# data[].attributes.body
How to Glasblase

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Booze, Sailors, Pirates and Health In the Golden Age of Piracy, Page 2

Containers for Alcohol: Bottles

If there is a container which stands in the middle of the field between containers used for shipping and those used for drinking, it is the regular round bottle. It was used to store as well as transport beverages from the cask to the glass. Historian Olive R. Jones comments, "One of the most successful containers produced by English glass factories has been the dark green glass 'wine' bottle." ¹ They are found in a variety of the sailor's and pirates' accounts from the golden age of piracy.

¹ Olive R. Jones, Cylindrical English Wine and Beer Bottles 1735-1850, 1986, p. 11

Containers for Alcohol: Bottle History

While regular glass bottles existed before the mid-17th century, they were so fragile that they were poorly suited for shipping. These glass Together they worked out that tunnels going into the glass furnace would increase the heat ...and, the higher the temperature, the stronger the glass. This worked by drawing oxygen into the fire making it burn more fiercely"
Sir Kenelm Digby (17th c,)².
bottles "were usually small (two to three inches in height), often square or hexagonal, thin-blown, and made of green glass with mould-blown ribbing or wrythen [twisted] designs, or occasionally of cristallo [a form of clear glass]." 1 The transition from these small and delicate bottles to the more industrial dark green or black 'onion' bottles began in the early 1630s with polymath Sir Kenelm Digby. Digby was a former privateer who turned his attention to inventing after the death of his wife. With the help of James Howell, Digby was able to devise a way to make stronger bottles. "

Digby and Howell produced "a thick, strong, dark bottle" ³ which was much better suited for storage and travelling. Although Digby was not around to see it, these bottles began to be produced in large quantities by the 1650s. The new bottles improved upon the older glass bottles and usurped stone bottles creating an "expanding market in bottles of larger and standard capacities - gallons, pottles, quarts, pints, and half-pints" ⁴. Historian Olive R. Jones notes that "By the end of the 17th century the bottle-glass market had become so large that there were about 42 glasshouses producing bottles in England with an annual output of 240 000 dozen, nearly three million single bottles." ⁵

Most of these had a dark olive green or brown cast which was a result of the iron oxide found in the sand used to make them. "An amount as small as one-tenth of one per cent renders the glass decidedly green... and amounts up to three or four per cent, which are not uncommon, produce a dark green glass which cannot be disguised except by rendering the glass dark brown or black." ⁶ Iron oxide produced brown shades when certain conditions occurred during the melting of the ingredients. ⁷ Black was the only color not caused by the iron oxide; it was a result of the switch from wood to coal, which was necessary to more effectively melt the glass ingredients. "The dark colour resulting from contamination from the coal fumes was not considered to be a disadvantage" and was even copied by French bottle-makers. ⁸

This new, more durable type of glass also resulted in a dramatic change in the style of bottles produced. "Instead of being thin-blown, light in weight, pale in colour, and frequently square at the base, the[se] are heavy, strong, and globular in shape with a high 'kick' in the bottom and a long tapering neck ending in a collar for tying down corks. The colour was always very dark, varying from dark olive to brown or black." ⁹ George Ravenscroft helped make the wine bottle even stronger and more stable by adding lead oxide their manufacture in 1675 ¹⁰. While Digby's bottles were tall, with a relatively modest globular base, over time there was the bottle got shorter and the size of the globe bulged until near the end of the golden age of piracy when it began to grow a little taller again (see the image below).

'Onion' Bottle Styles From Digby to 1730, Based On Images Found in R.J Charleston's English Glass, 1984, p. 96-7

Once bottles began to be used for storage and shipping, it was discovered that some alcohols aged better in them as opposed to those put into casks. "Certain products, primarily wine, fortified wines, and cider can be improved in the bottle. Even as early as the 1630s the East India Company had noticed that cider should be matured for a year before it was drunk" ¹⁰.

, 1975, p. 226; Henry Jeffreys, ¹ Eleanor S. Godfrey, ² ⁹ Godfrey, p. 229; ¹⁰ Jones, p. 21; ¹⁰ Tim Unwin, Wine and the Vine, 2005, p. 228 Empire of Booze, 2016, p. 16; ³ Godfrey, p. 228; 4,5 Olive R. Jones, Cylindrical English Wine and Beer Bottles 1735-1850, 1986, p. 11; ⁶ Godfrey, p. 157; The Development of English Glassmaking 1560-1640

Containers for Alcohol: Bottle Use

Bottles were sometimes used to ship alcohol commercially. Archeologist and historian Olive R. Jones reports, "By the late 17th century bottled beers, wines, and other liquors were being shipped as far as India. For example, the Rising Sun sailed from Greenwich to India in 1703-4 carrying more than 5000 bottles of liquor, including 2500 bottles of beer. The bottles were packed in chests complete with locks and hinges" ¹. Unfortunately, she does not mention whether these were case bottles or regular round bottles. Jones goes on to explain that even though "casks were used for the bulk of the overseas trade, bottled English and Scottish porters and ales, Hereford cider, and assorted wines appeared regularly in North American newspaper advertisements." ² These would likely have been round bottles. So there was some amount of trade being carried out with bottled alcohol during this period.

Bottles were also a featured container in the ship's officer's mess as well as for treating other captains and shore-based businessmen and traders. When mutineers Phineas Bunce and Dennis Mccarty were hatching their plot to take over several vessels in the Bahamas, they began by asking "to be treated with a Bottle of Beer, for they knew Mr. Carr [the supercargo of the voyage] had some that was very good in his Care, which had been put on board, in order to make Presents of, and to treat the Spanish Merchants with." ³ Once Bunce and Mccarty and their cohorts had taken the three vessels in the small fleet, the mutineers notes that they "went on Shore, carrying with them six Bottles of Wine and some Biscuits. ...they drank all the Wine themselves to the last Bottle" ⁴ and later sent "two Bottles of Wine, a Bottle of Rum, and some Biscuits" to the former ship's officers, marooned on land. ⁵ The narrative doesn't specifically say that they got these bottles by raiding the supercargo's supply, although, given the limited quantities mentioned, it seems likely.

Edward Barlow mentions that while serving aboard the Reall Ffriendship merchant vessel in 1677 that they had "some bottles of wine... [in] a hamper which was sent as a token to a merchant" ⁷. While rummaging around the captured merchant pink Mary Anne, pirate Samuel Bellamy's men "found it difficult to Come to the Wines in the hold, and so returned to their own Ship without any wine, Except five bottles of green wine which the found in the pinks Cabbin and carryed away" ⁶. This likely came from the ship's officer's stash.

In addition, bottles were a way for individuals to transport small amounts of alcohol for personal use on a ship. In his account of a group of captured sailors planning to escape from pirate John Phillips' crew, John Fillmore recounts how one nervous man nearly gave away the plot when Phillips noticed how pale he was. Fillmore reports, "I cloaked the matter by informing him [Phillips], that Harridon had been sick all night, and I believed a dram would help him. Phillips told me to go to his case and get a bottle of brandy; which I did, and we all drank heartily" ⁸.

Edward Barlow explains that part of the 'crossing the line' ceremony performed in his 1670 for men who had not previously crossed the equator involved each uninitiated man "paying his bottle of strong waters as a forfeit, it being merrily drunk out by all the rest that had been there before" ⁹ . The practise was still going strong eleven years later when Barlow reported "we crossed the North Tropic [Tropic of Cancer], making all that had not been there before to pay their bottles of wine or brandy" ¹⁰.

Artist: Howard Pyle
A Bizarre Portrait of Rather Dyspeptic Kidd Relaxing with an Inaccurate
Bottle On Deck (pre-1911)
Bottles of alcohol were also served on land in taverns. In his epic poem of life in the British Navy aboard HMS St. David, John Baltharpe mentions while in port at Alicante, Spain, the men were drinking wine and "The Bottle is not long a emptying: When that is out, we'l fill another, When that is gone, we must have t'other." ¹¹ His comment 'When that is out we'll fill another' makes it sound as if the bottles may have been used by the tavern to transport the liquid from a cask to the table.

Captain Jacob's selling of alcohol to the pirates in Madagascar from his ship in June of 1698 mentions that wine was sold "By the whole Barril att 3 pc of 8 a Gall[o]n, but most retailed at a pc of 8 the Bottle" ¹². Here again, the bottles may have been filled from the casks, although Olive Jones points out that by the mid/late eighteenth century, beer, ale and cider were shipped bottled between Britain, America and the West Indies. ¹³ She also states that "distilled liquors, however, appear to have been bottled at, or close to, the retail level." ¹⁴

¹ Olive R. Jones, Cylindrical English Wine and Beer Bottles 1735-1850, 1986, p. 18; ² Jones, p. 18-9; 3 Daniel Defoe (Captain Charles Johnson), A General History of the Pyrates, Manuel Schonhorn, ed., 1999, p. 628; 4 Defoe (Captain Charles Johnson), p. 631; 5 Defoe (Captain Charles Johnson), p. 639; 6 "109. Deposition of Thomas FitzGerald and Alexander Mackonochie. May 6, 1717.", Privateering and Piracy in the Colonial Period Illustrative Documents, John Franklin Jameson, 1923, p. 253; 7 Edward Barlow, Barlow's Journal of his Life at Sea in King's Ships, East and West Indiamen & Other Merchantman From 1659 to 1703, p. 298; 8 Ed Fox, "47. John Fillmore's narrative", Pirates in Their Own Words, 2014, p. 233; 9 Barlow, p. 188; 10 Barlow, p. 334; 11 John Baltharpe, The straights voyage, or, St. Davids poem, 1671, p. 53; 12 Ed Fox, "67. Prices of Pirate Supplies: A List of the Prices that Capt. Jacobs sold Licquors and other Goods att, at St. Mary's, 9 June, 1698...", Pirates in Their Own Words, 2014, p. 362; 13,14 Jones, p. 19

Containers for Alcohol: Bottle Frequency

Bottles are mentioned fourteen times in the sailor's accounts under study ¹. They are primarily mentioned as containing wine ², although there are also mentions of them being used as containers for ale and cider ³, brandy ⁴ and even rum ⁵. (Despite the popular notion that pirates swigged rum straight from the bottle, it actually seems to have been shipped primarily in casks.)

The pirates appear to particularly enjoy bottled alcohol. This may be because the better fermented products such as those likely to be found in the officer's cabins were often bottled. Merchant captain Nathaniel Uring reported,

The [Log]Wood-Cutters are generally a rude drunken Crew, some of which have been Pirates [probably referring to buccaneers], and most of them Sailors; their chief Delight is in drinking; and when they broach a Quarter Cask or a Hogshead of Wine, they seldom stir from it while there is a Drop left: It is the same thing when they open a Hogshead [referring here to the quantity, not the cask] of Bottle Ale or Cyder, keeping at it sometimes a Week together, drinking till they fall asleep; and as soon as they awake, at it again, without stirred off the Place. ⁶

Further proof of the popularity of bottles among the logwood cutters (and, by association, retired pirates) comes from a study done in the 1990s by archaeologist Daniel Finamore and a team of researchers who excavated an eighteenth century logwood cutter site on the Belize River called Barcadares. From an analysis of the dig written by Heather Hatch we know that they found containers or fragments of them for eighty-nine bottles, five jugs and a teapot. No cups or tankards were discovered. This means 93% of the discarded drinking containers at the logwood camp were bottles. Hatch compares the Bacadares logwood cutter site with excavations of two 'civilized' colonies on Nevis from around the same period. She points out that the bottle percentages found "at the Barcadares comprises nearly double the percentage of the total assemblage in comparison to the two Nevisian sites", where bottles comprised 5% and 55% of the total number of drinking containers discovered. ⁷ Clearly the logwood cutters had an affinity for bottled beverages.

One thing pirates do not seem to have liked about bottles were the corks. This dislike may have been magnified because the the corks were either waxed or tied down as mentioned previously. Whatever the problem, there are several accounts of pirates not bothering to remove them.

Surgeon Adam Comrie, whose ship Elizabeth was captured by Bartholomew Roberts reported that when the pirates boarded, they "asked for Liquor, knocking off the heads of the Bottles like one who did not design to pay for them" ⁸. Of Robert's crew, the Boston News-Letter reported,

the Pirates made themselves very merry aboard of Capt. Carry's Ship with some Hampers of fine Wines that were either presents, or sent to some Gentlemen in Boston; it seems they would not wait to unty them and pull out the Corks with Skrews, but each man took his bottle and with his Cutlash cut off the Neck and put it to their Mouths, and drank it out. ⁹

When captured by the fleet of captains Howell Davis, Thomas Cocklyn and Olivier Levasseur, William Snelgrave explained, "As to bottled Liquor of many sorts, they made such havock of it, that in a few days they had not one Bottle left: For they would not give themselves the trouble of drawing the Cork out, but nick'd the Bottles, as they called it, that is, struck their necks off with a Cutlace; by which means one in three was generally broke" ¹⁰.

Although these accounts make it sound as if the pirates simply cut or broke the heads off the bottles (which could have resulted in a rather jagged drinking orifice), it is more likely they used their blades to score
Knocking the Head off a Bottle, From Picture Paragraphs, p. 152 (1907)
the glass so that it could be easily snapped off. This process is described in detail in the book Picture Paragraphs:

If you haven't a corkscrew, you can open a bottle by drawing a knife vigorously round, the neck of the bottle just behind the rim that incloses the cork, as if you were going to saw its head off. This will scratch the enamel. Then lay the knife-blade flat on the bottle, and with the back of the blade strike the bottle rim a few sharp blows lengthwise of the bottle as if you would knock its head off. Presently you will hear it break, which it will do in the line of the scratches. Now put a napkin over the head, and pull as if you were drawing the cork, and the head and all will come off quite clean. ¹¹

Whether they bothered to cover the top with cloth in the process isn't clear, but nicking the bottle probably refers to scoring the glass with the sharp side of the blade. While the period accounts all suggest this was done for expediency, laziness or perhaps as an act of wanton destruction, researcher John Franklin Jameson suggests it was because they were 'painfully destitute of corkscrews.' He explains that when the same crew captured a chaplain, they "kept nothing which belonged to the Church, except three Prayer-Books, and a Bottle-Screw, which, as I was inform'd by one of the Pyrates himself, they said they had Occasion for, for their own Use" ¹².

¹ Ed Fox, "67. Prices of Pirate Supplies: A List of the Prices that Capt. Jacobs sold Licquors and other Goods att, at St. Mary's, 9 June, 1698...", Pirates in Their Own Words, 2014, p. 362, Daniel Defoe (Captain Charles Johnson), A General History of the Pyrates, Manuel Schonhorn, ed., 1999, p.261, 639, The Boston News-Letter, Monday August 15 to Monday August 22. 1720, Defoe (Captain Charles Johnson), p. 261, 628, 631, 639, Ed Fox, "47. John Fillmore's narrative", Pirates in Their Own Words, 2014, p. 233, Charles Grey, Pirates of the Eastern Seas, 1618-1723, 1971, p. 33, "109. Deposition of Thomas FitzGerald and Alexander Mackonochie. May 6, 1717.", Privateering and Piracy in the Colonial Period Illustrative Documents, John Franklin Jameson, 1923, p. 253, Woodes Rogers, A Cruising Voyage Round the World, 1712, p. 279, Nathaniel Uring, A history of the voyages and travels of Capt. Nathaniel Uring, 1928, p. 241 & John Baltharpe, The straights voyage, or, St. Davids poem, 1671, p. 53; ² Fox, p. 362, The Boston News-Letter, Monday August 15 to Monday August 22. 1720, Defoe (Captain Charles Johnson), p. 631, "109. Deposition of Thomas FitzGerald...", p. 253, Rogers, p. 279 & Baltharpe, p. 53; ³ Nathaniel Uring, A history of the voyages and travels of Capt. Nathaniel Uring, 1928, p. 241; 4 Fox, p. 233; 5 Defoe (Captain Charles Johnson), p. 639; ⁶ Uring,p. 241; ⁷ Heather E. Hatch, "Material Culter and Maratime Identity: Identifying Maritime Subcultures Through Artifacts", The Archaeology of Martime Landscapes, Ben Ford, ed., 2012, p. 227; 8 "Pyrates Lately taken by Captain OGLE", 1723, p. 44; ⁹ The Boston News-Letter, Monday August 15 to Monday August 22. 1720; 10 Captain William Snelgrave, A New Account of Some Parts of Guinea and the Slave Trade, 1734, p. 234; 11 Picture Paragraphs, From Pearson's Weekly, 1907, p. 152; ¹² John Franklin Jameson, Privateering and Piracy in the Colonial Period - Illustrative Documents, 1923, p. 269

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Pirate Surgeon's Journal: Golden Age of Piracy: Booze, Sailors, Pirates and Health, Page 2

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This page is about the use of alcohol by sailors and pirates during the golden age of piracy, also discussing the effects it was felt to have on their health during this time and how sea surgeons treated such problems. The Pirate Surgeon's Journal Tools and Procedures pages include detailed information about 17th and 18th century surgical tools and techniques used during the Golden Age of Piracy (~1680 - 1725).

# data[].attributes.body
The Knight Who Invented Champagne: How Sir Kenelm Digby developed robust glass bottles

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Sir Kenelm Digby by Sir Anthony van Dyck, c. 1640

Sir Kenelm Digby (11 July 1603 - 11 June 1665) was an English courtier and diplomat. He was also a highly reputed natural philosopher, astrologer and known as a leading Roman Catholic intellectual and Blackloist. For his versatility, he is described in John Pointer's Oxoniensis Academia (1749) as the "Magazine of all Arts and Sciences, or (as one stiles him) the Ornament of this Nation".

Digby was born at Gayhurst, Buckinghamshire, England. He was of gentry stock, but his family's adherence to Roman Catholicism coloured his career. His father, Sir Everard, was executed in 1606 for his part in the Gunpowder Plot. Kenelm was sufficiently in favour with James I to be proposed as a member of Edmund Bolton's projected Royal Academy (with George Chapman, Michael Drayton, Ben Jonson, John Selden and Sir Henry Wotton). His mother was Mary, daughter of William Mushlo. His uncle, John Digby, was the first Earl of Bristol.[dubious ]

He went to Gloucester Hall, Oxford, in 1618, where he was taught by Thomas Allen, but left without taking a degree. In time Allen bequeathed to Digby his library, and the latter donated it to the Bodleian.

He spent three years on the Continent between 1620 and 1623, where Marie de Medici fell madly in love with him (as he later recounted). In 1623, in Madrid, Digby was appointed to the household of Prince Charles, who had just arrived there. Returning to England the same year, he was knighted by James I and appointed gentleman of the privy chamber to Charles. He was granted a Cambridge Master of Arts on the King's visit to the university in 1624.

Around 1625, he married Venetia Stanley, whose wooing he cryptically described in his memoirs. He had also become a member of the Privy Council of Charles I of England. As his Roman Catholicism hindered appointment to government office, he converted to Anglicanism.

Venetia Stanley on her Death Bed by Anthony van Dyck, 1633, Dulwich Picture Gallery

Venetia Digby (Henri Toutin, finished 1637, four years after her death)

Digby became a privateer in 1627. Sailing his flagship, the Eagle (later renamed ), he arrived off Gibraltar on 18 January and captured several Spanish and Flemish vessels. From 15 February to 27 March he remained at anchor off Algiers due to illness of his men, and extracted a promise from authorities of better treatment of the English ships: he persuaded the city governors to free 50 English slaves. He seized a Dutch vessel near Majorca, and after other adventures gained a victory over the French and Venetian ships in the harbour of Iskanderun on 11 June. His successes, however, brought upon the English merchants the risk of reprisals, and he was urged to depart. He returned to become a naval administrator and later Governor of Trinity House.

His wife Venetia, a noted beauty, died suddenly in 1633, prompting a famous deathbed portrait by Van Dyck and a eulogy by Ben Jonson. (Digby was later Jonson's literary executor. Jonson's poem about Venetia is now partially lost, because of the loss of the centre sheet of a leaf of papers which held the only copy.) Digby, stricken with grief and the object of enough suspicion for the Crown to order an autopsy (rare at the time) on Venetia's body, secluded himself in Gresham College and attempted to forget his personal woes through scientific experimentation and a return to Catholicism. At Gresham College he held an unofficial post, receiving no payment from the College. Digby, alongside Hungarian chemist Johannes Banfi Hunyades, constructed a laboratory under the lodgings of Gresham Professor of Divinity where the two conducted botanical experiments.

At that period, public servants were often rewarded with patents of monopoly; Digby received the regional monopoly of sealing wax in Wales and the Welsh Borders. This was a guaranteed income; more speculative were the monopolies of trade with the Gulf of Guinea and with Canada. These were doubtless more difficult to police.

Digby married Venetia Stanley in 1625. They had six sons:

Kenelm Jr. (1625-1648), killed at the Battle of St Neots, 10 July 1648.

John (1627-?), only son to survive Digby. He married and had two daughters.

Everard (1629-1629), died in infancy.

unnamed twins (1632), miscarriage.

George (c. 1633-1648), died of illness in school.

In addition, there was a daughter, Margery. Born c. 1625, who married Edward Dudley of Clopton and had at least one child. She is never mentioned by Digby in his writings. She may have been the daughter of Edward Sackville, 4th Earl of Dorset and Venetia Stanley prior to her marriage to Sir Kenelm. The Earl of Dorset settled an annuity on her. There is some controversy and confusion about whether or not Venetia had affairs with both the third and fourth Earls of Dorset and, consequently, which Earl was the father of Margery.

Digby became a Catholic once more in 1635. He went into voluntary exile in Paris, where he spent most of his time until 1660. There he met both Marin Mersenne and Thomas Hobbes.

Returning to support Charles I in his struggle to establish episcopacy in Scotland (the Bishops' Wars), he found himself increasingly unpopular with the growing Puritan party. In the time between 1639 and 1640, he supported Charles I's expedition against the Presbyterian Scots. He left England for France again in 1641. Following an incident in which he killed a French nobleman, Mont le Ros, in a duel, he returned to England via Flanders in 1642, and was jailed by the House of Commons. He was eventually released at the intervention of Anne of Austria, and went back again to France. He remained there during the remainder of the period of the English Civil War. Parliament declared his property in England forfeit.

Queen Henrietta Maria had fled England in 1644, and he became her Chancellor. He was then engaged in unsuccessful attempts to solicit support for the English monarchy from Pope Innocent X. His son, also called Kenelm, was killed at the Battle of St Neots, 1648. Following the establishment of the Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell, who believed in freedom of conscience,[citation needed ] Digby was received by the government as a sort of unofficial representative of English Roman Catholics, and was sent in 1655 on a mission to the Papacy to try to reach an understanding.[citation needed ] This again proved unsuccessful.

At the Restoration, Digby found himself in favour with the new regime due to his ties with Henrietta Maria, the Queen Mother. However, he was often in trouble with Charles II, and was once even banished from Court. Nonetheless, he was generally highly regarded until his death, a month before his 62nd birthday, from "the stone", likely caused by kidney stones. He was buried in his wife's tomb (which was damaged in the great fire of 1666), in Christ Church, Newgate Street, London.

Digby published a work of apologetics in 1638, A Conference with a Lady about choice of a Religion. In it he argued that the Catholic Church, possessing alone the qualifications of universality, unity of doctrine and uninterrupted apostolic succession, is the only true church, and that the intrusion of error into it is impossible.

Digby was regarded as an eccentric by contemporaries, partly because of his effusive personality, and partly because of his interests in scientific matters. Henry Stubbe called him "the very Pliny of our age for lying". He lived in a time when scientific enquiry had not settled down in any disciplined way. He spent enormous time and effort in the pursuits of astrology, and alchemy which he studied in the 1630s with Van Dyck.

Notable among his pursuits was the concept of the powder of sympathy. This was a kind of sympathetic magic; one manufactured a powder using appropriate astrological techniques, and daubed it, not on the injured part, but on whatever had caused the injury. His book on this mythical salve went through 29 editions. Synchronising the effects of the powder, which allegedly caused a noticeable effect on the patient when applied, was actually suggested in 1687 as a means of solving the longitude problem.

In 1644 he published together two major philosophical treatises, The Nature of Bodies and On the Immortality of Reasonable Souls. The latter was translated into Latin in 1661 by John Leyburn. These Two Treatises were his major natural-philosophical works, and showed a combination of Aristotelianism and atomism.

Discours sur la vegetation des plantes, 1667

He was in touch with the leading intellectuals of the time, and was highly regarded by them; he was a founding member of the Royal Society and a member of its governing council from 1662 to 1663. His correspondence with Fermat contains the only extant mathematical proof by Fermat, a demonstration, using his method of descent, that the area of a Pythagorean triangle cannot be a square. His Discourse Concerning the Vegetation of Plants (1661) proved controversial among the Royal Society's members. It was published in French in 1667. Digby is credited with being the first person to note the importance of "vital air", or oxygen, to the sustenance of plants. He also came up with a crude theory of photosynthesis.

Digby is known for the publication of a cookbook, The Closet of the Eminently Learned Sir Kenelme Digbie Kt. Opened, but it was actually published by a close servant, from his notes, in 1669, several years after his death. It is currently considered an excellent source of period recipes, particularly for beverages such as mead. He tried out many of his recipes on his wife, Venetia, one of which was capons fed on the flesh of vipers.

Digby is also considered the father of the modern wine bottle. During the 1630s, Digby owned a glassworks and manufactured glass onions, which were globular in shape with a high, tapered neck, a collar, and a punt. His manufacturing technique involved a coal furnace, made hotter than usual by the inclusion of a wind tunnel, and a higher ratio of sand to potash and lime than was customary. Digby's technique produced wine bottles which were stronger and more stable than most of their day, and which due to their translucent green or brown color protected the contents from light. During his exile and prison term, others claimed his technique as their own, but in 1662 Parliament recognised his claim to the invention as valid.

Digby and his wife are the subjects of the 2014 literary novel Viper Wine by Hermione Eyre.

He is mentioned in Nathaniel Hawthorne's novel The Scarlet Letter. In the chapter titled "The Leech", the narrator describes the antagonist, Chillingworth, as having an impressive knowledge of medicine, remarking that Chillingworth claims to have been a colleague of Digby "and other famous men" in the study of natural philosophy. Digby's "scientific attainments" are called "hardly less than supernatural".

Digby also appears in Umberto Eco's novel " The Island of the Day Before" as "Mr. d'Igby". He explains the principle of his sympathetic powder (unguentum armarium) to the main character.

Bligh, E. W. Sir Kenelm Digby and his Venetia, London: S. Low, Marston, 1932

Fulton, John Farquhar. Sir Kenelm Digby: Writer, Bibliophile and Protagonist of William Harvey, New York: Oliver, 1937

Longueville, Thomas. The Life of Sir Kenelm Digby Longmans, Green, and Co., 1896

Peterson, Robert T. Sir Kenelm Digby, the Ornament of England, 1603-1665, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1956.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Sir Kenelm Digby (11 July 1603 - 11 June 1665) was an English courtier and diplomat. He was also a highly reputed natural philosopher, astrologer and known as a leading Roman Catholic intellectual and Blackloist. For his versatility, he is described in John Pointer's Oxoniensis Academia (1749) as the "Magazine of all Arts and Sciences, or (as one stiles him) the Ornament of this Nation".

# data[].attributes.body
How is Sir. Kenelm Digby?

# data[].attributes.body
What happen to Shulton?
Procter & Gamble Company acquired the business of Shulton along with the Old Spice brand in 1993. The Menezes family's relation with Old Spice began before that, more than five decades ago when it introduced the brand in India as a licensee of Shulton. This association ended when P&G took over the brand in 1993.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
William Lightfoot Schultz was born into a Quaker family in Springfield, Ohio in 1876. After his family moved to Philadelphia - his mother's original home - he went to the Friend's Select School in Wilmington, Delaware, graduating from there aged sixteen. He then started work as a stock boy for Karcher & Rehm - a Philadelphian interior decorating firm - while attending night school studying art and architecture under the direction of Maxfield Parrish [1870-1966] and Nicola D'Ascenzo [1871-1954].

In 1904, Schultz formed a partnership with D'Ascenzo to make and sell mosaics and leaded glass for homes and churches where he acted as the salesman for the business. Although it was successful he sold up in 1910 and moved to New York. There he established the Lightfoot Schultz Company which made soaps and other toiletries. The company did well; it moved into larger manufacturing facilities in Hoboken, New Jersey in 1917 and acquired Theo. Ricksecker Co., Inc., New York, a perfume company, in 1918. The business continued to flourish during the 1920s but a mistimed expansion into fine chemicals got Lightfoot Schultz deep in debt when credit sources became scarce after the stock market crash of 1929. Schultz was forced into selling the controlling interest in the company to American Safety Razor in 1930.

Schultz stayed on as president of Lightfoot Schultz until 1933, then resigned to start Shulton; a brave decision given the economic climate of the time. As he had only US$10,000 in capital, the new venture was set up largely on credit, something only made possible by the good business connections Schultz had built up over the previous twenty years, his abilities as a salesman, and his dogged determination to succeed.

First, Shultz talked the owners of the Bowery Savings Bank building, Manhattan - which was then half empty - into leasing him a suite of rooms with the rent deferred for at least six months. His former secretary Theresa Tinker joined him there as did Enid Edson, a free-lance artist from Massachusetts. Then, in the midst of the Great Depression, he managed to get department store orders for private label soaps which he had manufactured by the John T. Stanley Company. Shulton packaged the soaps into containers made by the Karl Voss Corporation - using designs developed by Enid Edson - and then shipped the soap to the stores. Both suppliers provided their goods on credit. Considering everything, things went well. Although Schultz was the only salesman in the company, sales in 1933 totalled US$165,000 (The story of Shulton, 1954).

Early American Old Spice

In 1937, the fortunes of Shulton took a dramatic upswing when the company introduced its Early American Old Spice line. The idea for range appears to have originated not with Shulton but with Harry Schwimer, an assistant buyer of toiletries at Bullock's department store in Los Angeles. The house furnishings department at Bullock's had done well with reproductions of colonial furniture - a trend started by the Rockefeller restoration of Colonial Williamsburg - and Schwimer suggested to his superior, D. J. Whelan, that there might be a market for a colonial design in the toiletries department as well. Bullock's decided to get Shulton to make the private label line and Schwimer went to New York in the Spring of 1937 to consult with them. After visiting the Metropolitan Museum of Art to look at old colonial objects in the museum's American wing he went on Shulton to discuss what he had discovered (Old spice line growing, 1940, p. 41).

Although the development of the private label line for Bullock's was abandoned by them as being too expensive, Schultz decided to go ahead with it as a national line, possibly because he was encouraged to do so by Leyland G. Wesley of the advertising agency, The Wesley Associates (Sweet smell of success, 1957, p. 31). Following Harry Schwimer's lead, Enid Edson produced designs for bottles and boxes inspired by American colonial handicrafts, the famous Caswell carpet from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and by hand-blown and hand-decorated 18th century bottles designed by the likes of William Henry Stiegel [1729-1785]. Shulton was already selling a men's soap packaged in an old-fashioned looking box under the name 'Old Spice'. This gave Shulton the name for the line, and Schultz commissioned a new 'spicy' fragrance to go with it.

In June, 1937, Schultz began working his way around the United States armed only with the packaging designs and perfume samples for Early American Old Spice. He got US$50,000 worth of orders from 28 department stores including: Field's (Chicago), H. & S. Pogue (Cincinnati), L. S. Ayer (Indianapolis), White House (San Francisco), Emporium (San Francisco), Bullock's (Los Angeles), Wanamaker's (Philadelphia) and Lord & Taylor (New York). Once he had orders, Schultz got his usual suppliers to fill them on credit and then Shulton assembled the products and shipped them. Schultz also got Wesley Associates to place advertisements for the line in Vogue, also on credit.

The original Early American Old Spice range consisted of soap, toilet water, perfume, bath salts, dusting powder and a vanity box (a combination package). Although the line only went on sale for a few months at the end of 1937, sales grossed US$77,000 in that year with most stores selling out long before the holiday trade was over. Shulton's private label business for the whole of 1937 was US$249,000 so it was clear that Old Spice was a success and Schultz pressed on.

In 1938, Shulton added men's toiletries - shaving mug, after-shave lotion, cologne, talcum, and soap - to the Old Spice line using a different scent. The shaving mug - manufactured by the Hull Pottery Company - was marked with an image of a frigate named the Grand Turk, the first in a line of similar items. Total sales for Old Spice in 1938 (men's and women's) was US$770,000 out of total sales of US$982,000. In 1939, this rose to US$3,100,00, by which time better quality drug stores were also offering Early American Old Spice and it was being carried by over 4000 direct retailers. Old Spice for men went on to become Shulton's largest selling line with numerous additions and complete new ranges including Man Power (1962), Old Spice Lime (1965) and Old Spice Burley (1967).

By 1939, demand for Shulton products had outstripped the capabilities of the Manhattan site so, in the middle of 1939, Schultz leased larger facilities in the 'Lipton Tea/Standard Brands' building at 1500 Hudson Street Hoboken, New Jersey. He then moved equipment over from Manhattan and hired extra workers.

Shulton still maintained offices and showrooms in Manhattan but these were moved to the Rockefeller Centre at 630 Fifth Avenue when it was completed in 1939.

Desert Flower

In 1941, Shulton introduced its first full make-up line based on a new perfume called Desert Flower. The range included lipstick, rouge (dry and paste) and face powder, as well as a toilet water, dusting powder, talcum, soap and perfume.

The lipstick and rouge came in five matching shades: Serapi, a blue red; Fireheart, a red red; Devil's Brush, a bright red; Granada Rose, a rosy red; and Toyon, a deep luscious red. The face powder also came in five tones: Moonblush, a light natural shade; Dune Beige, a peachy rachel; Mesa, a natural shade to blend in with the natural skin tones of the average woman; Desert Haze, slightly darker than Mesa; and Toyon, a deep shade for olive-skinned women.

Rather than being packaged in materials that mimicked natural materials like clay and wood, as was the case with Old Spice, the Desert Flower line used plastics, some of which were covered with carved representations of flowers.

Repackaged during the war, and then again in 1952 and 1967, the Desert Flower range continued to be supported through the following decades with additional products added periodically. New lines included: Desert Flower Hand & Body Lotion (1952) with lanolin; Desert Flower Beauty Clean (1957), a deep pore cleanser; Desert Flower Beauty Ice (1958), a combination astringent and moisturiser; Desert Flower Beauty Bath (1960); Desert Flower with aloe vera (1967) in Moisture Base, Cleanser, Night Cream, Skin Toner, and Hand & Body Lotion; Desert Flower So-Dry (1967) antiperspirants; Desert Flower Body Shampoo (1967), a soapless cleanser; Desert Flower eye cosmetics (1967); and Desert Flower Hand & Body Lotion for Extra-Dry skin (1969).

Desert Flower Hand & Body Lotion: "[C]ontains the 'heart' of lanolin-nature's magic ingredient that softens tones and restores moisture to your skin. Never sticky or greasy or sticky ... melts instantly into dry thirsty skin".
Desert Flower Beauty Ice: "A new concept in skin care to give you a lovelier complexion! Beauty Ice, a cool blue-green 'solid moisture' developed through Shulton research in 'chain molecules.' Never before have these beauty-giving molecules linked moisturizing ingredients with astringent ingredients! For every skin type, especially for dry and aging skins".

Leigh perfumes

At some stage - probably 1943 - Shulton acquired Leigh, Inc., an American perfume company started by Charles Leigh in 1890. Leigh sold cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes and had opened a high-grade perfume business in the Astor Trust building on Fifth Avenue and 42nd Street in 1919. It is possible that Leigh had developed the fragrances used in Shulton's Early American Old Spice, Early American Friendship's Garden and Desert Flower lines and Shultz bought the company to bring fragrance development in-house.

Post-war

Although some packaging was manufactured at the Hoboken site it was primarily an assembly plant for goods made by a range of suppliers. Before 1946 Shulton did not make its own products and the company had even received a cease and desist order from the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in 1942 when it tried to represent itself as a manufacturer.

Shulton, Inc., in connection with the sale and distribution of its merchandise in commerce as defined by said act, agreed it will forth with cease and desist from representing directly or inferentially that it is or has been, for 31 years or any other period of time, a manufacturer of soaps or toiletries, or that the products which it distributes are made in its own factory, or that it owns, operates or directly and absolutely controls the plant in which the same are compounded; or that by its president or otherwise, it supervises the creation or production thereof-as connoted or implied by expressions such as "31 years of soap-making," "brings to the creation (of its products) the wealth of 30 years experience," and "Factory 1500 Hudson Street Hoboken New Jersey." (Apr. 1, 1942.)

This situation changed in 1946 when Shulton began building manufacturing facilities in Clifton, New Jersey. Completed in 1947 on a 33-acre landscaped site, the new factory enabled Shulton to make most of its own products and packaging, the one major exception being soap.

The company also began to open subsidiaries starting with Mexico (1946) and Canada (1948), followed by Cuba, Holland, Great Britain (1956) and Venezuela (1957).

Diversification and expansion

When William Shultz died in 1950 his son George Schultz took over the family business. 1950 was also the year that the company opened a Fine Chemicals Division - a move that had gotten William Schultz into so much trouble back in 1930. Originally designed to secure basic materials for Shulton fragrances, cosmetics and toiletries, the new venture was made more substantial by the 1955 purchase of A. Maschmeijer Jr., Ltd. of Newark, New Jersey. Maschmeijer made a range of synthetic chemicals including aromatics, many of which were developed for the food industry.

In 1956, a Pharmaceutical Division was established with its first products being Thylox Medicated Soap, Thylox Medicated Cream (both for acne) and Thylox Medicated Shampoo (dandruff). The Thylox Medicated Cream contained thylox sulphur, an antibacterial withdrawn by United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1967 when it was found to be a photo-sensitiser; hexachlorophene (G-11), another antibacterial withdrawn by the FDA in 1972 when it was found to be a neurotoxin; and alcohol, all in an ointment base. The hexachlorophene ban was particularly galling for Shulton as it had acquired the U.S. rights to sell hexachlorophene manufactured by the North Eastern Pharmaceutical & Chemical Co. (Nepacco) in 1969.

See also: Hexachlorophene

Although the division was primarily interested in medical products some pharmaceutical skin-care products also came under its control or were developed by it including: Bronztan (1955) a silicone-based suntan lotion; and Ice-O-Derm Medicated Astringent (1959) originally made with the antibacterial parachlorophenyl-alpha-glycerol ether but probably replaced with hexachlorophene in 1968 when the product was reformulated.

Bronztan: "Exclusive silicone ingredient Duro-Sil gives the longest sun protection yet known".
Ice-O-Derm Medicated Astringent: "To help keep your beauty cool, a cool medicated gel that refreshes teen age skin, works to banish blemishes".

The development of Ice-O-Derm and Bronztan was taken over Colfax Laboratories when it was set up by Shulton in 1961 and this continued until Colfax was merged into the Cosmetics & Toiletries Division in 1967. Other products produced in the Bronztan line included: Bronztan Cream (1958), Sun Stop (1961), Bronztan Clear Lotion (1966) and Bronztan Moisturizing Lotion (1966). Those in the Ice-O-Derm range included: Ice-O-Derm Cleansing Lotion, Ice-O-Derm Cleansing Bar (1965), Ice-O-Derm Medicated Pads (1966), Ice-O-Derm Clearing Gel and Ice-O-Derm Clearing Lotion.

An International Division was also organised in 1956 to look after the various Shulton subsidiaries and authorised distributors throughout the world. The number of subsidiaries continued to grow so that when American Cyanamid acquired the business in 1971 Shulton had subsidiaries in Holland, Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Singapore, Mexico, Venezuela, Argentina, Brazil, Nicaragua, Guatemala, India and the Philippines.

Shulton also became a public company in 1956 after which other purchases followed. These additions included: the Aer-A-Sol Division of the Bridgeport Brass Company (1957) for their aerosol insecticides; Tecnique, Inc. (1957), producers of hair dyes including Tecnique Color-Tone; the Aerosol Corporation of America (1961), makers of household cleansers; Jacqueline Cochran (1965), which included Nina Ricci fragrances, Endocreme and Marcel Frank atomizers, as well as Jacqueline Cochran and Flowing Velvet cosmetics; and J. Warren Kane Inc. (1966), distributors of the Carven lines of French perfumes in North and South America, Africa, the Far East, Great Britain and Scandinavia - the company was renamed as Carven Distributors Inc. after the purchase.

Also see: Jacqueline Cochran

Some of these acquisitions, and the products they made, such as Bridgeport insecticides, Good-Aire (an air freshener) and Melodie (a fabric brightener) were organised into the Home Products Division of Shulton in 1961. This division also marketed some toiletries sold in supermarkets and was responsible for pharmaceuticals developed by Colfax Laboratories.

Hair-Care

The 1957 purchase of Tecnique, Inc. allowed Shulton to market products in the highly competitive home permanent and hair dye markets that were booming in the 1950s. Shulton added to the Tecnique range with Tecnique Shampoo (1962); Tecnique Cream Rinse (1962); Tecnique Curl Spray (1962); Tecnique Silver-Tone (1962) for grey hair; Pretty Perm (1962), a colour conditioning home permanent; Set 'n Forget (1964); and That's My Color! (1966), a shampoo-in hair colouring.

Prestige brands

Most Shulton products released before 1960 sold in the lower end of the cosmetics and toiletry markets - chain drug stores and mass volume retailers - where margins were low. Shulton made a move into the higher-priced segment of the men's toiletries market when it introduced the York Town range of men's toiletries in 1960 made up of a shave lotion, cologne and talcum, with an aerosol deodorant and body talc added in 1962.

Jacqueline Cochran products were sold principally through department stores so were also more upmarket than Shulton's women's range.

Sales of Nina Ricci fragrances included in the purchase continued to strengthen but the Jacqueline Cochran Flowing Velvet range proved less successful than hoped for and Shulton ceased production of the line in 1969 except for two of the better-selling skin-care cosmetics - Flowing Velvet Hydrophilic Lotion, and Super-Rich Night Cream.

Shulton added to these more prestigious products by developing the Taji perfume line for women and Teak grooming aids for men. The 1966 acquisition of a majority stake in J. Warren Kane Inc.,through which Shulton gained the Carven lines of French perfumes, was followed by the purchase of the distribution rights for Pierre Cardin Parfums in 1967. All of these more upmarket lines were handled by the Franchise Cosmetics Division established by Shulton in 1965 to channel distribution to department and specialty stores.

Despite these prestige additions, deodorants and other toiletries, particularly for men, continued to be Shulton's most important source of revenue. However, women's cosmetics were not forgotten; the Desert Flower range continued to be extended and, in 1965, a new CornSilk make-up range was introduced.

CornSilk

Made from finely ground corncob, the powders in the CornSilk line were translucent, so were ideally suited to the 'natural look' in vogue in the United States during the 1960s and 1970s. They were also good oil absorbers which gave them an added appealed to the youth market.

There were variations in the advertising story that Shulton used to describe the development of corncob powder for make-up but most were variations on the one given below:

[A] man named Earl Wright who specializes in dust control equipment for corn and soya bean ... was struck by not only the mountainous volume of fine dust in a corncob grinding mill in Pulaski, Ill., but also by its beneficence to the people who worked in its clouds. They had no respiratory problems and displayed fine complexions.
When he sought to get a patent on a process for using the dust, on the theory that it might have a cosmetic use, he found that dermatologists already were using the fine dust salvaged from corncobs to treat skin disorders.
It was known to have an unusual quality-it holds oil in suspension away from the surface of the skin. Along with incidental dust and grime that might have collected. Thus it leaves the pores to function freely in their natural process of waste expulsion and it also controls oiliness.

The Earl Wright mentioned in the story was the owner of the E. Wright Company of Decatur, Illinois that Shulton bought in 1964. Wright had produced a face powder called Galaxy Micron made from the inner core of the corncob using powder he bought from a Mount Pulaski feedmill. It appears that his discovery was an accident and that after a modest start packaging the powder in his basement he expanded, first to Sullivan and then to Decatur, before selling out to Shulton.

As well as loose and pressed face powders, the CornSilk range also included a foundation as well as both powder and cream blushers.

No-Color Micron Pressed Power: "The magic of corncob dust for a natural, unmade-up look and the most effective, absorption of excess oil of any face powder. No-Color Micron Pressed Powder is transparent so it never hides the skin's natural beauty." Shades: Ivory, Beige, Peach, Tawny.
Micron Face Powder: "The same natural ingredients of the pressed powder in a loose powder form ... comes with its own fluffy puff."
Tinted Foundation: "Sheer, silken smooth foundation that blends flawlessly with the skin." Shades: Natural, Medium Beige, Brunette, Fair, Blush and Summer Beige.
Oil Free Tinted Foundation: "[G]ives a fresh, natural look without adding oil to the skin ... that imparts the clear unmade-up look so important to today's woman." Shades: Fair, Natural and Medium Beige.
Blush: "[N]ever fades, streaks, or changes color ... with its own soft brush." Shades: Shy Pink, Sunburnt Amber, and Kissing Peach.
Blushing Creme: "[C]omes in a mini-compact with mirror." Shades: Shy Pink, Kissing Peach and Sunburnt Amber.

American Cyanamid

In the 1969-1970 financial year Shulton experienced its first decline in sales. The company had diversified and added prestige products to its range but the Cosmetics and Toiletries Division still represented 50% of the company's sales and it was facing narrowing margins and lower volumes. This forced Shulton to raise its prices by 10% in 1971. Things must have been on the decline for some time as, in December 1970, the board approved a proposal to merge with American Cyanamid, the formal agreement being signed in February, 1971, with American Cyanamid keeping the Shulton name for their consumer care division. George Shultz stayed on as a director of American Cyanamid until 1988.

This is where my interest in Shulton ends, except to note that American Cyanamid sold the CornSilk line to the Chattem Drug and Chemical Company in 1977 and the Old Spice brand to Procter and Gamble in 1990.

Timeline

First Posted: 20th October 2015
Last Update: 15th October 2020

Sources

Early American old spice. (1940). Fortune 21(4), 78-80, 104, 106, 111.

Federal Trade Commission. (1942). Federal Trade Commission decisions, 34. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office.

The national cyclopedia of American biography (Vol. 37). (1961). New York: James T. White & Company.

Old spice line growing. (1940). The American Perfumer & Essential Oil Review, April, 40-42, 106.

The story of Shulton. (1957). Soap and Chemical Specialties, May, 52-56, 255.

Sweet smell of success. (1957). Broadcasting Telecasting July 8, 3032.

William L. Schultz-artisan. (1948). Drug and Cosmetic Industry, 63(6), 741, 824-826.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Known primarily for their Old Spice for men, Shulton also developed a number of skin-care and make-up lines for women

# data[].attributes.body
1964 Shulton factory on Colfax Avenue, Clifton, New Jersey.

# data[].attributes.body
gleicher Text

# data[].attributes.body
1962 Shulton Pro-Electric Before Shave Lotion. Introduced in 1955 as Old Spice Pre-electric Shave Lotion the name was changed to Old Spice Pro-Electric Before Shave Lotion in 1961 to reduce confusion about how the product was to be used.

# data[].attributes.body
Hinten steht:
... a small amount of .... shaverLotion into your hand, and sp... over beard. It dries in seconds ... and you are ready for the finest, smoothest electric shave that you have yet enjoyed.

SHULTON
CLIFTON, N. J. TORONTO

# data[].attributes.body
gibt man SHULTON shave lotion 1950 ein

# data[].attributes.body
NickTheSmoker

# data[].attributes.body
NickTheSmoker

# data[].attributes.body
(10 March 1896; 127 years ago)

# data[].attributes.body
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Express_555

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
State Express 555, known as 555 (Three-Fives), is a Westminster, London-based cigarette originally manufactured in the United Kingdom by the Ardath Tobacco Company. The overseas rights to the brand excluding the United Kingdom, were acquired by British American Tobacco (BAT) in 1925.[1]

# data[].attributes.body
heute ein Teil von Norvartis
"Was passiert mit Sandoz?

Der Pharmakonzern Novartis will seine Generika-Sparte Sandoz als eigenständige Firma an die Schweizer Börse bringen."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
We use cookies to enhance your experience when visiting our websites: performance cookies show us how you use this website, functional cookies remember your preferences and targeting cookies help us to share content relevant to you. Select "Accept all" for giving your consent to all cookies, select "Cookie settings" for managing the different cookies or select "Reject all" for using only strictly necessary cookies. You can change your cookie settings at any point of time by pressing the cookie settings link on the website.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
1886 gegründet, war Sandoz ursprünglich in der Farbstoffproduktion tätig, bevor das Unternehmen während des Ersten Weltkriegs in die Pharmaforschung vorstiess. Nach der Fusion mit Ciba-Geigy zu Novartis verschwand der Firmenname für kurze Zeit von der Bildfläche, bevor er 2003 für die Generikasparte von Novartis eingesetzt wurde.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Novartis is a global healthcare company based in Switzerland that provides solutions to address the evolving needs of patients worldwide.

# data[].attributes.body
Brausetablette 1950

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Strukturformel

Allgemeines

Name

Calciumcarbonat

Andere Namen

Kalziumkarbonat

Kalk

kohlensaurer Kalk

Kreide

E 170[1]

CALCIUM CARBONATE (INCI)[2]

Summenformel

CaCO ₃

Kurzbeschreibung

weißer, kristalliner und geruchloser Feststoff[3]

Externe Identifikatoren/Datenbanken

Arzneistoffangaben

ATC-Code

Eigenschaften

Molare Masse

100,09 g· mol−1

Aggregatzustand

fest[3]

Dichte

2,73 g·cm−3 (Calcit)[3]

2,93 g·cm−3 (Aragonit)[3]

Schmelzpunkt

>825 °C (Zersetzung)[3]

Löslichkeit

praktisch unlöslich in Wasser (14 mg·l −1 bei 20 °C)[3]

Sicherheitshinweise

MAK

Schweiz: 3 mg·m −3 (gemessen als alveolengängiger Staub)[4]

Toxikologische Daten

6450 mg·kg −1 ( LD₅₀, Ratte, oral)[5]

Thermodynamische Eigenschaften

ΔHf ⁰

−1207,6 kJ/mol (Calcit)[6]

−1207,8 kJ/mol (Aragonit)[6]

Soweit möglich und gebräuchlich, werden SI-Einheiten verwendet.
Wenn nicht anders vermerkt, gelten die angegebenen Daten bei Standardbedingungen (0 °C, 1000 hPa).

Calciumcarbonat (fachsprachlich), Kalziumkarbonat oder in deutscher Trivialbezeichnung kohlensaurer Kalk, ist eine chemische Verbindung der Elemente Calcium, Kohlenstoff und Sauerstoff mit der chemischen Formel CaCO ₃. Als ein Calcium- Salz der Kohlensäure gehört es zur Stoffgruppe der Carbonate. Es ist ein farbloser, kristalliner Feststoff, dessen Kristallstruktur aus den Ionen Ca ²⁺ und CO ₃ 2− im Verhältnis 1:1 besteht.

In der Natur kommt Calciumcarbonat hauptsächlich als Kalkstein, Kreide und Marmor vor. Auch in Organismen wie den Schalenweichtieren findet sich Calciumcarbonat.

Calcit

Aragonit

Die Travertinterrassen von Mammoth Hot Springs im Yellowstone-Nationalpark sind aus porösem Kalkstein

Calciumcarbonat ist eine der am weitesten verbreiteten Verbindungen auf der Erde, vor allem in Form von Sedimentgesteinen. Es tritt vor allem in der Form des Minerals Calcit (Kalkspat, Doppelspat) auf, das mit einem Anteil von rund fünf Prozent zu den häufigsten Mineralen der Erdkruste gehört. Es ist nicht nur in den massiven Kalkgesteinen das vorherrschende Mineral, in Verbindung mit Quarz, Baryt und Fluorit bildet es auch das Muttergestein sehr vieler Erzgänge. Es kann sogar der einzige Bestandteil von Gängen sein, deren Mächtigkeit von einigen Zentimetern bis zu einigen Dekameter reicht. Weitere Modifikationen von Calciumcarbonat sind die Minerale Aragonit und Vaterit. Der Name Aragonit leitet sich vom bedeutendsten Vorkommen des Minerals in Aragonien ab. Es kommt vermehrt im Umfeld von marinen Gewässern vor. Die Ursache hierfür ist das im Meerwasser enthaltene Magnesium, das die Bildung von Aragonit gegenüber Calcit begünstigt. Aragonit ist neben Calcit das häufigste Biomineral. Es ist der anorganische Bestandteil in Perlmutt in Muscheln, ist auch häufig in Perlen enthalten und kommt außerdem in Schalen von marinen Einzellern und Korallen vor. Im Vergleich zu Calcit und Aragonit kommt Vaterit in der Natur nur selten vor. Es ist nach dem deutschen Chemiker und Mineralogen Heinrich Vater benannt. In den Gehäusen mancher Schnecken kommen alle drei Anhydratmodifikationen der Verbindung nebeneinander vor.

Daneben existieren mit Monohydrocalcit und Ikait zwei weitere pseudopolymorphe Minerale, die Hydrate von Calciumcarbonat darstellen. Das instabile Monohydrocalcit ist das Monohydrat des Calciumcarbonats. Das erste natürliche Vorkommen von Monohydrocalcit wurde 1959 und 1964 als ein unreines Sediment im Issyk-Kul-See in Kirgisien beschrieben. In Lebewesen kommt es in Blasensteinen von Meerschweinchen und in den Gehörsteinchen einiger Wirbeltiere vor. Ikait ist das Hexahydrat von Calciumcarbonat und wurde in der Natur erstmals 1963 in Form von bis zu 20 Meter hohen Säulen am Ikkafjord auf Grönland entdeckt. Der Fundort verlieh dem Mineral auch seinen Namen. Das Mineral ist bei Atmosphärendruck über 0 °C instabil und geht darüber in Calcit über. Seine Bildung wird von Magnesium (das in Meerwasser reichlich enthalten ist) und von anderen Additiven begünstigt.

Calciumcarbonat ist der Hauptbestandteil des sedimentär gebildeten Kalksteins, des metamorphen Marmors und weiterer Sedimentgesteine wie zum Beispiel Oolith oder Stromatolith. In der belebten Natur kommt es im Außenskelett von Krebstieren, Korallen, Muscheln, Schnecken sowie Einzellern vor. In diesen liegt es zum Teil auch in einer der mehreren bekannten amorphen Calciumcarbonatphasen (ACC) vor.

Die ersten Kalkgesteine nennenswerten Ausmaßes entstanden durch Stromatolithe vor über zwei Milliarden Jahren.

Calciumcarbonat ist im Boden weiträumig vorhanden. Die wichtigsten Calcium-Minerale in unseren Boden sind Calcit und Dolomit [CaMg(CO ₃) ₂]. Sie werden im Boden freigesetzt, wenn Karbonatgesteine oder Mergel verwittern.

Entgegen landläufiger Meinung enthalten die Knochen und Zähne der Wirbeltiere kein Calciumcarbonat, sondern die ebenfalls calciumhaltigen Stoffe Hydroxylapatit (in Knochen) und zusätzlich Fluorapatit in den Zähnen. Allerdings kommt Calciumcarbonat beispielsweise bei Pflanzen vor. Die Blatthaare des Roten Hartriegels sind mit Calciumcarbonat überzogen, das bei Berührung mit empfindlichen Stellen der menschlichen Haut zu Reizerscheinungen führen kann.

Calciumcarbonat wurde auch auf dem Planeten Mars nachgewiesen.

In der Natur bildet Calciumcarbonat verschiedene Gesteine, die zwar chemisch identisch sind, sich jedoch in mancherlei Hinsicht unterscheiden. Calcit ist eines der wenigen Minerale, das in reiner Form als Gesteinsbildner in allen drei Hauptgruppen vertreten ist. Denn neben den Sedimenten Kreide und Kalkstein sowie dem Metamorphit Marmor gibt es auch magmatische Calciumcarbonat-Gesteine - die Carbonatite.

Kreidefelsen auf der Insel Rügen an der Ostsee

Kreide ist ein feines, mikrokristallines Sedimentgestein, das durch Ablagerung von durch photosynthetischen Kohlensäureentzug gefälltem Calcit sowie der aragonitischen Schalen von fossilen Kleinlebewesen, wie Coccolithen der Coccolithophoriden und Schalen der Foraminiferen, entstanden ist. Kreide tritt an zahlreichen Standorten entlang des europäischen Kreidegürtels zutage, von Großbritannien über Frankreich bis hin zur Insel Rügen in Norddeutschland, und wird stellenweise abgebaut. Seekreide am Grund von Seen oder in verlandeten Seebecken besteht fast vollständig aus gefälltem Calcit. Die in der Schule verwendete Tafelkreide wird inzwischen allerdings meist nicht mehr aus echter Kreide, sondern vor allem aus Gips ( Calciumsulfat) hergestellt.

Kalkstein wird ebenfalls überwiegend von Lebewesen gebildet und ist stärker verfestigt als Kreide. Die Kalkablagerung geschieht entweder direkt oder indirekt aus den Überresten der Lebewesen, wie zum Beispiel von Schnecken, Muscheln, gesteinsbildenden Steinkorallen und Schwämmen, die Calciumcarbonat zum Aufbau von Außen- oder Innenskeletten abscheiden. Indirekt wird er dadurch gebildet, dass Lebewesen, vor allem phototrophe, CO ₂ assimilieren und so das Milieu alkalisieren, was zur Ausfällung von Calciumcarbonat führt. Die Größe der Carbonatkristalle liegt zwischen derjenigen von Kreide und Marmor. Große Kalkstein-Vorkommen befinden sich zum Beispiel auf der Schwäbischen und Fränkischen Alb, im Jura, in den Kalkalpen und den Westalpen, im Himalaya und in vielen anderen Gebieten.

Der David von Michelangelo, eine der bekanntesten Marmorstatuen

Marmor ist ein grobkristallines, metamorphes Gestein, das entsteht, wenn Kreide, Kalkstein oder Dolomit unter dem Einfluss hoher Temperaturen und/oder hoher Drücke (über 1000 bar) umkristallisiert werden. Große Marmor-Vorkommen finden sich in Europa beispielsweise in Südtirol (Laas), Österreich (Gummern), Norwegen (Molde) oder im italienischen Carrara, der Heimat des reinweißen Statuario, aus dem Michelangelo seine Skulpturen schuf, sowie auch in Nordamerika.

Synthetisches Calciumcarbonat wird als PCC ( precipitated calcium carbonate „gefälltes Calciumcarbonat") bezeichnet - im Unterschied zu GCC (engl. ground calcium carbonate „gemahlenes Calciumcarbonat"). PCC kann auf verschiedene Arten hergestellt werden. Bekannte Prozesse sind die Fällung mit Kohlendioxid, das Kalk-Soda-Verfahren und der Solvay-Prozess, bei dem PCC als Nebenprodukt der Ammoniak-Herstellung anfällt.

Die Fällung mit Kohlendioxid ist der am häufigsten eingesetzte Prozess, insbesondere in den On-site-Anlagen der Papierindustrie. Sauberer Kalkstein beziehungsweise Branntkalk wird zunächst zum Calciumhydroxid (Kalkmilch) gelöscht und anschließend als dünne Suspension dem Reaktionsbehälter zugeführt. Dort leitet man so lange Kohlendioxid ein, bis das Calciumhydroxid vollständig zu Calciumcarbonat umgesetzt ist. Die Reaktionsdauer kann durch den Verlauf des pH-Wertes beurteilt und gesteuert werden.

Die Fällung erfolgt bei einem Feststoffgehalt von etwa 20 %. Über die Prozessführung (Temperatur, Druck, Zeit, Konzentration) können unterschiedliche Kristallformen ( Kristallmorphologien) und Kornverteilungen erzeugt („gezüchtet") werden. Bevorzugt wird die rhomboedrische oder skalenoedrische Kristallform. Weil mit hochreinen Ausgangsprodukten gearbeitet werden kann, sind die PCCs besonders weiß und haben auch Vorteile bezüglich der Opazität. Inzwischen erzeugen große Papierfabriken PCC in einem „Verbund", indem sie Kohlenstoffdioxid, das bei der Verbrennung in Kraftwerken in Form von Rauchgasen entsteht, durch Bindung an Calciumhydroxid wieder rückgewinnen. Dies stellt jedoch keinen Beitrag zur Reduzierung der Kohlenstoffdioxid-Konzentration in der Atmosphäre ( Klimawandel) dar, weil bei der zuvor notwendigen Herstellung von Kalkhydrat natürlicher Kalkstein gebrannt werden muss, wobei wieder CO ₂ freigesetzt wird.

Eine außergewöhnliche Calciumcarbonat-Lagerstätte gibt es im französischen Villeau, wo ein fossiler Calciumcarbonat-Niederschlag seit über 30 Millionen Jahren nie verfestigt wurde, sondern locker geblieben ist und so in seiner Zusammensetzung und Struktur dem künstlich gefällten PCC gleicht.

Beim Kalk-Soda-Verfahren entsteht Calciumcarbonat als Nebenprodukt bei der Herstellung der Ätzalkalien Natriumhydroxid und Kaliumhydroxid.

Vaterit fällt besonders aus übersättigten Lösungen in Form mikroskopisch kleiner Kristalle aus. Monohydrocalcit kann durch Entwässerung unter ständigem Absaugen des Wassers des Hexahydrates oder durch Additive, wie z. B. Magnesium, direkt in einem Temperaturbereich von 0 bis 40 °C synthetisiert werden. Ikait konnte erstmals 1865 von Pelouze durch Einleiten von Kohlendioxid in eine wässrige Calciumoxid/Zucker-Lösung hergestellt werden. Es kann auch durch Zugabe einer Natriumcarbonatlösung in eine eisgekühlte Calciumchloridlösung hergestellt werden. Das Zermahlen von Ikait führt zu einer Abgabe des Kristallwassers, wodurch neben Calcit auch eine beträchtliche Menge an Vaterit entsteht.

Amorphes Calciumcarbonat ist nach der Stufenregel von Ostwald bei der Kristallisation von Calciumcarbonat die erste Phase, die ausfällt. Es enthält eingeschlossenes und interstitielles Wasser, jedoch kann der Gehalt an Wasser variieren und wandelt sich im Weiteren in wässrigen Lösungen zu einer der wasserfreien polymorphen Phasen des Calciumcarbonats um. Verschiedene Arten von Additiven können ACC stabilisieren, jedoch kann stabilisiertes ACC auch ohne die Hilfe von Zusätzen erhalten werden, wenn es bei hoher Übersättigung gefällt wird. ACC, das frei von Zusätzen ist und aus äquilibrierten, leicht übersättigten (metastabilen) wässrigen Calciumcarbonatlösungen mithilfe eines plötzlichen Wechsels in ein schlechtes Lösungsmittel für Calciumcarbonat ausgefällt wurde (z. B. durch „Abschrecken" in Ethanol). ACC wurde erstmals von Johnston et al. durch Mischen konzentrierter Lösungen von Calciumchlorid und Natriumcarbonat hergestellt. Später wurde eine Methode gefunden, wodurch beim Einleiten von Kohlendioxid in eine gesättigte Calciumhydroxidlösung zunächst amorphes Calciumcarbonat entsteht, das dann weiter zu Calcit kristallisiert.

Kalkpulver

Calciumcarbonat kommt in mehreren wasserfreien und auch zwei Hydrat-Modifikationen sowie weiteren amorphen Formen vor. Alle sind in reiner Form farb- und geruchlose Feststoffe. Calciumcarbonat zerfällt ab ungefähr 600 °C in Calciumoxid und Kohlenstoffdioxid, wobei die genaue Zerfallstemperatur vom vorliegenden CO ₂-Partialdruck abhängt.

Die bei Normalbedingungen thermodynamisch stabilste und damit weitaus häufigste Calciumcarbonat-Modifikation ist das Calcit. Wie alle nichtkubischen, lichtdurchlässigen Minerale hat es die besondere Eigenschaft der Doppelbrechung, also einen einfallenden Lichtstrahl in zwei polarisierte Lichtstrahlen zu zerlegen, die verschieden stark gebrochen werden. Calcit kristallisiert bei Normalbedingungen in einer trigonalen Struktur in der Raumgruppe R3 c (Raumgruppen-Nr. 167). Zudem existieren noch eine Hochtemperaturmodifikation (985 °C bei Normaldruck) mit der Raumgruppe R3 m (Nr. 160) und mehrere Hochdruckmodifikationen (Calcit II-Calcit V). Bei Raumtemperatur entsteht Calcit II bei 1,70 GPa, der dann bei 2,15 GPa in Calcit III übergeht. Calcit III ist bei Raumtemperatur bis 6,16 GPa stabil und wandelt sich erst bei einer Temperaturerhöhung auf 345 °C in Aragonit um.

Aragonit kristallisiert in einer orthorhombischen Kristallstruktur mit der Raumgruppe Pmcn (Nr. 62, Stellung 5). Die Calciumionen liegen annähernd auf den Positionen einer hexagonal dichtesten Packung, die durch Stauchung entlang der sechszähligen Achse verzerrt wird. Aragonit ist trocken und bei Raumtemperatur über einen unbestimmten Zeitraum stabil. Dagegen wandelt er sich in Lösung langsam in Calcit um, dessen Morphologie bei der Umwandlung von Aragonit abhängig von den Bedingungen ist. Findet die Transformation in Lösung statt, so erhält man rhomboedrische Kristalle, während die nadelförmige Struktur des Aragonits bestehen bleibt, wenn die Umwandlung durch Erhitzen erfolgt. Die Aragonit-Calcit-Transformation ist irreversibel und findet nicht bei einer bestimmten Temperatur statt. Beim Erhitzen auf 400 °C dauert die Umwandlung zu Calcit ungefähr drei Stunden, während sie bei 470 °C nur wenige Minuten dauert. Der gesamte Umwandlungsbereich liegt zwischen 387 und 488 °C. Geologisch mineralisierter Aragonit tendiert nicht dazu, sich zwischen 10 und 90 °C umzuwandeln, während sich synthetisch hergestellter Aragonit in Lösung nahe 90 °C in Calcit umwandelt. Aragonit ist jedoch die stabilste Phase des Calciumcarbonats oberhalb 70 °C und 1013 hPa und bei extremen Drücken.

Vaterit ist die instabilste wasserfreie kristalline Form des Calciumcarbonats. Er ist im trockenen Zustand über einen langen Zeitraum stabil, wandelt sich dagegen bei Kontakt mit Wasser aufgrund von Auflösung und anschließender Rekristallisation in Calcit um. Daher ist es schwierig, Vaterit aus wässrigen Lösungen zu erhalten. Die Phasenumwandlungstemperatur zu Calcit ist abhängig von den jeweiligen Synthesebedingungen und liegt im Bereich von 320 bis 460 °C. Er kristallisiert in einer hexagonalen Kristallstruktur mit der Raumgruppe P6 ₃/ mmc (Nr. 194).

Monohydrocalcit, das Monohydrat von Calciumcarbonat, kristallisiert in einer der beiden trigonalen Kristallstrukturen mit der Raumgruppe P3 ₁21 (Nr. 152) oder P3 ₂ 21 (Nr. 154). Es ist instabil und kristallisiert innerhalb weniger Stunden, beim Befeuchten mit Wasser sofort, in die wasserfreie Phase Calcit um. Eine Temperaturerniedrigung und eine Erhöhung des hydrostatischen Druckes stabilisieren es. Eine Rückbildung zum Hexahydrat Ikait ist nicht zu beobachten.

Das Ikait als Hexahydrat von Calciumcarbonat kristallisiert in der monoklinen Raumgruppe C2/ c (Nr. 15). Die Struktur enthält diskrete CaCO ₃-Ionenpaare, die jeweils von einer Hülle aus 18 Wassermolekülen umgeben sind. Es ist bei Atmosphärendruck über 0 °C instabil, bei Drücken von 6 bis 7 kbar jedoch auch bei Raumtemperatur stabil. Es existiert zwar teilweise bei höheren Temperaturen, beginnt jedoch bei über 5 °C eine Umwandlung zu Calcit, die auch bei erneuter Temperaturerniedrigung nicht mehr aufgehalten werden kann. Löslichkeitsbestimmungen zeigen, dass Ikait im Vergleich zu Aragonit und Calcit löslicher ist und seine Löslichkeit im Gegensatz zu den wasserfreien Polymorphen mit sinkender Temperatur abnimmt.

Als amorphes Calciumcarbonat (ACC) werden Modifikationen von Calciumcarbonat bezeichnet, die weder diskrete Röntgen- noch Elektronenbeugungsreflexe liefern. Es enthält bis zu einem Molekül Wasser pro Carbonat-Ion. Es ist instabil, wobei niedrige Fällungstemperaturen bei der Herstellung die amorphe Phase stabilisieren, während ein Temperaturanstieg zu einer schnellen Kristallisation führt. Auch eine stark alkalische Mutterlösung oder die Verwendung geeigneter Additive bei der Fällung, wozu vor allem Magnesium, Phosphate und eine Reihe organischer Substanzen gehören, stabilisieren ACC. Das Kristallisationsprodukt hängt von den Bedingungen ab. So bildet sich im Bereich von 14 bis 30 °C innerhalb von 3 bis 6 Stunden Vaterit und Calcit, während von 60 bis 80 °C in 17 bis 22 Stunden Aragonit und Calcit entstehen. Im dazwischen liegenden Temperaturbereich (40-50 °C) bilden sich alle drei kristallinen wasserfreien Phasen. In Gegenwart organischer Substanzen wie Aminen, Aminosäuren und Carbonsäuren wandelt sich ACC dagegen in Vaterit um. Dabei sind Ethylendiamin und Natriumaspartat die besten Additive für die Vateritbildung.

Wie alle Carbonate ist auch Calciumcarbonat empfindlich gegenüber Säuren. Auf dieser einfachen Reaktion beruht die gebräuchlichste Erkennungsmethode für Carbonatgesteine. Tropft man etwas Salzsäure auf einen Kalkstein, wird Kohlenstoffdioxid frei und lässt die Flüssigkeit aufbrausen.

Diese Säureempfindlichkeit machte sich der Sage nach auch der karthagische Feldherr Hannibal zunutze, als er 218 vor Christus mit seinen Elefanten die Alpen überquerte. Um den Tieren das Klettern im Fels zu erleichtern, befahl er seinen Soldaten, große Mengen Essig auf das kompakte Kalkgestein zu schütten, worauf das Gestein „chemisch" verwitterte und die Soldaten mühelos Stufen für die Elefanten in den Fels brechen konnten.

Calciumcarbonat selbst ist in reinem Wasser kaum löslich. Die Löslichkeit beträgt gerade einmal 14 Milligramm pro Liter, wobei das Carbonat-Ion als Hydrogencarbonat-Ion in Lösung geht.

Bei Anwesenheit von gelöstem Kohlenstoffdioxid steigt die Löslichkeit jedoch um mehr als das Hundertfache. Auf diesem Effekt beruht die Verwitterung von Kalkgestein, wobei sich das leicht lösliche Calciumhydrogencarbonat bildet.

Wegen seiner Löslichkeit ist Calciumhydrogencarbonat ein Bestandteil der meisten natürlichen Gewässer, je nach Gestein in unterschiedlichen Konzentrationen. Die Konzentration von Calciumcarbonat im Wasser wird in Deutschland mit „ Grad deutscher Härte" (1 °dH = 10 mg CaO/Liter Wasser oder 17,85 mg CaCO ₃/Liter oder 0,18 mmol/l) angegeben. In Frankreich wird die Maßeinheit „Grad französischer Härte" benutzt, wobei 1 °fH = 0,1 mmol Ca ²⁺/l oder Mg ²⁺ Ionen entspricht. In der Schweiz wird entweder die direkte Angabe über mmol/l oder die französische Härte verwendet.

Der Umkehrung dieses Lösevorgangs, der Ausfällung, verdanken die meisten natürlichen Vorkommen von Calciumcarbonat ihre Entstehung. Da die Löslichkeit des Calciumcarbonats proportional zur Menge des gelösten Kohlendioxids und damit dem Gehalt an Kohlensäure ist, wird sie von den gleichen Faktoren bestimmt, die auch die Konzentration des Kohlendioxids (gemessen als Partialdruck) bestimmt. Der komplizierte Mechanismus, der an manchen Wasserläufen sichtbar ist, so etwa bei den Kalkterrassen in Pamukkale (Türkei), wird durch das Kalk-Kohlensäure-Gleichgewicht beschrieben. Dabei steigt die Löslichkeit von Kohlendioxid mit zunehmendem Druck und sinkender Temperatur. Wenn Wasser zum Beispiel durch die feinen Rinnen ( Diaklasen) eines Kalkgesteins oder eines calciumhaltigen vulkanischen Gesteins fließt, steht es unter Druck und kann dadurch sehr viel mehr Calciumcarbonat lösen. Erreicht dieses Wasser dann das Freie, gleichen sich der Wasserdruck und die Temperatur an den Atmosphärendruck und die Umgebungstemperatur an. Das Kohlendioxid entweicht, das Calciumcarbonat fällt aus und bildet die typischen Kalkablagerungen. Auf diese Weise entstehen unter anderem Travertine (Begriff, der trotz Unterschiede oft synonym je nach Region und Sprache auch für Kalksinter oder Kalktuff verwendet wird), mehr oder weniger poröse Kalkgesteine. Ähnliche Vorgänge (Druckänderungen) laufen an Stromschnellen und Wasserfällen von Flüssen ab, wobei sich ebenfalls Travertine bilden. Neben dem Kohlendioxidgehalt bestimmt auch die vorhandene Wassermenge das Gleichgewicht zwischen gelöstem und ungelöstem Calciumcarbonat. Sinkt der Wasseranteil, entsteht zunächst eine übersättigte Lösung, aus der dann Calciumcarbonat ausfällt. Dies kann in der Natur durch Verdunsten bzw. Verdampfen oder durch Ausfrieren auftreten. Das bekannteste Beispiel für die Fällung von Calciumcarbonaten durch Verdunstung ist die Bildung von Tropfsteinen in den Karsthöhlen von Kalkgesteinen, den Stalaktiten und Stalagmiten. Auf der Verschiebung des Löslichkeits-Gleichgewichtes (Ausfall von Calciumcarbonat durch Temperaturerhöhung) beruht unter anderem auch die Bildung von Kesselstein in Heizkesseln, an Durchlauferhitzern und ähnlichen Geräten. Auch Lösungsvorgänge als Bildung von Strukturen sind in der Natur anzutreffen, die sich zum Beispiel in Form von Styolithen (einige Millimeter bis Zentimeter lange Vorsprünge oder Säulchen, die im Inneren von Kalkgesteinsbanken als unregelmäßige, gerippte Ebenen auftreten) zeigen.

Ähnliche Vorgänge sind in der Tiefsee zu beobachten. Die Calcit- und Aragonit-Kompensationstiefe bezeichnet die Tiefe im Meer, unterhalb der sich Calcit und Aragonit vollständig auflöst. Ursache ist die Zunahme der Kohlendioxidkonzentration im Wasser mit zunehmender Meerestiefe.

Auch durch andere saure Bestandteile der Luft sowie durch Nitrifikation im Boden wird Calciumcarbonat gelöst. In der Luft enthaltene Schwefeloxide bilden in wässriger Umgebung Schwefelsäure (H ₂SO ₄). Diese verwandelt Kalk in Calciumsulfat (CaSO ₄) oder Gips (CaSO ₄ · 2 H ₂ O). Calciumsulfat ist mit etwa 2 g/l zwar ebenfalls wenig wasserlöslich, aber besser löslich als Calciumcarbonat, was zu einem langsamen Auswaschen von Kalkoberflächen durch Feuchtigkeit führt.

Natürliches Calciumcarbonat (Kalkstein) wird in großen Mengen als Rohstoff für die Baustoff-Industrie, als Zuschlagstoff in der Stahlindustrie, als mineralischer Dünger, als Futterkalk und als mineralischer Füllstoff in diversen industriellen Anwendungen verwendet (z. B. in Papieren, Farben, Lacken, Putzen, Kunststoffen und Rückseitenbeschichtungen von Teppichen). Insgesamt werden jährlich über 400 Millionen Tonnen Kalkgestein abgebaut.

Das Haupteinsatzgebiet ist die Herstellung von Zement ( Calciumsilicat, Calciumaluminat) und Branntkalk.

Durch Brennen von Kalk entsteht Branntkalk. Aus diesem wird durch Löschen mit Wasser Kalkhydrat (Calciumhydroxid Ca(OH) ₂, gelöschter Kalk) hergestellt. Mit dem Kohlenstoffdioxid der Luft reagiert er wiederum zu Kalk und schließt den technischen Kalkkreislauf. Kalkhydrat und Kalk eignen sich als Putz oder Wandbeschichtungen wie dem Tadelakt. Die ersten Entdecker dieses Phänomens waren die Römer, die im großen Stile Kalkbrennanlagen betrieben.

Nach dem weltweit verkauften Volumen ist Calciumcarbonat in Form von Gesteinsmehl der wichtigste Füllstoff.

Sofern die Füllstoffe auch die optische Erscheinung des Endprodukts beeinflussen, ist oft ein hoher Weißgrad erwünscht, den nur der Kalkstein weniger Lagerstätten erfüllt. Der größte industrielle Anwender von weißen Calciumcarbonaten ist mit einer Menge von über 10 Millionen Tonnen (weltweit) pro Jahr die Papierindustrie, danach folgen die Kunststoff- und die Baustoff-Industrie (Putze und Farben) mit insgesamt nochmals 15 Millionen Tonnen pro Jahr. Für den Einsatz in der Papierindustrie, vor allem als Streichfarbe, werden in Europa insbesondere Lagerstätten in Frankreich, Italien, Deutschland, Norwegen und Österreich abgebaut, wobei das Mineral durch Nassmahlung zerkleinert und als Slurry (teilweise per Tankschiff) in den Handel kommt.

Beim Bodengefüge werden über den Calciummagnesiumcarbonat-Gehalt der pH-Wert und dadurch die strukturellen Eigenschaften, die biotische Aktivität sowie die Speicherfähigkeit und Umsetzung der Nährstoffe im Boden beeinflusst. Das macht den pH-Wert zur wichtigsten Kenngröße für die Bewirtschaftung aller Bodentypen. Dabei spielt eine ausreichende Kalkversorgung mit „freiem", nicht an Bodenpartikel gebundenem Calciumcarbonat eine bedeutende Rolle. Durch Kalkung wird versucht, einer Bodenversauerung entgegenzuwirken und die Bodenfruchtbarkeit zu erhalten oder zu verbessern. Calciumcarbonat dient so seit Jahrhunderten zur Verbesserung der Bodenfruchtbarkeit in der Landwirtschaft. Die Bestimmung des Calciumcarbonatgehaltes im Boden erfolgt durch Zusetzung von 10%iger Salzsäure und Bewertung der auftretenden Reaktion, wie einer Schaumbildung.

In Deutschland wurde Calciumcarbonat durch die Farbstoff-Verordnung ab 1959 als Lebensmittelfarbstoff für die Verwendung in Lebensmitteln zugelassen. Zur Übernahme der Richtlinie des Rats zur Angleichung der Rechtsvorschriften der Mitgliedstaaten für färbende Stoffe, die in Lebensmitteln verwendet werden dürfen in nationales Recht wurde die Farbstoff-Verordnung 1966 angepasst und für Calciumcarbonat die E-Nummer E 170 aufgenommen. Ab 1978 wurde die Verwendung in Deutschland durch die Zusatzstoff-Zulassungsverordnung geregelt. Durch die Verordnung (EG) Nr. 1333/2008, die am 20. Januar 2009 in Kraft trat, ist die Verwendung von Calciumcarbonat als Lebensmittelzusatzstoff im ganzen EWR einheitlich geregelt. E 170 ist in Gruppe I und zusammen mit anderen Farbstoffen, wie Riboflavine, Zuckercouleur oder Carotin in Gruppe II: Lebensmittelfarbstoffe ohne Höchstmengenbeschränkung einsortiert und kann somit ohne Mengenbegrenzung ( quantum satis) verwendet werden. Calciumcarbonat wird in Lebensmitteln neben der Verwendung als Farbstoff auch als Füllstoff, Säureregulator, Trennmittel oder Rieselhilfe eingesetzt. Im Speisesalz ist es als Rieselhilfe enthalten. Calciumcarbonat wird gebrochen und/oder gemahlen und kommt stückig oder als Mehl in den Handel.

Calciumcarbonat fand früher auch als Tafelkreide Verwendung, insbesondere in Frankreich als sogenannte Champagnerkreide, die aus Kreidegestein besteht, einem chemisch sehr reinen Calciumcarbonat. Etwa 55 Prozent der in Deutschland verkauften Kreide bestanden 1990 aus Gips (Calciumsulfat).

Für einige Anwendungen sind natürliche Calciumcarbonate nicht optimal, so dass hier synthetische Calciumcarbonate verwendet werden. Mit der Bezeichnung Hydro-Calcit wird synthetisches Calciumcarbonat in der Wassertechnik zur Entsäuerung von Wässern mit „ aggressiver Kohlensäure " verwendet. Dieses Verfahren gilt als eines der ältesten Entsäurerungsverfahren.

Zusammen mit Magnesiumcarbonat wird Calciumcarbonat in Medikamenten zur Magensäureregulation ( Antazida) eingesetzt.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Strukturformel Allgemeines Name Calciumcarbonat Andere Namen Kalziumkarbonat Kalk kohlensaurer Kalk Kreide E 170 [1] CALCIUM CARBONATE (INCI)[2] Summenformel CaCO 3 Kurzbeschreibung weißer, kristalliner und geruchloser Feststoff[3] Externe Identifikatoren/Datenbanken Arzneistoffangaben ATC-Code Eigenschaften Molare Masse 100,09 g· mol −1 Aggregatzustand fest[3] Dichte 2,73 g·cm−3 (Calcit)[3] 2,93 g·cm−3 (Aragonit)[3] Schmelzpunkt >825 °C (Zersetzung)[3]

# data[].attributes.body
1958 aber gleiches Modell

# data[].attributes.body
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porzellanfabrik_Langenthal

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.suisse-langenthal.ch/de/uber-uns/

# data[].attributes.body
48 steht für 1948 - das Erstellungsjahr

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Une bouteille peut en cacher une autre

Le petit trésor qu'est le vin se révèle dans un flacon qui ne doit rien au hasard car l'histoire des bouteilles de vin est étroitement liée à l'art de déguster et de consommer à travers les époques et les régions viticoles.

" Quand on ouvre une bouteille qui remonte à la dernière guerre mondiale,'il y a dans l'ouverture du flacon quelque chose qui nous ramène à une dimension légendaire ".

Jean-Charles de Castelbajac, couturier designer.

Faites le quiz!

X

Votre score est de

Un peu d'histoire

Dans l'Antiquité, le vin est conservé et transporté dans de grandes jarres appelées " amphores ". Une fois remplies, les amphores étaient très lourdes, rendant difficile le versage du liquide. C'est par la maîtrise de puissants fours à charbon que les Anglais furent les premiers en 1634 à fabriquer des bouteilles de verre résistantes, de teinte noire.

Thanks Sir Kenelm Digby !

Ce diplomate anglais invente la bouteille de verre qui ressemblait au début plutôt à une sphère aplatie, pour assurer une bonne assise, avec un col relativement long, pour une bonne prise en main. La forme des bouteilles évolue et devient plus cylindrique pour faciliter entreposage et transport.

Combien de verres dans cette bouteille ?

Après la création du système métrique en 1792, la bouteille de vin sert aussi de mesure. La contenance à 0,75 cl est fixée en 1866. Elle ne sera pas choisie au hasard : une caisse de 6 bouteilles (4,5 litres) équivaut au gallon du système impérial britannique. Une bouteille de 75 cl permettra de remplir 6 verres de vin.

Protéger et conserver

Le rôle de la bouteille est essentiel pour préserver goût et couleur. Les vins rouges, bénéficient toutefois d'une protection naturelle par les tannins. Leurs contenants sont de teinte verte tirant sur le jaune ou sur l'ambre, pour filtrer parfaitement les rayons lumineux. Les bouteilles transparentes de vins blancs et rosés permettent de profiter visuellement des nuances'de ces vins.

La Bordelaise & co

A chaque région, son format. La Bordelaise est une bouteille droite avec des épaules hautes munie de bague, col, épaule, fût et fond. A Bordeaux, les adeptes des vins de garde, chérissent le plus souvent les grands formats, du magnum à l'impériale. Ces derniers contiennent moins d'oxygène par volume, ce qui favorise un vieillissement du vin plus lent et contrôlé.