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European settlers rediscovery of the Americas in 1492 was the first events towards European population in America and the discovery of various indigenous people spread throughout. Rediscovered by Christopher Columbus and deemed the part of the New World. This colonization was the beginning for Europeans and lead towards large historical events like Manifest Destiny, Indian Removal act and more and affected slaves and indigenous people.

Primary Source: https://www.loc.gov/rr/program//bib/ourdocs/indian.html#:~:text=The%20Indian%20Removal%20Act%20was,many%20resisted%20the%20relocation%20policy

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Indian Removal Act: Primary Documents in American History (Virtual Programs & Services, Library of Congress)

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The Indian Removal Act was signed into law by Andrew Jackson on May 28, 1830, authorizing the president to grant unsettled lands west of the Mississippi in exchange for Indian lands within existing state borders. A few tribes went peacefully, but many resisted the relocation policy. During the fall…

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In the 19th century Europeans believed it was there God given right as white Americans to expand there territory westward and called it Manifest Destiny. This basically served as justification or a reason for Europeans aggressive racial economic and political expansion of America. This forced ill prepared ingenious people to move from there ancestral land and lead to many deaths. Also lead to the result of the Mexican American war in 1840. Americas want to move westward put Mexico's land in the way of there plans and resulted in the war. This correlates to the rediscovery of America because without the colonization of America there'd be no Manifest Destiny.

Primary Source:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Manifest-Destiny
Secondary Source: American Yawp Volume I: Before 1877 Chapter 12 Manifest Destiny

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What was Manifest Destiny?

Manifest Destiny, in U.S. history, the supposed inevitability of the continued territorial expansion of the boundaries of the United States westward to the Pacific and beyond. Before the American Civil War (1861-65), the idea of Manifest Destiny was used to validate continental acquisitions in the Oregon Country, Texas, New Mexico, and California. The purchase of Alaska after the Civil War briefly revived the concept of Manifest Destiny, but it most evidently became a renewed force in U.S. foreign policy in the 1890s, when the country went to war with Spain, annexed Hawaii, and laid plans for an isthmian canal across Central America.

Origin of the term

John L. O'Sullivan, the editor of a magazine that served as an organ for the Democratic Party and of a partisan newspaper, first wrote of "manifest destiny" in 1845, but at the time he did not think the words profound. Rather than being "coined," the phrase was buried halfway through the third paragraph of a long essay in the July-August issue of The United States Magazine, and Democratic Review on the necessity of annexing Texas and the inevitability of American expansion. O'Sullivan was protesting European meddling in American affairs, especially by France and England, which he said were acting

for the avowed object of thwarting our policy and hampering our power, limiting our greatness and checking the fulfillment of our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.

O'Sullivan's observation was a complaint rather than a call for aggression, and he referred to demography rather than pugnacity as the solution to the perceived problem of European interference. Yet when he expanded his idea on December 27, 1845, in a newspaper column in the New York Morning News, the wider audience seized upon his reference to divine superintendence. Discussing the dispute with Great Britain over the Oregon Country, O'Sullivan again cited the claim to

the right of our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federated self-government entrusted to us.

Some found the opinion intriguing, but others were simply irritated. The Whig Party sought to discredit Manifest Destiny as belligerent as well as pompous, beginning with Massachusetts Rep. Robert Winthrop's using the term to mock Pres. James K. Polk 's policy toward Oregon.

Yet unabashed Democrats took up Manifest Destiny as a slogan. The phrase frequently appeared in debates relating to Oregon, sometimes as soaring rhetoric and other times as sarcastic derision. As an example of the latter, on February 6, 1846, the New-Hampshire Statesman and State Journal, a Whig newspaper, described "some windy orator in the House [of Representatives]" as "pouring for his 'manifest destiny' harangue."

Over the years, O'Sullivan's role in creating the phrase was forgotten, and he died in obscurity some 50 years after having first used the term "manifest destiny." In an essay in The American Historical Review in 1927, historian Julius W. Pratt identified O'Sullivan as the phrase's originator, a conclusion that became universally accepted.

A history of expansion

Despite disagreements about Manifest Destiny's validity at the time, O'Sullivan had stumbled on a broadly held national sentiment. Although it became a rallying cry as well as a rationale for the foreign policy that reached its culmination in 1845-46, the attitude behind Manifest Destiny had long been a part of the American experience. The impatient English who colonized North America in the 1600s and 1700s immediately gazed westward and instantly considered ways to venture into the wilderness and tame it. The cause of that ceaseless wanderlust varied from region to region, but the behaviour became a tradition within one generation. The western horizon would always beckon, and Americans would always follow. After the American Revolution (1775-83), the steady advance of the cotton kingdom in the South matched the lure of the Ohio Country in the North. In 1803, Pres. Thomas Jefferson's Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the country with the stroke of a pen. Expansionists eager to acquire Spanish Florida were part of the drive for the War of 1812, and many historians argue that American desires to annex Canada were also an important part of the equation. Andrew Jackson's invasion of Florida in 1818 and the subsequent Transcontinental Treaty (Adams-Onís Treaty) settled a southern border question that had been vexing the region for a generation and established an American claim to the Pacific Northwest as Spain renounced its claim to the Oregon Country. The most consequential territorial expansion in the country's history occurred during the 1820s. Spreading American settlements often caused additional unrest on the country's western borders. As the United States pacified and stabilized volatile regions, the resulting appropriation of territory usually worsened relations with neighbours, setting off a cycle of instability that encouraged additional annexations.

Caught in the upheaval coincidental to that expansion, Southeast Indians succumbed to the pressure of spreading settlement by ceding their lands to the United States and then relocating west of the Mississippi River under Pres. Andrew Jackson's removal policy of the 1830s. The considerable hardships suffered by the Indians in that episode were exemplified by the devastation of the Cherokees on the infamous Trail of Tears, which excited humanitarian protests from both the political class and the citizenry.

Finally, in the 1840s, diplomacy resolved the dispute over the Oregon Country with Britain, and victory in the Mexican-American War (1846-48) closed out a period of dramatically swift growth for the United States. Less than a century after breaking from the British Empire, the United States had gone far in creating its own empire by extending sovereignty across the continent to the Pacific, to the 49th parallel on the Canadian border, and to the Rio Grande in the south. Having transformed a group of sparsely settled colonies into a continental power of enormous potential, many Americans thought the achievement so stunning as to be obvious. It was for them proof that God had chosen the United States to grow and flourish.

Yet in a story as old as ancient Rome's transformation from republic to empire, not all Americans, like the doubters of Rome, found it encouraging. Those dissenters saw rapid expansion as contrary to the principles of a true republic and predicted that the cost of empire would be high and its consequences perilous.

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Manifest Destiny | Summary, Examples, Westward Expansion, & Significance

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Manifest Destiny, the supposed inevitability of the continued territorial expansion of the boundaries of the United States westward to the Pacific and beyond. Before the American Civil War, Manifest Destiny was used to validate continental acquisitions in the Oregon Country, Texas, New Mexico, and California.

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The trail of tears was the forceful removal and displacement of indigenous tribes in America. These were 5 civilized tribes of about 60,000 people and was between 1831 to 1850. This is a direct result of Manifest Destiny as well and lead to the death of large amounts of Native Americans. President Andrew Jackson pushed for the removal of the natives and also the entire Indian removal act. The Natives had lived in there territories there entire life and weren't used to other areas which hindered them even more and also the journey was 1,200 miles and claimed the lives of 6000 natives.

Primary Source:
https://crgreview.com/the-trail-of-tears-and-american-genocide/amp/

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Contemporary Review of Genocide and Political Violence

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Long before the "Trail of Tears" occurred, Native Americans were forcibly removed from their land in the name of conquest and American Manifest Destiny, or the belief that white settlers had the right to expand and occupy all territory in the Western hemisphere. This belief of conquest was ingrained in American culture, rearing its ugly head time and time again in American history. But the Trail of Tears was one of the most jarring incidents of Native American genocide, and not only left thousands of Native Americans dead, but destroyed vibrant culture.

The Trail of Tears began in the early 1830s, where the sociopolitical climate of the United States fostered western expansion as a right of any white American citizen. There are multiple reasons for this expansion, but it was chiefly justified by the concept of Manifest Destiny. President Andrew Jackson was a large proponent of this notion. Jackson was viewed by many as a national hero because of his military feats, most notably against numerous Native American tribes. Elected president in 1829, he declared to Congress his intention of removing Native Americans from their land, particularly in the American south. Jackson told Congress that the removal "should be voluntary, for it would be as cruel as unjust to compel the aborigines to abandon the graves of their fathers, and seek a home in a distant land". Jackson wanted to subdue Native Americans through his address in Congress, creating a false sense of security that he would only unravel a couple of months later. He always intended to remove Native Americans from their land, as he was a staunch believer in Manifest Destiny. Numerous tribes were removed forcibly the following year, and often violently, from their land. This removal was an intentional act to destroy Native Americans' lives and customs. The US federal government directed intentional violence against Native Americans, forcing thousands to relocate from their ancestral lands. Removal from their land represented a sheer loss of Native American culture as well, with so much of their beliefs and their tradition tied to the land. The Trail of Tears was a genocide for these very reasons, as it was a systematic removal of Native Americans and destruction of their culture. The 1830 "Indian Removal Act", which Jackson lobbied and pushed through the Senate, passed and was used as a justification for the sheer brutality that the federal government inflicted upon Native Americans. It is important to note that the Indian Removal Act did not have a provision "authorizing the seizure of land that Indians declined to cede by treaty" (Cave 1333), yet Jackson went over the heads of the legislative branch and ordered the removal of all Native Americans from eastern lands. This was a flat out "abuse of presidential power" (Cave 1332). Federal troops were deployed to enforce the removal, and the President threatened to use force against those who would not willingly leave.

As a result of President Jackson's executive action, as many as "100,000 American Indians were removed from eastern homelands" (Thornton 289), with many dying as a result. One of the most jarring examples of how deadly this forcible removal was the Cherokees' dramatic population shift. According to research done by the Duke University Press, "more than 10,000 additional Cherokees would have been alive during the period 1835 to 1840 had Cherokee removal not occurred" (Thornton 298). The Cherokee nation originated in the southeastern part of what is now the United States, on land which has been very valuable and highly contested since European colonization. This land was so valuable because it was fertile and made excellent farmland, as well as being rich with minerals. In Georgia specifically, it was said that there was gold on Cherokee land, making it highly valued by white settlers. But white Georgians could not legally extract this gold, as the land was clearly agreed upon, under the 1785 Treaty of Hopewell, to be Cherokee land. However, the political climate changed with the election of Jackson, thereby causing conflict in the area under the Indian Removal Act. As a result, white Georgians began to illegally settle in Cherokee territory, spurring on the Cherokees to legally challenge the Indian Removal Act. The Cherokees, trying to assert their right to their land based on the Treaty of Hopewell, brought their case to the US Supreme Court in 1828, in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia. The court subsequently ruled that the Cherokees "did not have legal standing due to their status as a 'domestic, dependent nation.'" Therefore they could not be incorporated into the United States' legal system. A year after the ruling, another US Supreme Court case, entitled Worcester v. Georgia, ruled that Georgia could not encroach into Cherokee territory as per the treaty's design. Jackson completely ignored this, abused his power, and ordered the removal of Native Americans anyway, with the Cherokee nation bearing the brunt of it. This was targeted genocide, motivated by the fact that the land the Cherokee occupied was so valuable, and that the Cherokee actively resisted the Removal Act. It is important to note that Cherokee resistance contributed to the "removal debate [and] [...] dialogue built around sovereignty, state's rights, and constitutional authority" (Bowes 75). Jackson clearly wanted Cherokee land for white expansionism, and the Cherokees' petitioning of the court put a target on their back.

Many Cherokees were forced out of Georgia "at gunpoint" (Bowes 72). But the removal process was not quick whatsoever, and there is said to have been "thousands of Cherokees [dying] during the round-up and months spent in stockades awaiting removal" (Thornton 292), in addition to the thousands killed by the journey and its aftermath. The systematic removal was also delayed because of the amount of disease that Cherokees, as well as other Native American tribes, faced, as a result of germ warfare. It was so severe that the Cherokee National Council asked General Scott, a US General under Jackson's orders, to allow the Cherokees to "remove themselves in the fall, after the sickly season had ended" (Thornton 291). Germ warfare was a common tactic used against Native American by white settlers in the United States, and contributed to heavy Native American losses. The exposure to disease during this time is in no doubt contributed to the harsh conditions that Native Americans were subjected to by settler governments. After being rounded up, Native Americans did not receive adequate provisions, and were placed in poorly kept stockades. The journey itself left thousands exposed to the harsh conditions, and no doubt many died because of the exposure and lack of provisions. If someone survived these harsh conditions, they still "face[d] disease and/or starvation in the new homelands" (Thornton 291). The journey took months, and Native Americans were left without food or transportation. Many died on the journey because they lacked these basic items, further highlighting the brutality of the American government. Once Native Americans reached their destination, they had to quickly provide and shelter themselves for the upcoming winter, but since the land allocated to them lacked rich natural resources, starvation and death were common. Besides facing this crisis, the diseases that were passed onto them at the start of the journey continued to plague Native populations when they settled, resulting in a staggering death toll.

Although the exact number of Native Americans that died during the Trail of Tears is hotly contested, it is assumed to be between 4,000 to 10,000 deaths, with the latter half of the spectrum being more realistic. Besides the sheer loss of life, many aspects of Native American culture were forever lost, as so many died and those left were far from home. The removal did not just remove the physical person, but it removed "livelihood and language, [...] security and self-esteem,[...] religion and respect" (Lyons 8). The removal was systematic, and contributed to the large loss of life of Native Americans. The Trail of Tears constitutes a genocide because it was deliberate in its removal, targeted a specific population, and led to the death of thousands of Native Americans. But the brutality of the Trail of Tears is not an isolated case of violence against Native Americans in the US; rather, the Trail of Tears is a representative case of the violence faced by Native Americans since white colonization began in the fifteenth century.

Sources:

Bens, Jonas "'Domestic Dependent Nations' and Indigenous Identity: Cherokee Nation v. Georgia." The Indigenous Paradox: Rights, Sovereignty, and Culture in the Americas, University of Pennsylvania Press, PHILADELPHIA, 2020, pp. 51-69. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv16t6dx7.7. Accessed 7 Nov. 2020.

Bowes, John P. "American Indian Removal beyond the Removal Act." Native American and Indigenous Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, 2014, pp. 65-87. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/natiindistudj.1.1.0065. Accessed 7 Nov. 2020.

Cave, Alfred A. "Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830." The Historian, vol. 65, no. 6, 2003, pp. 1330-1353. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/24452618. Accessed 7 Nov. 2020.

Lyons, Scott Richard. X-Marks: Native Signatures of Assent. NED - New edition ed., University of Minnesota Press, 2010. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/j.ctttt4rt. Accessed 7 Nov. 2020.

Richardson, James D. A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 10 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1896-99). The Online Books Page, https://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/metabook?id=mppresidents. Accessed 7 Nov. 2020.

Thornton, Russell. "Cherokee Population Losses during the Trail of Tears: A New Perspective and a New Estimate." Ethnohistory, vol. 31, no. 4, 1984, pp. 289-300. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/482714. Accessed 7 Nov. 2020.

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The Trail of Tears and American Genocide

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Written by Maeve McGuire Long before the "Trail of Tears" occurred, Native Americans were forcibly removed from their land in the name of conquest and American Manifest Destiny, or the belief that white settlers had the right to expand and occupy all territory in the Western hemisphere.

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The American Civil War Lead to the death of 750,000 people and this war left an indelible mark on nearly every American, witnessing an unprecedented scale of military mobilization. While the primary motivation for many northern soldiers was preserving the Union, the conflict's focus gradually shifted towards eliminating slavery. Both enslaved and free African Americans played a pivotal role in championing emancipation and driving this evolutionary process. Concurrently, women took on essential wartime responsibilities, navigating a world where men of military age were scarce. Undoubtedly, the Civil War defined the trajectory of the United States and presented an intensely demanding experience for those embroiled in its turmoil but ultimately lead to the ending of slavery. Also native Americans were directly affected by the War and many died of war related illnesses and they discovered there ancestral land was even less secure after war.

Secondary Source:
The American Yawp  Volume I: Before 1877 Chapter 14 The Civil War.
Primary Source:
https://americanindian.si.edu/static/why-we-serve/topics/civil-war/#:~:text=The%20war%20exacted%20a%20terrible,less%20secure%20after%20the%20war

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Though exact numbers are not known, many more Native people allied with the Confederacy. Even more participated indirectly, aiding or sabotaging one side or another while remaining outside the military.

Having survived removal from their ancestral homelands in the Southeast in the 1830s and '40s, the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Muscogee (Creek), Choctaw, and Seminole Nations signed Confederate treaties that guaranteed title to territories west of the Mississippi. Elite tribal members' enslavement of African Americans further motivated Southern allegiance.

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Native American allegiances varied during the Civil War, but were often motivated by a common desire to protect tribal lands and lifeways. Approximately 3,503 Native Americans served in the Union Army.

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The Civil War ended April 9th in 1865 and and lasted four years. Natives that participated in the war supported the union  and hoped there efforts could be recognized and that the treaties about there ancestral land could be seen. This was far from the truth and despite there sacrifice they were still met with non agreeance from Europeans. But the result of the war also lead towards the emancipation of African slaves.

Secondary Source: The American Yawp Volume I: Before 1877 chapter 15 Reconstruction
Primary Source: https://americanindian.si.edu/static/why-we-serve/topics/civil-war/#:~:text=The%20war%20exacted%20a%20terrible,less%20secure%20after%20the%20war

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Though exact numbers are not known, many more Native people allied with the Confederacy. Even more participated indirectly, aiding or sabotaging one side or another while remaining outside the military.

Having survived removal from their ancestral homelands in the Southeast in the 1830s and '40s, the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Muscogee (Creek), Choctaw, and Seminole Nations signed Confederate treaties that guaranteed title to territories west of the Mississippi. Elite tribal members' enslavement of African Americans further motivated Southern allegiance.

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Native American allegiances varied during the Civil War, but were often motivated by a common desire to protect tribal lands and lifeways. Approximately 3,503 Native Americans served in the Union Army.

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European Colonization is a large part of history and is probably the only reason I'm here writing about it. It resulted in large historical economic and political event like Manifest Destiny, The Trail of Tears and more, examining this subject gave me a chance to touch on and further understand and learn more about a pivotal point in history. But in conclusion the indigenous people were massively affected by Europeans  and lost there land there people and there culture.

Primary Source:
https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/native-north-americans/#:~:text=Throughout%20the%20period%20of%20European,no%20immunity%2C%20such%20as%20smallpox

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What was early contact like between English colonists and Native Americans?

In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed in the Caribbean, unlocking what Europeans quickly came to call the 'New World'. Columbus encountered land with around two million inhabitants that was previously unknown to Europeans. He thought he had found a new route to the East, so he mistakenly called these people 'Indians'. Over the next few centuries, European powers colonised the Americas, seeking new land and trade opportunities. Spanish and Portuguese colonised large parts of South America, and other European colonial powers, including English explorers, focused on establishing settlements in North America.

The first permanent English settlement called Jamestown (after James I of England) was established in 1607 in Virginia, North America. These first settlers - and those who sent them - were keen to find out about the area and see what they could gain. The settlers began to explore and they soon encountered the Native people of the Chesapeake Bay region. There were many tribes living there at the time, most belonging to three major chiefdoms: the Powhatan, the Piscataway, and the Nanticoke.

This lesson uses documents that describe what happened between early English settlers and Native Americans in Virginia. Investigate how the English described this early contact. How did Native Americans react to the arrival of Europeans? Were relations friendly and, if so, how and why did they change over time?

Tasks

Background

The first English explorers to North America arrived five years after Columbus in 1497, led by the Italian Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot). However, the English did not try to establish permanent settlements in the Americas until much later.

In 1585, English colonists attempted to settle at a place called Roanoke. The settlement lasted only for a short time. After initial friendly relations, hostilities developed as settlers became increasingly reliant on Native Americans for food and fighting eventually broke out between the two groups. The local chieftain was killed by the English and the colony was eventually abandoned.

On May 14, 1607, the first lasting English settlement in North America was established. The settlement was named 'Jamestown' after the current King of England, James I. Captain Newport led the expedition, staying until June 22nd, when he sailed back to England for supplies. The source material in this lesson comes from the first few months of the colony (CO 1/1).

After Captain Newport left for England, 104 settlers remained with Captain John Smith placed in charge. These settlers were unprepared, and did not plant the right crops or eat the right foods. They soon encountered starvation and famine, despite stealing food from the Native Americans. In the first three years, despite new arrivals, more than 80% of the settlers died from the combined effects of famine, disease, and warfare.

Throughout the period of European colonisation, millions of Native Americans were killed, either in fighting or by outbreaks of European diseases to which their bodies had no immunity, such as smallpox. It is estimated that between 80% and 95% of the Native American population died within the first 100-150 years of European contact with the Americas.

Those settlers that survived, together with new arrivals, began to cultivate the land, growing crops such as tobacco. As more settlers arrived, more Native American land was taken, and the Native Americans began to fight back.

Teachers' notes

This lesson asks pupils to investigate the early contact between Europeans and Native Americans. Using primary source diary extracts, pupils are able to understand and appreciate the first encounters between European settlers and the indigenous people of North America. Pupils are asked to explore the different aspects of these encounters and why they may have changed.

Some may want to extend this to a comparison between later feelings and actions taken against the Native Americans, examining European stereotypes of the Native Americans, for example the 'noble and ignoble savage'. To what extent were certain stereotypes already in place while the English settlers were writing these statements? How and why did they subsequently develop and shift?

It is important to explore also what is missing from these sources. Who wrote these journal extracts, and what might their goals be? What other sources should be consulted? It's especially noteworthy that these sources do not take into account the perspectives of the Native Americans themselves. Why might that be?

What are the limitations in using one perspective? The National Archives code for the document is CO, which stands for Colonial Office. You could discuss with students why the National Archives holds a collection of documents under this name.

The early period covered in this lesson was followed by centuries of colonisation marked by wars, broken treaties, and discriminatory policies that decimated the indigenous North American populations and still impact Native Americans today. Since these sources only show the perspectives of the English settlers, teachers may want to bring in other sources from Native American points of view. The National Museum of the American Indian is a good place to start.

Sources

Banner image: Virginia described by Captain John Smith and engraved by William Hole, [1612]. Catalogue ref: MPG 1/284

Sources 1-7: America and West Indies, colonial papers, 1574 - 1621. Catalogue ref: CO1/1.

External links

Virtual Jamestown
A site giving a lot of information about the original settlement at Jamestown, including a 3D reconstruction of the settlement and information about the people who lived there.

We Have a Story to Tell: Native Peoples of the Chesapeake Region
A teacher's resource provided by the National Museum of the American Indian. This guide offers contemporary Native perspectives about the historical experiences of the Native Americans of the Chesapeake, in particular, the Powhatan, Nanticoke, and Piscataway peoples.

Native Knowledge 360° Education Initiative
Native Knowledge 360° is an initiative from the National Museum of the American Indian to provide educators and students with new perspectives on Native American history and cultures.

American Indian Treaties
From The National Archives in the United States. Includes examples of and information on treaties between European settlers and Native American tribes.

The road to Jamestown
A National Archives talk on the history of Jamestown.

Connections to the Curriculum

AQA GCSE History

Thematic study: Britain: Migration, empires and the people: c790 to the present day

Key stage 3: the development of Church, state and society in Britain 1509-1745: the first colony in America

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Native North Americans - The National Archives

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In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed in the Caribbean, unlocking what Europeans quickly came to call the 'New World'. Columbus encountered land with around two million inhabitants that was previously unknown to Europeans. He thought he had found a new...