leonardo da Vinci's works have been lost to time, but the "Medusa Shield" is perhaps the most mysterious. Painted when the Italian master was in his youth, this early work supposedly took the form of a shield emblazoned with a creature inspired by the snake-haired Greek monster Medusa. According to a 1550 account by art historian Giorgio Vasari, the painting was so realistic that it initially frightened Leonardo's father, who considered it a macabre masterpiece and secretly sold it to a group of Florentine merchants. The shield has long since vanished, and some modern experts now argue that Vasari's account may have been little more than a myth.

3. Gustave Courbet's "The Stone Breakers"

Painted in 1849, this classic example of social realism was hailed for its unsentimental depiction of poor laborers, one young and one old, removing rocks from a roadside. Inspired by a chance meeting with two downtrodden workers, Courbet deliberately broke with convention by capturing the men in gritty detail, from their straining muscles to their tattered and dirty clothing. While it helped launch Courbet's art career, "The Stone Breakers" was ultimately doomed to become one of the many cultural casualties of World War II. In 1945, the painting was destroyed during an Allied bombing near the city of Dresden, Germany.

4. Diego Rivera's "Man at the Crossroads"

Diego Rivera painted many populist murals and frescoes, but his most famous work might be the one that no longer exists. In 1932, the artist was commissioned by John D. Rockefeller to create a mural for the walls of New York's Rockefeller Center. Given the theme of "Man at the Crossroads Looking with Hope and High Vision to the Choosing of a New and Better Future," Rivera responded with a revolutionary work that referenced scientific progress, civil rights and the plight of the working class. An ardent leftist, he also included a depiction of the communist leader Vladimir Lenin-a move that offended the sensibilities of his wealthy patrons. When Rivera refused to remove Lenin from his mural, the Rockefellers had the work covered over with canvas frames and then later destroyed. Rivera would go on to paint another version of his Rockefeller mural-this time titled "Man, Controller of the Universe"-in Mexico City.

5. Sutherland's "Portrait of Sir Winston Churchill"

In 1954, members of the British Parliament commissioned a portrait by the artist Graham Sutherland and presented it to Winston Churchill as an 80th birthday gift. While he claimed to be honored by the gesture, Churchill was no fan of Sutherland's realist rendering, which he thought captured him in an unflattering pose. In fact, the prime minister so loathed the portrait that he considered not attending the presentation ceremony, and even wrote Sutherland a letter personally expressing his disappointment. Churchill and his wife went on to decline all requests to publicly exhibit the painting, and the work effectively disappeared from public view for several years. Upon her death in 1977, it was finally revealed that Lady Churchill had personally smashed and burned the hated portrait less than a year after its presentation.

6. The Buddhas of Bamiyan

Built sometime in the 6th century, this legendary pair of stone Buddhas stood for 1,500 years before falling victim to a cultural purge by the Taliban. The 135 and 175-foot-tall carvings were originally fashioned directly out of a sandstone cliff, and served as Bamiyan's most spectacular monument during a time when the city flourished as a Silk Road trading hub. While they weathered more than a dozen centuries, several attacks by Muslim emperors and even an invasion by Genghis Kahn, the Buddhas were finally destroyed in March 2001, when the Taliban and their allies in Al Qaeda gave an order condemning idolatrous imagery. Ignoring widespread appeals from the international community, the groups then fired on the statues with antiaircraft guns before blowing them to rubble with dynamite. While the destruction of the Buddhas was condemned as a crime against culture, a number of formerly hidden cave drawings and texts have been discover among the debris, and in 2008 archeologists unearthed a third, previously undiscovered Buddha statue near the ruins.

7. Caravaggio's "Nativity with St. Francis and St. Lawrence"

Ever since its theft in a 1969 robbery, Caravaggio's nativity scene has been regarded as one of the art world's most notorious stolen paintings. The masterwork has not been seen since it was lifted from a chapel in Palermo, Italy, though evidence indicates the Sicilian Mafia may have played a role in the heist. In 1996, a mob informant testified that he and several other men had stolen the painting for a private buyer, only to accidentally destroy it while cutting the canvas from its frame. More than a decade later, another former mafioso claimed the painting had been hidden in a barn for safekeeping, but was irreparably damaged by rats and hogs before being burned. The fate of the nativity ultimately remains a mystery, but if it still exists, the painting would now be worth as much as $20 million.

8. The Amber Room

Created by sculptor Andreas Schlüter and master amber craftsman Gottfried Wolfram, this breathtaking chamber took the form of 180 square feet of shimmering amber panels decorated with gold leaf and mosaics of precious stones. The room was first constructed in 1701, and was later gifted to Peter the Great to help cement an alliance between Prussia and Russia. Often called the "Eighth Wonder of the World," the ornate chamber was considered a masterpiece of Baroque art and was worth over $140 million in today's dollars.

The Amber Room spent 225 years as a Russian national treasure before being captured by the Germans in their invasion of Russia during World War II. The Nazis then disassembled the chamber and took it to Königsberg, Germany, where it disappeared near the end of the war. Most historians believe it was destroyed in a 1944 Allied bombing run, but there is also evidence suggesting the room was packed up and removed from the city. From there, some theories suggest, it might have been loaded onto a ship that sunk in the Baltic Sea or simply secreted away in a vault or bunker. The original room has never been found, but a replica of the chamber was later built and installed at a museum near St. Petersburg.

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One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, this massive bronze statue of the sun god Helios towered over the Greek city of Rhodes for most of the 3rd century B.C. The behemoth stood 110 feet tall, and reportedly took the sculptor Chares of Lindos a full 12 years to complete.

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Women's history is very compelling as they have oppressed and often erased from the narrative. Both in their own time and how we remember what they did. When I look at Sappho's work, it is very beautiful works that capture things that the men throughput history have lacked. I end up thinking about how incredible here work were/would have been if she was given the same opportunities as men. I makes me think of the "Hidden figures" of NASA's history, the women who were instrumental in the success of the space race. The women changed the course of history and they were not even known for decades. Showing how massive of an impact women have in a supposedly male field. These women's works were practically lost in history but thanks to modernity, they were finally known and given the respect they deserve. It is sad that since it is so old, people like Sappho are not able to be given the same type of treatment due to the technological limitations.

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As America stood on the brink of a Second World War, the push for aeronautical advancement grew ever greater, spurring an insatiable demand for mathematicians. Women were the solution. Ushered into the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory in 1935 to shoulder the burden of number crunching, they acted as human computers, freeing the engineers of hand calculations in the decades before the digital age. Sharp and successful, the female population at Langley skyrocketed.

Many of these "computers" are finally getting their due, but conspicuously missing from this story of female achievement are the efforts contributed by courageous, African-American women. Called the West Computers, after the area to which they were relegated, they helped blaze a trail for mathematicians and engineers of all races and genders to follow.

"These women were both ordinary and they were extraordinary," says Margot Lee Shetterly. Her new book Hidden Figures shines light on the inner details of these women's lives and accomplishments. The book's film adaptation, starring Octavia Spencer and Taraji P. Henson, is now open in theaters.

"We've had astronauts, we've had engineers- John Glenn, Gene Kranz, Chris Kraft," she says. "Those guys have all told their stories." Now it's the women's turn.

Hidden Figures | Official Trailer [HD] | 20th Century FOX

Growing up in Hampton, Virginia, in the 1970s, Shetterly lived just miles away from Langley. Built in 1917, this research complex was the headquarters for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) which was intended to turn the floundering flying gadgets of the day into war machines. The agency was dissolved in 1958, to be replaced by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as the space race gained speed.

The West Computers were at the heart of the center's advancements. They worked through equations that described every function of the plane, running the numbers often with no sense of the greater mission of the project. They contributed to the ever-changing design of a menagerie of wartime flying machines, making them faster, safer, more aerodynamic. Eventually their stellar work allowed some to leave the computing pool for specific projects- Christine Darden worked to advance supersonic flight, Katherine Johnson calculated the trajectories for the Mercury and Apollo missions. NASA dissolved the remaining few human computers in the 1970s as the technological advances made their roles obsolete.

The first black computers didn't set foot at Langley until the 1940s. Though the pressing needs of war were great, racial discrimination remained strong and few jobs existed for African-Americans, regardless of gender. That was until 1941 when A. Philip Randolph, pioneering civil rights activist, proposed a march on Washington, D.C., to draw attention to the continued injustices of racial discrimination. With the threat of 100,000 people swarming to the Capitol, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, preventing racial discrimination in hiring for federal and war-related work. This order also cleared the way for the black computers, slide rule in hand, to make their way into NACA history.

Exactly how many women computers worked at NACA (and later NASA) over the years is still unknown. One 1992 study estimated the total topped several hundred but other estimates, including Shetterly's own intuition, says that number is in the thousands.

As a child, Shetterly knew these brilliant mathematicians as her girl scout troop leaders, Sunday school teachers, next-door neighbors and as parents of schoolmates. Her father worked at Langley as well, starting in 1964 as an engineering intern and becoming a well-respected climate scientist. "They were just part of a vibrant community of people, and everybody had their jobs," she says. "And those were their jobs. Working at NASA Langley."

Surrounded by the West Computers and other academics, it took decades for Shetterly to realize the magnitude of the women's work. "It wasn't until my husband, who was not from Hampton, was listening to my dad talk about some of these women and the things that they have done that I realized," she says. "That way is not necessarily the norm"

The spark of curiosity ignited, Shetterly began researching these women. Unlike the male engineers, few of these women were acknowledged in academic publications or for their work on various projects. Even more problematic was that the careers of the West Computers were often more fleeting than those of the white men. Social customs of the era dictated that as soon as marriage or children arrived, these women would retire to become full-time homemakers, Shetterly explains. Many only remained at Langley for a few years.

But the more Shetterly dug, the more computers she discovered. "My investigation became more like an obsession," she writes in the book. "I would walk any trail if it meant finding a trace of one of the computers at its end."

She scoured telephone directories, local newspapers, employee newsletters and the NASA archives to add to her growing list of names. She also chased down stray memos, obituaries, wedding announcements and more for any hint at the richness of these women's lives. "It was a lot of connecting the dots," she says.

"I get emails all the time from people whose grandmothers or mothers worked there," she says. "Just today I got an email from a woman asking if I was still searching for computers. [She] had worked at Langley from July 1951 through August 1957."

Langley was not just a laboratory of science and engineering; "in many ways, it was a racial relations laboratory, a gender relations laboratory," Shetterly says. The researchers came from across America. Many came from parts of the country sympathetic to the nascent Civil Rights Movement, says Shetterly, and backed the progressive ideals of expanded freedoms for black citizens and women.

But life at Langley wasn't just the churn of greased gears. Not only were the women rarely provided the same opportunities and titles as their male counterparts, but the West Computers lived with constant reminders that they were second-class citizens. In the book, Shetterly highlights one particular incident involving an offensive sign in the dining room bearing the designation: Colored Computers.

One particularly brazen computer, Miriam Mann, took responding to the affront on as a her own personal vendetta. She plucked the sign from the table, tucking it away in her purse. When the sign returned, she removed it again. "That was incredible courage," says Shetterly. "This was still a time when people are lynched, when you could be pulled off the bus for sitting in the wrong seat. [There were] very, very high stakes."

But eventually Mann won. The sign disappeared.

The women fought many more of these seemingly small battles, against separate bathrooms and restricted access to meetings. It was these small battles and daily minutiae that Shetterly strove to capture in her book. And outside of the workplace, they faced many more problems, including segregated busses and dilapidated schools. Many struggled to find housing in Hampton. The white computers could live in Anne Wythe Hall, a dormitory that helped alleviate the shortage of housing, but the black computers were left to their own devices.

"History is the sum total of what all of us do on a daily basis," says Shetterly. "We think of capital "H" history as being these huge figures-George Washington, Alexander Hamilton and Martin Luther King." Even so, she explains, "you go to bed at night, you wake up the next morning, and then yesterday is history. These small actions in some ways are more important or certainly as important as the individual actions by these towering figures."

The book and movie don't mark the end of Shetterly's work She continues to collect these names, hoping to eventually make the list available online. She hopes to find the many names that have been sifted out over the years and document their respective life's work.

The few West Computers whose names have been remembered, have become nearly mythical figures-a side-effect of the few African-American names celebrated in mainstream history, Shetterly argues. She hopes her work pays tribute to these women by bringing details of their life's work to light. "Not just mythology but the actual facts," she says. "Because the facts are truly spectacular."

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The True Story of "Hidden Figures," the Forgotten Women Who Helped Win the Space Race

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A new book and movie document the accomplishments of NASA's black "human computers" whose work was at the heart of the country's greatest battles

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Contrary to the male poets of her day, her works were more in tune to her emotions. This translates to the impact of her stories, and I definitely feel that difference. Something that is interesting is that I found out that many of Sappho's works were meant to be sung. This intrigues me because vocalizing these words inherently changes how it feels. Speech can be a very powerful medium of expression that words on a page can't be. Since then, I tried reading the poems myself out loud. It was interesting because I can experiment with different inflections and pacing to slightly change how the poem feels.

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It is interesting that this book was a different perspective of the Trojan war and actually gave the perspective of the losing side. This is something that I often think about when I learn history. It is clear that there is historical bias towards the side of a conflict that comes out on top. The quote from Winston Churchill is "History is written by the victors," so I is very compelling to see a whole other side to the story and follow their journey.

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Learning how long after Homer wrote his two epic poems that Virgil was born made me think. Those had stood for hundreds of years, displaying the fall of Rome. It makes no sense that he would write it almost 1000 years after. It wouldn't make sense, but he was commissioned by the emperor to write an epic poem that supports and glorifies the Roman empire. It only exists for propaganda purposes. This may be nit-picky, but it makes reading the Aeneid less meaningful, even though he was still passionate about Rome. I know all stories are told with some bias, but knowing it was made for political purposes changes the dynamics of how I read it.

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Historical Context for Virgil’s Aeneid | The Core Curriculum

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I've learned a lot about Troy in the realm of mythology, but never practically. Apparently it was situated in modern day Turkey and was very important for trading in the West and the East. It was also located at an incredibly narrow straight connecting the Black Sea with the Aegean. It's place on the map also validates why Troy seemed so high in prestige.

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Greek: Troia ...(Show more)

The search for Troy at Hisarlık

The approximate location of Troy was well known from references in works by ancient Greek and Latin authors, including Homer, Herodotus, and Strabo. But the exact site of the city remained unidentified until modern times. A large mound, known locally as Hisarlık, had long been understood to hold the ruins of a city named Ilion or Ilium that had flourished in Hellenistic and Roman times. In 1822 Charles Maclaren suggested that this was the site of Homeric Troy, but for the next 50 years his suggestion received little attention from Classical scholars, most of whom regarded the Trojan legend as a mere fictional creation based on myth, not history. Those who did believe in the existence of a real Troy thought it to be at Bunarbashi (Pınarbaşı), a short distance south of Hisarlık. It took Frank Calvert, a scholarly amateur archaeologist, until 1860 to begin exploratory work on Hisarlık. It was he who persuaded the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann to work at Hisarlık, though Schliemann soon took full credit for adopting Maclaren's identification and demonstrating to the world that it was correct. (Not until the late 20th century was the full extent of Calvert's role widely known.) In seven major and two minor campaigns between 1870 and 1890, Schliemann conducted excavations on a large scale mainly in the central area of the Hisarlık mound, where he exposed the remains of a walled citadel. After Schliemann's death in 1890, the excavations were continued (1893-94) by his colleague Wilhelm Dörpfeld and later (1932-38) by an expedition from the University of Cincinnati headed by Carl W. Blegen. After a lapse of some 50 years, excavations resumed (1988-2005) under the leadership of University of Tübingen archaeologist Manfred Korfmann and continued after his death.

Questions of Troy's physical size, population, and stature as a trade entrepôt and regional power became subjects of intense scholarly dispute following the resumption of excavations at Hisarlık in the late 1980s. Although Homeric Troy was described as a wealthy and populous city, by this time some scholars had come to accept the probability of a lesser Troy-a relatively minor settlement, perhaps a princely seat. Beginning in 1988, Korfmann's team investigated the terrain surrounding the citadel site in search of wider settlement. Korfmann's findings at Hisarlık, drawn from geomagnetic surveying and isolated excavations, led him to conclude in favour of a greater Troy-that is, a settlement of some size and prosperity. His presentation of this perspective in a 2001 exhibition, accompanied by a controversial model reconstruction of the city, sparked especially intense scholarly debate over the city's true nature.

Findings

Before excavations began, the mound rose to a height of 105 feet (32 metres) above the plain. It contained a vast accumulation of debris that was made up of many clearly distinguishable layers. Schliemann and Dörpfeld identified a sequence of nine principal strata, representing nine periods during which houses were built, occupied, and ultimately destroyed. At the end of each period when a settlement was destroyed (usually by fire or earthquake or both), the survivors, rather than clear the wreckage down to the floors, merely leveled it out and then built new houses upon it.

The nine major periods of ancient Troy are labeled I to IX, starting from the bottom with the oldest settlement, Troy I. In periods I to VII Troy was a fortified stronghold that served as the capital of the Troad and the residence of a king, his family, officials, advisers, retinue, and slaves. Most of the local population, however, were farmers who lived in unfortified villages nearby and took refuge in the citadel in times of danger. Troy I to V corresponds roughly to the Early Bronze Age (c. 3000 to 1900 bce). The citadel of Troy I was small, not more than 300 feet (90 metres) in diameter. It was enclosed by a massive wall with gateways and flanking towers and contained perhaps 20 rectangular houses. Troy II was twice as large and had higher, sloping stone walls protecting an acropolis on which stood the king's palace and other princely residences, which were built of brick in a megaron plan. This city came to an end through fire, and Schliemann mistakenly identified it with Homer's Troy. In the "burnt layer's" debris were found a trove of gold jewelry and ornaments and gold, silver, copper, bronze, and ceramic vessels that Schliemann named "Priam's treasure." The burning of Troy II seems to have been followed by an economic decline; each of the citadels of Troy III, IV, and V was fortified and somewhat larger than its predecessor, but the houses inside the walls were much smaller and more closely packed than in Troy II.

Troy VI and VII may be assigned to the Middle and Late Bronze Age (c. 1900 to 1100 bce). Troy at this time had new and vigorous settlers who introduced domesticated horses to the Aegean area. They further enlarged the city and erected a magnificent circuit of cut limestone walls that were 15 feet (4.5 metres) thick at the base, rose to a height of more than 17 feet (5 metres), and had brick ramparts and watchtowers. Inside the citadel, which was now about 650 feet (200 metres) long and 450 feet (140 metres) wide, great houses were laid out on ascending, concentric terraces. Troy VI was destroyed by a violent earthquake a little after 1300 bce. Dörpfeld had identified this stage as Homeric Troy, but its apparent destruction by an earthquake does not agree with the realistic account of the sack of Troy in Greek tradition. Moreover, the city's date, as indicated by imported Mycenaean pottery found in the earthquake debris, is too early for the Trojan War.

The survivors of the earthquake quickly rebuilt the town, thus inaugurating the short-lived Troy VIIa. The ruins were leveled and covered over by new buildings, which were set close together and filled all available space inside the fortress. Almost every house was provided with one or several huge storage jars that were sunk deep into the ground, with only their mouths above the level of the floor. Troy VIIa probably lasted little more than a generation. The crowding together of houses and the special measures to store up food supplies suggest that preparations had been made to withstand a siege. The town was destroyed in a devastating fire, and remnants of human bones found in some houses and streets strengthen the impression that the town was captured, looted, and burnt by enemies. Based on the evidence of imported Mycenaean pottery, the end of Troy VIIa can be dated to between 1260 and 1240 bce. The Cincinnati expedition under Blegen concluded that Troy VIIa was very likely the capital of King Priam described in Homer's Iliad, which was destroyed by the Greek armies of Agamemnon.

The partly rebuilt Troy VIIb shows evidence of new settlers with a lower level of material culture, who vanished altogether by 1100 bce. For about the next four centuries the site was virtually abandoned. About 700 bce Greek settlers began to occupy the Troad. Troy was reoccupied and given the Hellenized name of Ilion; this Greek settlement is known as Troy VIII. The Romans sacked Ilion in 85 bce, but it was partially restored by the Roman general Sulla that same year. This Romanized town, known as Troy IX, received fine public buildings from the emperor Augustus and his immediate successors, who traced their ancestry back to the Trojan Aeneas. After the founding of Constantinople (324 ce), Ilion faded into obscurity.

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Troy | Geography, Archaeology, Map, & Trojan War

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Troy, ancient city in northwestern Anatolia that holds an enduring place in literature and archaeology. It lay on trade routes between Europe and Asia, and questions of its size, wealth, and status are matters of scholarly debate. The legendary Trojan War was fought between the Greeks and the people of Troy.

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Plausible deniability. It is strange that Ovid love sexual promiscuity but hates when he sees the evidence of it. He makes it clear that its ok for his partner to have sex with others, but is outraged if he can notice that it happened. It is confusing how he hold both positions and not just one of them strongly. For humans, knowing vs not knowing is always a concept debated on. I believe it depends on the situation, but if you do not want to know then you are scared about the answer. If Ovid truly didn't care about it, why does he get so upset when he can tell it happened? Even in our court system, plausible deniability is used as a way to not be convicted of a crime, but that doesn't mean it didn't happen.

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Ovid often objectifies the women he is interested in. Not only thins but it seems as though he only cares about the physical beauty of the women. He describes their physical form without ever discussing who they are as people or any more complex analysis. It makes me view his poems in a different light after discussing how he perceives women.

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Ovid often tells is lovers that he is perfectly fine with them having sex with other people. He even expresses positive feelings about it, introducing the concept of Cuckoldry. The idea of a man knowing/seeing their partner engage in sexual acts with another person. This got me intrigued on the root of the actual word, what is the root? It actually more interested than I thought, it is rooted in the animal kingdom, birds specifically. It is derived from the Cuckoo bird, a bird that is known to lay their eggs in another bird's nest and sometimes change partners. Maybe I'm just fascinated with words but the fact that this concept was rooted in observing animal behavior is very interesting.

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In Crito, Socrates argues against escaping from prison for a few reasons. Specifically, about how the government should be respected and violating the law is a sin that would keep him from heaven. His "logic" seems to be sound but in reality it lacks nuance. A government should never be seen in this regard, and it is often the case that actions should be taken to rebel against it. A government does not have the divine right to exist and always engages in levels of oppression. Being a sociology major, I have seen a countless amount of ethical/moral violations by governments that should never be allowed. A government is supposed to serve the people, and it can (and should) be changed when the citizens believe it is unjust. Even in this country, full of oppression and discrimination, we have the rights in the DOI to act if we believe it is unjust. I really believe this logic of Socrates does not hold up in reality.

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Do we have the right to overthrow our government?

The Declaration of Independence says that we not only have the right but we also have the duty to alter or abolish any government that does not secure our unalienable rights, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

Given that the U.S. was formed by settlers who threw off British government rule, there is also an historic precedent for overthrowing the government.

In Episode 5 of the six part series on America's founding below, Rochester Institute of Technology Professor Sarah Burns explains that the message of the Declaration of Independence is that we - as a free people - have the right to stand up to an oppressive government.

This was - and in many cases still is - a radical idea. But it is based on the philosophy that people have rights that no government can grant or deny.

According to John Locke, the fountainhead of this philosophy: There is no difference between an unjust government and a thief. Just like we are right to fight off a thief, we are right to fight off an oppressive government.

What do you think about this argument? Leave your comments below.

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The Declaration of Independence Says We Have the Right to Overthrow the Government

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Do we have the right to overthrow our government? The Declaration of Independence says that we not only have the right but we also have the duty to alter or abolish any government that does not secure our unalienable rights, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Given that the U.S.

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It is interesting to see that Socrates believes in God as he is such a promoter of logic and reason. His deductive thinking is aligned around which actions will help him get into heaven, and one of those things is not escaping prison. It is confusing to see him care so much about that as that thinking would normally lead a person to question god's existence.

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The allegory of the cave is one of my favorite analogies. It is simple but can be applied to so many things. My friend and I love to reference this because it can be used to discuss knowledge about the society we live in. The cultural hegemony of society leads us to believe a certain way about everything. It is dictated by the those in power to keep people ignorant of certain realities. This can also be applied to Crito, when Socrates is speaking about breaking certain laws of society. The institutions create realities because they are the one's in power. The cave serves as a perfect example because, in this analogy, there are people forcing others to sit and watch the wall of shadows. Those serve as the institutions of society that are dictating what reality is. Once you finally get out of the cave, you realize that the world was not at all like it appeared to be in the cave. So whenever my friend and I discuss how a lot of people are ignorant about the world, we reference how they are "still in the cave."

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Cultural Hegemony Explained  Antonio Gramsci

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This analogy brings up a good question, is ignorance bliss? this is implied because those who always remain in the cave are perfectly content with the way life is. They are not able to see anything outside of the shadows, so they are perfectly content with that reality. I have always thought this to be true in a way, but I've gotten more of an appreciation for the "bad" parts of life. It is all part of the human experience. Ignorance just seems like laziness now.

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Intentional ignorance, or willful ignorance, refers to an individual who voluntarily or deliberately chooses to ignore a problem. This strategy is also known as willful denial or motivated ignorance.

Individuals may stay voluntarily ignorant through fear of confronting reality and facing the consequences.

For example, you may know that your health is declining. But, you choose not to go to the doctor for a formal diagnosis.

Doing so would mean you may have to make lifestyle changes. Willful ignorance in this situation helps you delay dealing with the illness and associated consequences.

Willful ignorance is a coping mechanism that usually backfires.
Unintentional Ignorance
Unintentional ignorance relates to a genuine lack of awareness or insight regarding a particular situation. This is involuntary and may be due to incomplete information, knowledge or limited experience.

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Ignorance Is Bliss: Meaning And Hidden Pitfalls

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Find out if ignorance is a good thing from a psychological perspective. Get related details from a website.

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An interesting conversation that I had with by friend as I was working on this revolved around the concept of the cave itself. The allegory is supposed to reference leaving the cave as gaining perspective, knowledge, and Truth. Being in the cave is supposed to be ignorance and a "false" reality. The problem is, how do we know the outside of the cave is any different from the cave itself, from a human's perspective. Humans seem to have a desire to know the truth of reality but are so limited in their perspective. We are constantly thinking we are finally outside of the cave when we haven't even left. It becomes a staple for humanity to believe that they have it all figured out, and throughout time they have still be so ignorant of the truth. It seems to be the human condition to exist in the cave. I know it is supposed to be a more conceptual analogy for ignorance but is an interesting thought experiment to actually think if a human can actually ever leave the cave.

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I was really bothered by Socrates not escaping prison, for many reasons. It did get me thinking about the best prison escapes in history. This link has many different notorious ones, including the people who escaped Alcatraz Island. I find that concept to be really captivating, as escaping prison is one of the hardest things you could possibly do. It is interesting (and unsurprising) that a philosopher is one of the only people in history who has fought to stay in jail.

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1. The inmates who fled The Rock in a raft made from raincoats

From 1934 to 1963, the U.S. penitentiary on Alcatraz Island in the middle of San Francisco Bay housed some of America's most notorious criminals, including Al Capone, George "Machine Gun" Kelly and James "Whitey" Bulger. During its 29 years as a federal prison, approximately 1,545 men did time at the maximum-security facility, nicknamed The Rock, and there were 14 different escape attempts involving 36 inmates. The most celebrated escape attempt took place in June 1962, when three prisoners fled the island on a raft constructed from raincoats. In the months leading up to their daring escape, the men had used homemade tools to slowly widen the ventilation holes in the walls of their cells, which they crawled through on the night they vanished. In their beds, they left lifelike dummy heads they'd devised as decoys. Despite a lengthy, large-scale manhunt, the fugitives never were heard from again and authorities believe they likely drowned in the San Francisco Bay's strong, cold currents. Clint Eastwood starred in a 1979 movie about the breakout, fittingly titled "Escape from Alcatraz."

Of all the prisoners who attempted to flee Alcatraz, 23 were captured, six were shot and killed while trying to escape and two drowned. An additional five (including the three who broke out in 1962) remain unaccounted for and are presumed drowned.

2. The Union POWs who tunneled out of a Confederate prison

On February 9, 1864, 109 Union officers tunneled their way out of Libby Prison, a bleak, Confederate prisoner-of-war facility in Richmond, Virginia. After opening in March 1962, the prison, situated in a former tobacco warehouse, quickly became an overcrowded, disease-ridden place where prisoners were subjected to severe food shortages. Starting in the fall of 1863, a small group of inmates made three failed attempts to dig tunnels out of the prison. With rats crawling over them as they labored in secret, the men finally managed to dig a fourth tunnel-measuring 50 feet long and ranging in width from 36 to 16 inches-that they used to escape. Fifty-nine of the men eventually reached Union territory, while 48 were recaptured and two drowned. Following the Libby Prison escape, Confederate officials transferred most of the prisoners there to other sites, including the notorious POW camp at Andersonville, Georgia.

3. Britain's Biggest Prison Break

The largest prison escape in British history took place on September 25, 1983, when 38 inmates, all of them members of the Irish Republican Army, broke out of Her Majesty's Prison Maze near Belfast, Northern Ireland. Opened in 1971, the maximum-security facility housed a number of men convicted of crimes linked to the Troubles, the conflict between unionists who wanted Northern Ireland to remain part of the United Kingdom and republicans who favored the unification of Ireland. In 1981, a group of Irish republicans at Maze Prison launched a hunger strike; 10 died, including their leader, Bobby Sands.

The 1983 escape occurred after inmates, armed with smuggled guns and knives, overpowered guards and hijacked a truck delivering food to the prison. Prison officers tried to block the vehicle from getting past the gate, forcing the escapees to jump from the back of the vehicle and run. One guard was stabbed during the escape and died of a heart attack, while nearly two dozen other prison officers were injured. Within a few days, 19 of the men were caught (three others never made it off the prison grounds) but the others got away. Several of the men eventually made it to the United States. The Maze prison was closed in 2000 as part of the 1998 Good Friday peace accord.

4. The notorious drug kingpin who escaped-twice

On February 22, 2014, one of the world's most-wanted criminals, drug trafficker Joaquin "El Chapo" ("Shorty") Guzman Loera, was arrested after outrunning law enforcement for more than a decade. Guzman, a third-grade dropout, was first arrested in 1993 and sentenced to 20 years behind bars for murder. While locked up in a high-security prison in the Mexican state of Jalisco, he paid off the staff and continued to run his criminal enterprise. In 2001, he escaped the facility; some accounts claim Guzman was wheeled out in a laundry cart, while other sources suggest prison officials simply let him walk out. For years afterward, he used violence, bribery and a large network of informants to help him remain a fugitive. His cartel grew into the largest supplier of illegal narcotics to America, and the U.S. government offered a $5 million reward for information leading to his arrest.

On February 22, 2014, law enforcement agents finally tracked down the drug kingpin to an apartment in Mazatlán, Mexico, and arrested him. However, on July 11, 2015, Guzman, then incarcerated at the nation's highest-security penitentiary, Altiplano, approximately 55 miles west of Mexico City, once again escaped, this time via a hole in the floor of his cell and out through a mile-long tunnel that had been secretly dug and equipped with lights and ventilation. Guzman was re-captured by Mexican authorities in 2016.

5. The famous gangster who got out of jail with a fake gun

After spending most of his 20s in state prison for attempting to hold up a small-town Indiana grocer, John Dillinger was paroled in May 1933 and went on to pull off a string of bank robberies that turned him into one of America's most-wanted gangsters. In September 1933, he was arrested in connection with a bank heist and jailed in Lima, Ohio. The following month, several of Dillinger's criminal associates showed up at the Lima jail and posed as law enforcement officials, informing the sheriff they wanted to see Dillinger. When the sheriff asked to look at the men's badges, they killed him then sprung Dillinger from his cell. In January 1934, while Dillinger and some accomplices were holding up a bank in East Chicago, Indiana, a police officer was shot and killed. Dillinger was apprehended later that month in Tucson, Arizona.

Afterward, he was extradited to Indiana to stand trial for the East Chicago murder and held at the county jail in Crown Point, a facility authorities had bragged was escape-proof. However, on March 3, 1934, Dillinger, armed with a fake gun (either smuggled in by his attorney or made by Dillinger himself), forced guards to release him, stole a sheriff's car and escaped. That July, FBI agents finally caught up with the 31-year-old gangster and shot him dead as he was leaving a movie theater in Chicago.

6. The nobleman who fled the Tower of London in drag

After joining the Jacobite rebellion of 1715, Catholic nobleman William Maxwell, 5th Earl of Nithsdale, was locked up in the Tower of London, found guilty of treason and sentenced to die. Shortly before she believed her husband was to be executed, Lady Nithsdale went to visit him in prison in 1716, accompanied by her maid and several female friends. The group smuggled in women's clothing for the earl then spirited him out of the Tower of London disguised as a member of the fairer sex. The earl fled England, this time masquerading as a servant to a Venetian ambassador, and ended up in Rome. Lady Nithsdale's own life was in danger once her involvement in the earl's escape was suspected, but she managed to flee Britain separately and meet her husband in Rome, where they resided in exile.

7. The serial killer who went on the lam in the Rockies

In 1976, law school dropout Ted Bundy began serving time in a Utah prison for a kidnapping conviction. The following year, he was extradited to Aspen, Colorado, to stand trial for the 1975 murder of a nurse. During a recess at a courthouse hearing in June 1977, Bundy, who was acting as his own attorney, asked to use the court's law library. Left alone there, he jumped out of a second-floor window and then fled up Aspen Mountain. During the six days he was on the lam, Bundy got lost, stole a car and returned to Aspen, where he was caught by police. He was returned to the county jail in Glenwood Springs, 40 miles away. In December, after losing weight, Bundy was able to squeeze through a hole made for a light fixture in the ceiling of his cell, move through a crawl space, drop down into a jailkeeper's apartment and walk out the front door. From there, he made his way to Florida, where he murdered two female Florida State University students and a 12-year-old girl. Bundy was apprehended by police in Pensacola on February 15, 1978. Before he was put to death in the electric chair in 1989 at age 42, Bundy confessed to 30 murders around the U.S.; some experts have suggested the actual number might be higher.

8. The WWII Prison Escape That Almost Took Flight

During World War II, Colditz Castle, an ancient fortress in eastern Germany, was converted into a high-security POW camp. Many of the men incarcerated in the castle, officially known during the war as Oflag IV-C, had been sent there because they'd previously escaped, or attempted to escape, from other POW camps. A number of prisoners tried to break out of Colditz, some of them successfully; those who were caught typically were punished with a stint in solitary confinement. However, after the Nazis executed 50 POWs who'd tried to flee Stalag Luft III in March 1944 (an event that came to be referred to as the Great Escape), British military intelligence warned against further prison breaks. That didn't stop a small group of men at Colditz from working on a unique escape plan: the construction of a glider plane. The group, which included British pilots Bill Goldfinch and Jack Best, along with Tony Rolt, a former race car driver, worked in a hidden space in an attic and built the two-person glider using stolen pieces of wood and electrical cable. The men intended to launch the glider, dubbed the Colditz Cock, from the castle roof. Before that happened, though, Colditz was liberated by the Allies in April 1945. In 2000, a full-size replica of the Colditz Cock was constructed based on Goldfinch's original specifications and flown at a Royal Air Force station in England, with Goldfinch, Best and other veterans in attendance.

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From the Union officers who tunneled out of a Confederate POW camp to the 18th century nobleman who fled the Tower of London in drag, get the stories behind eight notable prison breaks.