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Cuba was colonized by Spain in 1511 and stayed a Spanish colony until the Spanish-American war, where America took control of Cuba but allowed the people their own independence.

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Australia was colonized by Great Britain in 1788. They used the colony to send prisoners.

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France was a colonizer. She had colonies in modern-day Canada, as well as other notable colonies: Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, Morocco, Tunisia, Madagascar, and Algeria.

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Panama was a Spanish colony from 1538-1821.

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New Zealand was a British colony from 1840-1947.

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The Dutch colonized many places, such as St. Croix, Tortuga, the Dutch Virgin Islands, Brazil (in 1630), and Chile (in 1642).

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Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony between 1493 and 1898, and is now a colony of the United States.

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Hawai'i was first colonized by Polynesia, then colonized by the United States in 1898.

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Egypt was a British colony from 1882 to 1952.

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Mexico was a Spanish colony from 1521 to 1821.

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Guam was originally a Spanish colony, but has been owned by the United States since 1898.

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Congo was a Belgian colony from 1908 to 1960.

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India was a British colony from 1858 to 1947.

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British colonies included Canada, Barbados, Australia, India, Jamaica, New Zealand, Singapore, Egypt, Sudan, Zimbabwe, and Kenya.

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South Africa was colonized by the Dutch (1652-1795 and 1803-1806) and Great Britain (1795-1803 and 1806-1961).

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The Philippines was a Spanish colony from 1565 to 1898, then an American colony from 1898 to 1946.

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Belgium was a colonizer of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi.

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Ethiopia was never Colonized, nor was it a colonizer.

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Japan held many territories in Korea, Taiwan, and China.

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Germany had colonies in Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Namibia, Cameroon, Togo and Ghana, to name a few.

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Italy colonized countries such as British Somaliland, western Egypt, Yugoslavia, and Tunisia. She occupied Ethiopia briefly in WW2, but it was never formally considered a colony.

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Portugal's colonies included Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka.

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Vietnam was a French colony from 1857 to 1954. It also conquered parts of the Khmer and Champa kingdoms.

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Spain colonized all of South America (except for Brazil), most of the Caribbean islands, and Florida.

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The Salt March was led by Ghandi as a peaceful act of Civil Disobedience. The march was to protest high taxes placed by the British on India. It was a 24-day march that lasted from March 12th to April 6th of 1930.

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Mahatma Gandhi : nonviolent power in action : Dalton, Dennis : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive

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Includes bibliographical references (p. 251-265) and index

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The Sokoto Caliphate was a West-African empire that lasted between 1804 and 1903. It was created after the attempted assassination of a leader, Usman Dan Fodio, in 1802. The British attempted to pass it off as not being a country, but its leader continued leading. This was the beginning of the country of Nigeria.

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In the spring of the year 1898 the long rivalry of Britain and France in West Africa reached a dangerous climax. The West African crisis was but one aspect of an extensive Anglo-French contest for colonial possessions which characterized the final decade of the nineteenth century. Competi tion for dominion went on relentlessly in the Nile Valley, along the banks of the Mekong in Southeast Asia, and within the territories of the Niger River Bend. The Upper Nile dispute dwarfed all others; and ultimately the inability of Britain and France to settle this question through diplo matic negotations was to lead to the confrontation at Fashoda. Simulta neously, however, a more obscure struggle was in process, namely the contest for possession of the thousand mile stretch of the Middle Niger. Aside from an infrequent flurry of diplomatic activity occasioned by the foray of an English or French officer into the little known realms of the Niger Bend, the protracted struggle for control of the river artery received scant notice. The Foreign Offices in both France and Britain traditionally regarded the region as one of secondary interest and tended to subordinate it to more pressing concerns. Even the eruption of a dan gerous crisis in West Africa in the spring of 1898 was somewhat over shadowed by the subsequent incident at Fashoda so that the earlier cli max appeared mainly a curtain raiser.

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The Boxer Rebellion was an uprising of Chinese martial artists that was anti-foreigner, anti-imperialist, and anti-christian. Many people were killed during the uprising, including children and Chinese Christians. The rebellion made people support the Qing state, where the rebellion took place, less.

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Boxer Rebellion, officially supported peasant uprising of 1900 that attempted to drive all foreigners from China. " Boxers" was a name that foreigners gave to a Chinese secret society known as the Yihequan ("Righteous and Harmonious Fists"). The group practiced certain boxing and calisthenic rituals in the belief that this made them invulnerable. It was thought to be an offshoot of the Eight Trigrams Society (Baguajiao), which had fomented rebellions against the Qing dynasty in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Their original aim was the destruction of the dynasty and also of the Westerners who had a privileged position in China.

In the late 19th century, because of growing economic impoverishment, a series of unfortunate natural calamities, and unbridled foreign aggression in the area, the Boxers began to increase their strength in the provinces of North China. In 1898 conservative, antiforeign forces won control of the Chinese government and persuaded the Boxers to drop their opposition to the Qing dynasty and unite with it in destroying the foreigners. The governor of the province of Shandong began to enroll Boxer bands as local militia groups, changing their name from Yihequan to Yihetuan ("Righteous and Harmonious Militia"), which sounded semiofficial. Many of the Qing officials at this time apparently began to believe that Boxer rituals actually did make them impervious to bullets, and, in spite of protests by the Western powers, they and Cixi, the ruling empress dowager, continued to encourage the group.

Christian missionary activities helped provoke the Boxers; Christian converts flouted traditional Chinese ceremonies and family relations; and missionaries pressured local officials to side with Christian converts-who were often from the lower classes of Chinese society-in local lawsuits and property disputes. By late 1899 the Boxers were openly attacking Chinese Christians and Western missionaries. By May 1900, Boxer bands were roaming the countryside around the capital at Beijing. Finally, in early June an international relief force of some 2,100 men was dispatched from the northern port of Tianjin to Beijing. On June 13 the empress dowager ordered imperial forces to block the advance of the foreign troops, and the small relief column was turned back. Meanwhile, in Beijing the Boxers burned churches and foreign residences and killed suspected Chinese Christians on sight. On June 17 the foreign powers seized the Dagu forts on the coast in order to restore access from Beijing to Tianjin. The next day the empress dowager ordered that all foreigners be killed. The German minister was murdered, and the other foreign ministers and their families and staff, together with hundreds of Chinese Christians, were besieged in their legation quarters and in the Roman Catholic cathedral in Beijing.

Imperial viceroys in the central Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) valley and in South China ignored government orders and suppressed antiforeign outbreaks in their jurisdiction. They thus helped establish the myth that the war was not the policy of the Chinese government but was a result of a native uprising in the northeast, the area to which the disorders were mainly confined.

An international force of some 19,000 troops was assembled, most of the soldiers coming from Japan and Russia but many also from Britain, the United States, France, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. On August 14, 1900, that force finally captured Beijing, relieving the foreigners and Christians besieged there since June 20. While foreign troops looted the capital, the empress dowager and her court fled westward to Xi'an in Shaanxi province, leaving behind a few imperial princes to conduct the negotiations. After extensive discussions, a protocol was finally signed in September 1901, ending the hostilities and providing for reparations to be made to the foreign powers.

Perhaps a total of up to 100,000 or more people died in the conflict, although estimates on casualties have varied widely. The great majority of those killed were civilians, including thousands of Chinese Christians and approximately 200 to 250 foreign nationals (mostly Christian missionaries). Some estimates cite about 3,000 military personnel killed in combat, the great bulk of them being Boxers and other Chinese fighters.

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Boxer Rebellion | Significance, Combatants, & Facts

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Boxer Rebellion, officially supported peasant uprising (1900) that attempted to drive all foreigners from China. 'Boxers' was a name that foreigners gave to a Chinese secret society known as the Yihequan ('Righteous and Harmonious Fists'). Learn more about the Boxer Rebellion here.

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The Opium Wars were two wars, taking place in 1839–42 and 1856–60, fought between China and Britain. They rose from China trying to suppress the trade of opium into the country, because the British had been illegally trading it. The war ended in 1842 when Britain agreed to stop. However, it started again when Britain wanted more money and began trading opium in China again, until the trade of opium was legalized.

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What were the Opium Wars?

What caused the Opium Wars?

Who were the main combatants in the Opium Wars?

What were the long-term consequences of the Opium Wars?

Opium Wars, two armed conflicts in China in the mid-19th century between the forces of Western countries and of the Qing dynasty, which ruled China from 1644 to 1911/12. The first Opium War (1839-42) was fought between China and Britain, and the second Opium War (1856-60), also known as the Arrow War or the Anglo-French War in China, was fought by Britain and France against China. In each case the foreign powers were victorious and gained commercial privileges and legal and territorial concessions in China. The conflicts marked the start of the era of unequal treaties and other inroads on Qing sovereignty that helped weaken and ultimately topple the dynasty in favour of republican China in the early 20th century.

The Opium Wars arose from China's attempts to suppress the opium trade. Foreign traders (primarily British) had been illegally exporting opium mainly from India to China since the 18th century, but that trade grew dramatically from about 1820. The resulting widespread addiction in China was causing serious social and economic disruption there. In spring 1839 the Chinese government confiscated and destroyed more than 20,000 chests of opium-some 1,400 tons of the drug-that were warehoused at Canton ( Guangzhou) by British merchants. The antagonism between the two sides increased in July when some drunken British sailors killed a Chinese villager. The British government, which did not wish its subjects to be tried in the Chinese legal system, refused to turn the accused men over to the Chinese courts.

Hostilities broke out later that year when British warships destroyed a Chinese blockade of the Pearl River (Zhu Jiang) estuary at Hong Kong. The British government decided in early 1840 to send an expeditionary force to China, which arrived at Hong Kong in June. The British fleet proceeded up the Pearl River estuary to Canton, and, after months of negotiations there, attacked and occupied the city in May 1841. Subsequent British campaigns over the next year were likewise successful against the inferior Qing forces, despite a determined counterattack by Chinese troops in the spring of 1842. The British held against that offensive, however, and captured Nanjing (Nanking) in late August, which put an end to the fighting.

Peace negotiations proceeded quickly, resulting in the Treaty of Nanjing, signed on August 29. By its provisions, China was required to pay Britain a large indemnity, cede Hong Kong Island to the British (the handover of Hong Kong back to China would not occur until 1997), and increase the number of treaty ports where the British could trade and reside from one (Canton) to five. Among the four additional designated ports was Shanghai, and the new access to foreigners there marked the beginning of the city's transformation into one of China's major commercial entrepôts. The British Supplementary Treaty of the Bogue (Humen), signed October 8, 1843, gave British citizens extraterritoriality (the right to be tried by British courts) and most-favoured-nation status (Britain was granted any rights in China that might be granted to other foreign countries). Other Western countries quickly demanded and were given similar privileges.

In the mid-1850s, while the Qing government was embroiled in trying to quell the Taiping Rebellion (1850-64), the British, seeking to extend their trading rights in China, found an excuse to renew hostilities. In early October 1856 some Chinese officials boarded the British-registered ship Arrow while it was docked in Canton, arrested several Chinese crew members (who were later released), and allegedly lowered the British flag. Later that month a British warship sailed up the Pearl River estuary and began bombarding Canton, and there were skirmishes between British and Chinese troops. Trading ceased as a stalemate ensued. In December Chinese in Canton burned foreign factories (trading warehouses) there, and tensions escalated.

The French decided to join the British military expedition, using as their excuse the murder of a French missionary in the interior of China in early 1856. After delays in assembling the forces in China (British troops that were en route were first diverted to India to help quell the Indian Mutiny), the allies began military operations in late 1857. They quickly captured Canton, deposed the city's intransigent governor, and installed a more-compliant official. In May 1858 allied troops in British warships reached Tianjin (Tientsin) and forced the Chinese into negotiations. The treaties of Tianjin, signed in June 1858, provided residence in Beijing for foreign envoys, the opening of several new ports to Western trade and residence, the right of foreign travel in the interior of China, and freedom of movement for Christian missionaries. In further negotiations in Shanghai later in the year, the importation of opium was legalized.

The British withdrew from Tianjin in the summer of 1858, but they returned to the area in June 1859 en route to Beijing with French and British diplomats to ratify the treaties. The Chinese refused to let them pass by the Dagu forts at the mouth of the Hai River and proposed an alternate route to Beijing. The British-led forces decided against taking the other route and instead tried to push forward past Dagu. They were driven back with heavy casualties. The Chinese subsequently refused to ratify the treaties, and the allies resumed hostilities. In August 1860 a considerably larger force of warships and British and French troops destroyed the Dagu batteries, proceeded upriver to Tianjin, and, in October, captured Beijing and plundered and then burned the Yuanming Garden, the emperor's summer palace. Later that month the Chinese signed the Beijing Convention, in which they agreed to observe the treaties of Tianjin and also ceded to the British the southern portion of the Kowloon Peninsula adjacent to Hong Kong.
Kenneth Pletcher The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

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Opium Wars | Definition, Summary, Facts, & Causes

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Opium Wars, two mid-19th-century armed conflicts between China and Western countries. The first Opium War (1839-42) was fought between China and Britain; the second Opium War (1856-60), also known as the Arrow War or the Anglo-French War in China, was fought by Britain and France against China.