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1. 계획서: 5/31 까지 탐구 활동 개요 작성

2. 탐구일지: 총 5회 이상 업로드 (팀원 돌아가면서 작성 및 업로드)

3. 포스터: 11/19 세미나 전까지 완성

4. 보고서: 12/31 까지 작성

※4종류 파일 업로드가 되어 있지 않으면, 탐구 활동에 대한 생활기록부 기재 어려움.

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2025학년도 심화 탐구 프로젝트 계획서 양식(학생용)

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2025학년도 심화 탐구 프로젝트 탐구일지 양식(학생용)

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2025학년도 심화 탐구 프로젝트 포스터 양식(학생용)

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2025학년도 심화 탐구 프로젝트 보고서 양식(학생용)

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필요 준비물 목록 링크

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필요 준비물 목록 링크

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스펙트럼 동아리 필요 물품 목록(생명/화학1)

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심화탐구 프로젝트 계획서

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20706윤성로 20110 정윤건 심화탐구 프로젝트 계획서(ㅁ)

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대한민국 국가지도집에서 화석지도를 볼 수

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대한민국 국가지도집에서 화석지도를 볼 수 있을까

특정 생물 화석이 자주 발견되는 곳의 환경을 분석하여 생물의 특성을 알 수있나요

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과학 프로젝트

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회향씨앗 추출물의 항갈변 및 항산화 효과

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신선편이 절편 배의갈변 억제를 위한 식용코팅 적용 및 공정개발

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야채 및 과일추출물의 항산화작용

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천연식품 색소를 첨가한 쌈무의 품질 특성 및 항산화 활성

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Paleontologists Find Flaws in Research Supporting Aquatic Pursuit Hunting in Spinosaurus | Sci.News

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The lifestyle of spinosaurid dinosaurs has been a topic of lively debate ever since the unveiling of important new skeletal parts for Spinosaurus aegyptiacus in 2014 and 2020.

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조선비즈 = 이영완 과학전문기자

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티라노사우루스, 원숭이보다 똑똑했다...“대뇌 신경세포 더 많아”

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티라노사우루스, 원숭이보다 똑똑했다...대뇌 신경세포 더 많아 사이언스샷 까마귀처럼 도구 쓸 수 있는 정도 데이터 신빙성 낮다는 반박도 세포 수보다 연결이 더 중요 지적도 조선비즈

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프로젝트 계획서

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고생대 화석을 관찰하고 신체 구조가 어떤 역할을 했을지 토론회 운영

사전조사 자료를 전달하여 토론에 도움을 줌

사전 조사 자료를 어떻게 전달할까?

토론회를 어떻게 운영할까?

사전 조사 자료는 영상으로 제작, 토론회는 구글 설문 등 온라인으로 받기

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종자 코팅 방법 연구

알긴산 나트륨 막이 물은 통과하지만 중금속은 통과못하는것을 확인해야함.

고1 삼투, 고2 원자 크기 비교를 이용해 이론 확인

실험: 황산구리 수용액으로 만든 오호를 물에 넣어 오호가 용혈현상처럼 터지면 효과 입증,, 터지지 않고 밖에 물에 황산구리색이 나오면 입증 실패

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자연발생설 실험하고자 했으나 철회

자료 수집이 안된다.

새로운것 생각

의약품에 타르색소를 대체할 천연 색소를 개발

타르 색소가 않좋나?? 동물실험에서 암 유발 가능성이 있다고함

그럼 천연색소는 좋은가?

약에 색을 사용하는 이유는 다른약과 구분하기 위해

꼭 색을 넣어야 하나

약 색에 대한 가이드라인이 있다.

유통기간을 확인할 수 있는 색

물이나 외부 물질에 오염되었는지를 확인할 수 있는 색

약품의 농도에 따라 달라지는 색

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장미꽃의 잎을 따와서 잘게 갈아서 70퍼센트 에탄올에 넣었다.

셀룰레이스도 넣었다. 교반기로 돌려서 분리, 에탄올을 원심분리기로 돌려 침천물 얻지 못함.

얻은 왁스로 뭐할래?

천연 왁스와 파라핀 왁스를 비교

-파라핀 왁스가 인체에 유해하는 자료를 찾아야해

-천연 왁스

파라핀 왁스 --- > 치료용으로 사용된다.

파라핀 왁스를 천연왁스가 대체할 수 있는지

파라핀 왁스 자연분해가 안된다.

파라핀 왁스가 뭐야?--->석유계다....

파라핀 왁스의 용도를 확인해보고 우리가 얻은 왁스가 대체할 수 있는지....

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해양 유래 추출물을 이용한 약물 전달체의 성능 비교

알긴산, 키토산을 배합하여 코딩하는 겹수 별로 위액을 잘 버티는지

동물성 젤라틴을 사용하기 보다는 해양 유래추출물을 사용하면 윤리적 문제, 해양 자원이 풍부하니,

키토산 대신 마린 젤라틴으로 코팅...

마린 젤라틴? 어류 비늘................... 어류 부산물

기존 약물

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프로젝트 계획서_약물전달체

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프로젝트 계획서_약물전달체

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생명화학 탐구일지 3회차

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탐구일지 5차시

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탐구일지 6차시

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실험계획서 수정본

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4차시 보고서

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동아리 탐구 계획서 백하윤 손유진

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탐구 프로젝트 보고서_약물전달체

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과학동아리 탐구일지 1일차

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과학 동아리 탐구일지 2차.

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프로젝트 탐구 일지 1차시

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프로젝트 탐구 일지 2차시

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프로젝트 탐구 일지 3차시

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프로젝트 탐구 일지 4차시.hwp

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프로젝트 탐구 일지 5차시

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프로젝트 보고서

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Fundamentals of resistance training: progression and exercise prescription

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해양유래 추출물을 이용한 약물전달체의 최적 조건 탐구

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생명 보고서

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생명 보고서

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Physical Fitness and Performance Fundamentals of Resistance Training: Progression and Exercise Prescription WILLIAM J. KRAEMER1 and NICHOLAS A. RATAMESS2 1 Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT; and 2Department of Health and Exercise Science, The College of New Jersey, Ewing, NJ ABSTRACT KRAEMER, W. J., and N. A. RATAMESS. Fundamentals of Resistance Training: Progression and Exercise Prescription. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 674 - 688, 2004. Progression in resistance training is a dynamic process that requires an exercise prescription process, evaluation of training progress, and careful development of target goals. The process starts with the determination of individual needs and training goals. This involves decisions regarding questions as to what muscles must be trained, injury prevention sites, metabolic demands of target training goals, etc. The single workout must then be designed reflecting these targeted program goals including the choice of exercises, order of exercise, amount of rest used between sets and exercises, number of repetitions and sets used for each exercise, and the intensity of each exercise. For progression, these variables must then be varied over time and the exercise prescription altered to maintain or advance specific training goals and to avoid overtraining. A careful system of goal targeting, exercise testing, proper exercise technique, supervision, and optimal exercise prescription all contribute to the successful implementation of a resistance training program. Key Words: STRENGTH, MUSCLE, EXERCISE PROGRAM DESIGN, CONDITIONING R esistance training is a modality of exercise that has exercise instruction (e.g., technique, breathing, correct use grown in popularity over the past two decades, par- of equipment), goal setting (so the program can target spe- ticularly for its role in improving athletic perfor- cific areas of interest), a method of evaluation of training mance by increasing muscular strength, power and speed, progress toward training goals, the correct prescription of hypertrophy, local muscular endurance, motor performance, the acute program variables, and the inclusion of specific balance, and coordination (62). Traditionally, resistance methods of progression targeting particular areas of muscu- training was performed by few individuals (e.g., strength lar fitness. It is important that resistance training should be athletes and those who strived to gain muscle hypertrophy supervised by qualified professionals for the prevention of such as body builders). However, we now have a better injury and for maximizing the health and performance ben- understanding of the health-related benefits of resistance efits (70). In this article, we will review resistance training training; resistance training is now a popular form of exer- program design and the associated factors that need to be cise that is recommended by national health organizations considered. In addition, we will consider progression during such as the American College of Sports Medicine and the resistance training in relation to individual training status American Heart Association (2,3,65) for most populations and goals, and will highlight some of the important concepts including adolescents, healthy adults, the elderly, and clin- of progression recently recommended by the American Col- ical populations (e.g., those individuals with cardiovascular lege of Sports Medicine (3). disease, neuromuscular disease). The key factor to success- ful resistance training at any level of fitness or age is appropriate program design. Program design entails proper RESISTANCE TRAINING INDIVIDUALIZATION/GOAL SETTING The act of resistance training, itself, does not ensure Address for correspondence: William J. Kraemer, Ph.D., Professor, Human optimal gains in muscle strength and performance. Rather, it Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Unit 1110, The Uni- is the magnitude of the individual effort and systematic versity of Connecticut, Storrs, CT; E-mail: William.Kraemer@uconn.edu. structuring of the training stimulus that ultimately deter- Submitted for publication April 2003. mines the outcomes associated with resistance training. Accepted for publication October 2003. Thus, resistance-training programs need to be individualized 0195-9131/04/3604-0674 (e.g., based on individual goals) in order to maximize the MEDICINE & SCIENCE IN SPORTS & EXERCISE® outcomes (29). Program individualization involves several Copyright © 2004 by the American College of Sports Medicine steps. Before the initiation of a resistance training program, DOI: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000121945.36635.61 it is important that at-risk individuals (e.g., those individuals 674 with a physical ailment) obtain medical clearance. This letic performance). Lastly, maintenance programs are also ensures that resistance training is beneficial rather than popular. Maintenance training involves resistance work to harmful to those individuals with predisposing injuries or maintain the current level of muscular fitness rather than to illnesses. Once an individual is deemed healthy to partici- develop further gains. A feature/benefit of maintenance pate, the second step involves goal setting via a needs programs is that in the short term, reductions in training analysis. A needs analysis consists of answering questions volume, frequency, and intensity may be used without a based upon the goals of resistance training. Individualized significant reduction in muscular fitness. These programs resistance training programs are most effective because they are used commonly by athletes during the competitive sea- ensure that all goal-oriented issues are included within the son and in the general fitness setting. However, it is impor- design. Some common questions that need to be addressed tant to note that long-term maintenance training could result are (29): in detraining if the training threshold is not met. Therefore, maintenance programs should be included in cyclical fash- * Are there any health/injury concerns which may limit ion and as part of longer programs designed for progression. the exercises performed or the exercise intensity? * What type of equipment (e.g., free weights, machines, bands/tubing, medicine balls, functional) is available RESISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAM DESIGN and preferred? The resistance training program is a composite of acute * What is the targeted training frequency and are there variables that include: 1) muscle actions used, 2) resistance any time constraints that may affect workout duration? used, 3) volume (total number of sets and repetitions), 4) * What muscle groups need to be trained (generally all exercises selected and workout structure (e.g., the number of major muscle groups are trained, but some may require muscle groups trained), 5) the sequence of exercise perfor- prioritization based upon strengths/weaknesses or the mance, 6) rest intervals between sets, 7) repetition velocity, demands of the sport or activity)? and 8) training frequency (29,62). Altering one or several of * What are the targeted energy systems (e.g., aerobic or these variables will affect the training stimuli and poten- anaerobic)? tially favor conditions by which numerous ways exist to * What types of muscle actions (e.g., concentric [CON], vary resistance training programs and maintain/increase par- eccentric [ECC], isometric [ISOM]) are needed? ticipant motivation. Therefore, proper resistance exercise * If the individual is training for a sport or activity, what prescription involves manipulation of each variable specific are the most common sites of injury? to the targeted goals. The program goals must then be determined. Some com- Muscle actions. Most resistance training programs mon goals of resistance training include increases in muscle include primarily dynamic repetitions with both CON size, strength, power, speed, local muscular endurance, bal- and ECC muscle actions, whereas ISOM muscle actions ance, coordination, and flexibility, reductions in body fat, play a secondary role. Greater force per unit of muscle improvements in general health (e.g., lower blood pressure, size is produced during ECC actions. Eccentric actions strengthen connective tissue, reduce stress), and rehabilita- involve less motor unit activation per specific level of tion from injury. Most programs aim to collectively improve tension (55), require less energy per level of force (24), several of these components in an integrative approach as and are critical for optimal hypertrophy, yet may result in opposed to only focusing on one facet. Along with goal more delayed onset muscle soreness (21) as compared setting, the magnitude of improvement and the nature of the with CON actions. Dynamic muscular strength improve- program need to be established. Is the program recreational ments are greatest when ECC actions are included in the or does "maximal performance" need to be increased? Rec- training program (20). The role of muscle action manip- reational training involves resistance training for moderate ulation during resistance training is minimal considering improvements in muscle strength, local muscular endur- that most programs include CON and ECC muscle ac- ance, and hypertrophy for general fitness, whereas compet- tions in a given repetition. However, some advanced itive training involves resistance training to maximize mus- programs may include different forms of ISOM training cle hypertrophy, strength, power, and/or local muscular (e.g., functional isometrics), the use of supramaximal endurance. Some forms of competitive resistance training ECC muscle actions (53), and accommodating resistance include power lifting (e.g., competing to maximize muscle devices such as bands and chains in order to maximize strength in specifically the squat, bench press, and deadlift gains in strength and hypertrophy. These techniques have exercises), weightlifting (e.g., the Olympic sport that in- not been extensively investigated but are believed to volves maximizing muscle strength and power for perfor- favor improvements in muscular strength. mance in the clean and jerk and snatch lifts), body building Exercise selection. Two general types of free weight (e.g., using resistance training to optimize muscle hypertro- or machine exercises may be selected in resistance train- phy, definition, and symmetry while reducing body fat to ing: single- and/or multiple-joint. Single-joint exercises optimize appearance), strongman/woman competitions stress one joint or major muscle group, whereas multiple- (e.g., competitions involving numerous events that exem- joint exercises stress more than one joint or major muscle plify muscle strength, power, and local muscular endur- group. Both single- and multiple-joint exercises have ance), and athletics (e.g., strength training to improve ath- been shown to be effective for increasing muscular PROGRESSION AND RESISTANCE TRAINING Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise姞 675 strength in the targeted muscle groups. Single-joint ex- out will be used. The major differences between these ercises, e.g., leg extension and leg curl, have typically structures are the magnitude of specialization observed been used to target specific muscle groups and are during each workout (i.e., three to four exercises for a thought to pose less risk of injury due to the reduced level specific muscle group may be performed during a muscle of skill and technique involved. Multiple-joint exercises, group split routine workout as opposed to one to two e.g., bench press, squat, hang pulls, and power clean, exercises for a muscle group in a total-body workout) and involve a more complex neural activation and coordina- the amount of recovery between workouts (i.e., a major tion, and due to the larger muscle mass involvement (and muscle group may be trained 1 to 2⫻ wk⫺1 for a split subsequent amount of weight used), these exercises have routine, 2 to 3⫻ wk⫺1 for an upper/lower-body split, and generally been regarded as the most effective exercises 3 or more times per week for a total-body workout during for increasing muscular strength and power (29). In fact, most typical lifting programs). Only one study has com- total-body exercises such as the power snatch and power pared workout structures and similar improvements in clean have been regarded as the most effective exercises previously untrained women between total-body and up- for increasing muscle power because they require fast force per/lower-body split workouts were found (15). Other production to successfully complete each repetition (31). studies have compared total-body resistance training to Exercises stressing multiple or large muscle groups either upper-body-only or lower-body-only training have shown the greatest acute metabolic responses (9). (16,66). We have shown the importance of the total-body For example, exercises such as the squat, leg press, leg resistance training (as opposed to upper-body-only train- extension, and bent-over row have been shown to elicit ing) in women for improving overall muscular strength, greater rates of oxygen consumption than exercises such hypertrophy, power, and physical performance (63,66). as the behind-the-neck shoulder press, bench press, up- In the elderly, similar improvements have been observed right row, and arm curl (9). In addition, these exercises in lower body strength between total-body and lower- have elicited the greatest acute hormonal responses (67). body workouts (of equal volume and intensity) (16). Deadlifts (25), squat jumps (105), and Olympic lifts (67) Upon determination of the workout structure (e.g., have produced greater acute 22-kDa growth hormone and muscle groups trained), general recommendations can be testosterone responses compared with exercises such as made depending on whether one is training for strength, the bench press and seated shoulder press. Thus, the hypertrophy, power, and/or local muscular endurance. amount of muscle mass involved in a movement signif- Considering that multiple-joint exercises have been icantly impacts the acute metabolic demands and ana- shown to increase muscular strength, hypertrophy, and bolic hormonal response, which have direct implications power, maximizing performance of these exercises may for resistance training programs targeting improvements be necessary for optimal gains. This recommendation in local muscle endurance, lean body mass, and reduc- tions in body fat. includes performance of these exercises early in the train- Exercise order and workout structure. The se- ing session when fatigue is minimal. Multiple-joint ex- quencing of exercises and number of muscle groups ercises have been used extensively for power training. trained during a workout significantly affects the acute The inclusion of these exercises (e.g., power clean, push expression of muscular strength (97). For example, there press, and variations) is necessary as these exercises have are three basic workout structures: 1) total-body work- been shown to require rapid force production (31). These outs, 2) upper/lower body split workouts, and 3) muscle exercises do require additional time for learning and group split routines. Total-body workouts involve perfor- proper technique is essential. Therefore, these exercises mance of exercises stressing all major muscle groups need to be performed initially in the workout when fa- (i.e., one to two exercises for each major muscle group). tigue is minimal. The sequencing of exercises for local They are common among general fitness enthusiasts, muscular endurance training may not be as important in athletes, and Olympic weightlifters. Upper/lower body comparison with strength and power training as fatigue is split workouts involve performance of upper-body exer- a necessary component of local muscle endurance train- cises during one workout and lower-body exercises dur- ing. Therefore, similar strategies may be used for local ing another. These are common among general fitness muscular endurance training although variations can also enthusiasts, athletes, power lifters, and body builders. be used. Some sequencing strategies (although others are Muscle group split routines involve performance of ex- possible) for strength and power training include: ercises for specific muscle groups during the same work- When training all major muscle groups in a workout: out (e.g., a "chest/triceps" workout where all exercises for the chest are performed then all exercises for the 1. perform large muscle group exercises before small triceps are performed). These types of workouts are most muscle group exercises; popular among body builders or individuals striving to 2. perform multiple-joint exercises before single-joint maximize muscle hypertrophy. All three workout struc- exercises; tures are effective for improving muscular fitness, and it 3. for power training, perform total-body exercises (from appears that individual goals, time/frequency, and per- most to least complex) before basic exercises such as sonal preferences often determines which type of work- the squat or bench press; 676 Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine http://www.acsm-msse.org 4. rotate upper and lower body exercises or opposing such as bone respond more favorably to heavy loading, (agonist-antagonist relationship) exercises. and this has implications for resistance training programs designed to improve, for example, bone health (29). When training upper-body muscles on one day and lower- There exists an inverse relationship between the body muscles on a separate day: amount of weight lifted and the number of repetitions performed. Several studies have shown that training with 1. perform large muscle group exercises before small mus- loads corresponding to 80 - 85% of 1 RM and beyond cle group exercises; (e.g., 1- 6 RM) were most effective for increasing max- 2. perform multiple-joint exercises before single-joint imal dynamic strength (10,17). This loading range ap- exercises; pears to maximally recruit muscle fibers and will specif- 3. rotate opposing exercises (agonist-antagonist relationship). ically increase dynamic 1 RM strength (35). Although significant strength increases have been reported using When training individual muscle groups: loads corresponding to ⬃70 - 80% of 1 RM (e.g., 6 -12 RM) (56), it is believed that this range may not be as 1. perform multiple-joint exercises before single-joint effective in increasing maximal strength in advanced exercises; resistance-trained individuals compared to heavier load- 2. perform higher-intensity [i.e., higher percent of one- ing (e.g., ⬎ 85% of 1 RM). The 6 -12 RM loading range repetition maximum (1 RM)] exercises before lower- is typically used in programs that target muscular hyper- intensity exercises. trophy (61). Although heavy loading is effective for Loading. Loading describes the amount of weight increasing muscle size (17), it has been suggested that the lifted or the resistance one exercises with and is highly 6 -12 RM loading range may provide the best combina- dependent upon other variables such as exercise order, tion of load and volume (62). Loads lighter than this volume, frequency, muscle action, repetition speed, and (12-15 RM and lighter) rarely increase maximal strength rest interval length (62). Altering the training load can (4,17) but are very effective for increasing absolute local significantly affect the acute metabolic, hormonal, neu- muscular endurance (17,101). Although each "training ral, and cardiovascular responses to training zone" has its advantages, devoting 100% of training to (28,35,58,59,67,93). Load prescription depends upon in- one general RM zone or intensity (e.g., 80% of 1 RM) dividual training status and goals. For example, light runs a very high risk of the athlete encountering training loads of approximately 45-50% of 1 RM or less may plateaus or becoming overtrained. It is important to note increase dynamic muscular strength in previously un- that intensity is exercise-dependent. For example, Hoeger trained individuals (4), as this initial phase of lifting is et al. (45) reported that 80% of 1 RM was a load corre- characterized by improved motor learning and coordina- sponding to a 10 RM for exercises such as the bench tion (92). Heavy loads are not required to increase press, leg extension, and lat pulldown; however, this strength at this level of training while the individual is intensity corresponded to only a 6 RM for the leg curl, learning correct form and technique. However, greater 7- 8 RM for the arm curl, and a 15 RM for the leg press. loading is needed to increase maximal strength as one Therefore, it appears that optimal strength, hypertrophy, progresses from intermediate to advanced levels of train- and local muscular endurance training requires the sys- ing. Häkkinen et al. (35) reported that loads greater than tematic use of various loading strategies (27,64,69). 80 - 85% of 1 RM were needed to produce further neural Given that both force and time components are rele- adaptations during advanced resistance training. This is vant to maximizing power, training to increase muscular important because neural adaptations (e.g., enhanced re- power requires two general loading strategies. First, mod- cruitment, rate coding, and synchronization) are crucial erate-to-heavy loads are required to recruit high-thresh- to maximal strength development as they precede hyper- old fast-twitch motor units that are needed for strength. trophy during intense training periods. Although motor However, as depicted by the force-velocity curve, higher unit activity does increase with fatigue (e.g., the last few loads are accompanied by slower velocities such that repetitions of a set), there appears to be specific motor performing heavy resistance training will potentially in- unit recruitment patterns during the lifting of very heavy crease force production but not speed. Thus, the second or near-maximal loads that does not appear attainable strategy is to incorporate light-to-moderate loads per- with light-to-moderate loading. Muscle hypertrophy re- formed at an explosive lifting velocity. Depending on the sults in lower motor unit activity needed to generate a exercise in question, this loading range may encompass given force (84). In order to continually recruit these 30 - 60% of 1 RM. Wilson et al. (107) reported that 30% higher-threshold motor units, progressively heavier loads of 1 RM was the optimal loading that produced the are needed (84). Maximizing strength, power, and hyper- greatest power output during ballistic jump squat train- trophy may only be accomplished when the maximal ing. However, Baker et al. (7,8) reported a higher loading numbers of motor units are recruited. Thus, heavy load- range (45- 60% of 1 RM) was necessary to optimize ing in experienced individuals is needed to recruit the power during jump squats and the ballistic bench press high-threshold motor units that may not be activated for power-trained athletes. A recent study has shown that during light-to-moderate lifting. In addition, other tissues jump squat training with 30% of 1 RM was more effec- PROGRESSION AND RESISTANCE TRAINING Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise姞 677 tive for increasing peak power than jump squat training volume selected for the program should be based on with 80% of 1 RM (71). With ballistic resistance exer- individual training status and goals as numerous possi- cise, the load is maximally accelerated either by jumping bilities exist for effective progression. (e.g., jump squats) or by releasing the weight using Although training volume has been examined in many specialized equipment (e.g., Plyo Power System) (76,77). facets, one facet that has received less attention is the However, traditional repetitions result in a "deceleration" number of sets per muscle group or workout. Indeed, phase that limits power development throughout the com- there are few data that directly compare resistance train- plete range of motion. During traditional weight training ing programs of varying total sets, thus leaving numerous exercises performed at an explosive velocity, a recent possibilities for the strength and conditioning profes- study has shown that 40 - 60% of 1 RM may be most sional when designing programs. Much of the resistance beneficial for the bench press and 50 -70% for the squat training literature has examined the number of sets per- (98), thereby demonstrating that a slightly higher load is formed per exercise and it has generally been found that necessary for power training when nonballistic repeti- two to six sets per exercise produce significant increases tions are performed. Thus, training for maximal power in muscular strength in both trained and untrained indi- requires various loading strategies performed at high viduals (10,17,47,56,89). However, similar strength in- velocity. creases have been found in novice individuals who Training volume. Training volume is generally esti- trained using 2 and 3 sets, and 2 and 4 sets (80); 3 sets mated from the total number of sets and repetitions per- have also been reported as being superior to one and two formed during a training session. Several systems includ- (11). Thus, the number of sets selected per exercise ing the nervous, metabolic, hormonal, and muscular have should vary depending on the training goals. Typically, been shown to be sensitive to training volume three to six sets are most common during resistance (38,39,56,64,68). Altering training volume can be ac- training, but more and less have also been used complished by changing the number of exercises per- successfully. formed per session, the number of repetitions performed Another related issue to training volume that has re- per set, or the number of sets performed per exercise. ceived considerable attention is the comparison of single- Typically, heavy loads with low repetitions using mod- and multiple-set resistance training programs. In most of erate-to-high number of sets (i.e., characteristic of the studies to date, one set per exercise performed for strength and power training) (35) are generally consid- 8 -12 repetitions at an intentionally slow lifting velocity ered low-volume programs due to the low number of has been compared with both periodized and nonperi- repetitions performed per set. Without altering the inten- odized multiple-set programs. A common criticism of sity of these programs, volume may be increased by these investigations is that the number of sets per exercise either increasing the number of sets and/or exercises was not separated from other variables such as intensity, performed or by increasing training frequency. However, frequency, and repetition velocity, therefore making it care must be taken, because intensity and volume are difficult to ascertain whether the observed differences inversely related; increases in training volume with low- were the results of the number of sets per exercise or from repetition programs should be closely monitored and some other uncontrolled variable. However, the purpose intensity possibly reduced in order to lower the risk of of some of these studies was to make general program overtraining (30). Moderate-to-heavy loads, moderate-to- comparisons in response to the emergence in popularity high repetitions, and multiple sets per exercise are char- of single-set programs and the subsequent claims asso- acteristic of hypertrophy training (although strength and ciated with their efficacy. This concern notwithstanding, local muscle endurance are also enhanced with these comparisons between one popular single-set training pro- programs) and are generally regarded as high-volume gram and various multiple-set programs of various inten- programs when several exercises are performed per sities have yielded conflicting results. Several studies workout (e.g., at least six to eight exercises). Total work, have reported similar strength increases between single- in addition to the forces developed, has been implicated and multiple-set programs, whereas others reported mul- for gains in muscular hypertrophy (75). This has been tiple-set programs superior (11,14,81,102) in previously supported, in part, by greater hypertrophy associated with untrained individuals. These data have prompted the no- high-volume, multiple-set programs compared with low- tion that untrained individuals respond favorably to both volume, single-set programs in resistance-trained indi- single- and multiple-set programs. Considering that the viduals (56,64,69,89). Traditional strength training (high early phase of resistance training is characterized by load, low repetition, and long rest periods) has produced neural adaptations, e.g., improvements in muscle activa- significant hypertrophy (17,35,103); however, it has been tion and coordination (92), it may be that the overall suggested that the total work involved with traditional training volume is not critical during the first 6 -12 wk. strength training may not maximize hypertrophy (29). It has been recently shown that muscle mass may also Very light-to-moderate loads performed for multiple sets play a key role in determining strength increases. Paulsen of high repetitions (characteristic of local muscular en- et al. (81) reported that 6 wk of lower-body training with durance training) are considered to be very high in total three sets was superior to one set in untrained individuals. volume but not optimal for hypertrophy. Thus, the overall However, similar improvements between one and three 678 Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine http://www.acsm-msse.org sets were observed in selected measures of upper-body compared to only a 2% increase when 30-s rest periods strength over the same time period. Nevertheless, single- were used. Pincivero et al. (83) reported significantly and multiple-set programs appear beneficial for novice greater strength gains (5- 8%) when 160-s rest intervals resistance training. However, long-term resistance train- were used compared with 40 s. Strength and power ing studies have predominantly shown that a higher vol- performance is highly dependent upon anaerobic energy ume of resistance exercise is necessary to generate a release, primarily via the phosphagens (ATP-PC). Stud- higher rate of progression. In resistance-trained individ- ies show that the majority of phosphagen repletion occurs uals, multiple-set programs have been shown to be su- within 3 min (26). Therefore, performance of maximal perior for muscle strength, local muscular endurance, lifts require maximal energy substrate availability before power, and hypertrophy increases in most studies the set with minimal or no fatigue. This emphasizes the (56,64,87,95). No study has shown single-set training to importance of recovery during optimal strength and be superior to multiple-set training in either trained or power training. It is important to note that rest interval untrained individuals. Finally, it is important to point out length will vary according to the goals of that particular that not all exercises need to be performed with the same exercise, i.e., not every exercise will use the same rest number of sets and that emphasis of higher or lower interval. Muscle strength may be increased using short training volume is related to the program priorities as rest periods but at a slower rate compared with long rest well as the muscle(s) trained in an exercise movement. periods, thus demonstrating the need to establish goals, Low volume programs can provide a solid variation i.e., the magnitude of strength improvement sought, be- during the larger training cycle (mesocycle), and they fore selecting a rest interval. therefore have a place when properly incorporated into a Stressing the glycolytic and ATP-PC energy systems conditioning program. may enhance training for hypertrophy in addition to Rest intervals. Rest interval length is dependent heavy resistance exercise. For this aspect of hypertrophy upon training intensity, goals, fitness level, and targeted training (e.g., characteristic of body building programs), energy system utilization. The amount of rest between less rest between sets appears to be effective (1-2 min or sets and exercises significantly affects the metabolic (57), less). These rest intervals appear to be a potent anabolic hormonal (58,59), and cardiovascular (28) responses to hormone stimulator, stimulator of local blood flow, and an acute bout during resistance exercise, as well as per- result in significant metabolite (e.g., lactate) production formance of subsequent sets (56) and training adaptations (56,57). Recently, the importance of blood flow for in- (83,90). It has been shown that acute force and power creasing muscle protein synthesis has been demonstrated production may be compromised with short (i.e., 1 min) (12). Biolo et al. (12) reported an increase in amino acid rest periods (56), although these short rest intervals are transport of 60 -120% (depending on the amino acid) 3 h beneficial for hypertrophy and local muscle endurance after resistance exercise. Interestingly, arterial amino acid training. For example, Kraemer (56) reported differences concentrations did not change but the 90% increase in in performance with 3- versus 1-min rest intervals. All muscle blood flow accounted for much of the increase in participants were able to perform 10 repetitions with 10 amino acid transport. A recent study has shown a greater RM loads for 3 sets when 3-min rest periods were used effect on muscle protein synthesis when amino acids for the leg press and bench press. However, when rest were taken before the workout to optimize amino acid periods were reduced to 1 min, 10, 8, and 7 repetitions delivery and transport during the workout via greater were performed, respectively. Strength and power train- blood flow (104). Studies that have restricted blood flow ing (e.g., heavy loads, one to six repetitions with long rest and used light loading during resistance exercise (thereby intervals) predominantly stress the ATP-PC system, increasing the concentrations of metabolites and the an- whereas hypertrophy/strength (e.g., moderate-to-heavy aerobic nature of the exercise stimulus) have shown loads, 6 -12 repetitions with moderate-to-short rest inter- prominent increases in muscle hypertrophy comparable vals) is supported mostly by energy provided by ATP-PC with heavier loading, thus demonstrating the utility of and glycolysis, with minor contributions from aerobic blood flow and/or metabolite accumulation during resis- metabolism. Local muscle endurance training (e.g., high tance training (91). This may, in part, be one explanation repetition, short rest intervals) involves a higher contri- as to the efficacy of body-building programs that use bution of energy from aerobic metabolism. Thus, the rest moderate loading, high volume with short rest intervals interval influences the relative contribution of the three for increasing muscle hypertrophy. However, consider- energy systems. ing that heavy resistance exercise has been effective for Longitudinal resistance training studies have shown increasing hypertrophy, it appears maximal hypertrophy that greater strength increases result from long when may be attained through the combination of strength and compared with short rest periods between sets, e.g., 2-3 hypertrophy training (e.g., variation in rest interval length min versus 30 - 40 s (83,90). When training for absolute depending on the loading). strength or power, rest periods of at least 3-5 min are The rest interval selected has a great impact when recommended for multiple-joint exercises (3). Robinson training for local muscular endurance. Local muscular et al. (90) reported a 7% increase in squat performance endurance has been shown to improve during resistance after 5 wk of training when 3-min rest intervals were used training (4,17,66), with greater effects observed with PROGRESSION AND RESISTANCE TRAINING Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise姞 679 absolute muscular endurance (the maximal number of Dynamic constant external resistance training poses a repetitions performed with a specific pretraining load) different stress when examining repetition velocity. Be- (4,48) and only limited effects in relative local muscular cause force ⫽ mass ⫻ acceleration, significant reduc- endurance (endurance assessed at a specific relative in- tions in force production are observed when the intent is tensity, or % 1 RM) (70). Training to increase local to perform the repetition slowly. In interpreting this, it is muscular endurance requires the individual: 1) to perform important to note that two types of slow-velocity con- high repetitions (long-duration sets) and/or 2) minimize tractions exist during dynamic resistance training, unin- recovery between sets. Minimizing recovery between tentional and intentional. Unintentional slow velocities sets is an important stimulus with regards to the adapta- are used during high-intensity repetitions in which either tions within skeletal muscle necessary to improve local the loading and/or fatigue are responsible for the velocity muscular endurance (e.g., increased mitochondrial and of movement. That is, the individual exerts maximal capillary number, fiber type transitions, buffer capacity). force but due to the heavy loading or onset of fatigue, the It has been shown that body builders (who typically train resultant velocity is slow. One study has shown that with high volume and short rest periods) demonstrate a during a 5 RM bench press, the concentric phase for the significantly lower fatigue rate in comparison with power first three repetitions was approximately 1.2-1.6 s in lifters (who typically train with low-to-moderate volume duration, whereas the last two repetitions were approxi- and longer rest periods) (57). These data demonstrate the mately 2.5 and 3.3 s, respectively, due to fatigue (72). benefits of high-volume, short rest interval workouts for These data demonstrate the impact of loading and fatigue improving local muscular endurance. on repetition velocity in individuals performing each Another consideration when selecting rest intervals repetition with maximal effort. between sets is the number of exercises performed per Intentional slow-velocity repetitions are used with sub- muscle group during a workout. In our laboratory, we maximal loads where the individual has greater control of have been using a resistance exercise protocol for a series the velocity. It has been shown that concentric force of studies that consists of four sets of four exercises production was significantly lower (e.g., 771 vs 1167 N) (squat, bench press, bent-over row, and shoulder press) for an intentionally slow velocity (5-s CON: 5-s ECC) of lifting compared with a traditional (moderate) velocity using 70% of 1 RM for 10 repetitions per set with 2-min with a corresponding lower neural activation (53). This rest intervals between all sets. Considering that 70% of 1 suggests that motor unit activity may be limited when RM is less than a 10 RM load, we have observed that 2 intentionally contracting at a slow velocity. Although min of rest is not enough for some of these multiple-joint intentionally slow repetition velocity may provide some exercises to be completed for the full 10 repetitions. In benefit for local muscular endurance and hypertrophy particular, significant reductions in the loading for the training, the lighter loads may not provide an optimal shoulder press have been observed in all trials. This stimulus for improving 1 RM strength in resistance- appears due to the fact that participants preexhausted trained individuals (i.e., although novice individuals may their shoulder and triceps muscles previously with the benefit in the initial phases of training). It has recently bench press exercise. Thus, loads were significantly re- been shown that when performing a set of 10 repetitions duced and the 2-min rest interval was not sufficient as using a very slow velocity (10-s CON: 5-s ECC) com- further load reductions were necessary with each subse- pared with a slow velocity (2-s CON: 4-s ECC), a 30% quent set. Therefore, rest intervals will vary for each reduction in training load resulted and that this led to exercise in a workout, and one must consider the fatigue significantly less strength gains in most of the exercises associated with previous exercises when performing ex- tested after 10 wk of training (52). Compared to slow ercises later in the workout. velocities, moderate (1- to 2-s CON: 1- to 2-s ECC) and Repetition velocity. The velocity that dynamic rep- fast (⬍1-s CON: 1-s ECC) velocities have been shown to etitions (i.e., cadence) are performed at, affects the neural be more effective for enhanced muscular performance, (23,35,36), hypertrophic (47), and metabolic (9) re- for example, number of repetitions performed, work and sponses to resistance exercise. Studies examining isoki- power output, volume (74), and for increasing the rate of netic resistance exercise have shown strength increases strength gains (43). Recent studies examining training at specific to the training velocity with some carryover fast velocities with moderately high loading have shown above and below the training velocity (e.g., 30°·s⫺1) (29). this to be more effective for advanced training than Several investigators have trained individuals between 30 traditionally slower velocities (50). This technique re- and 300°·s⫺1 and reported significant increases in mus- quires the individual to accelerate the load maximally cular strength (18). It appears that training at moderate throughout the range of motion during the CON action to velocity (180 -240°·s⫺1) produces the greatest strength maximize bar velocity (i.e., the attempt to maximize increases across all testing velocities (51). Data obtained velocity throughout the movement stresses areas of the from isokinetic resistance training studies support veloc- range of motion where momentum minimizes the effort ity specificity and demonstrate the importance of training needed by the individual to complete the exercise). A at fast, moderate, and slow velocities to improve isoki- major advantage is that this technique can be used with netic force production across all testing velocities (29). heavy loads (i.e., with small deceleration phases) and is 680 Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine http://www.acsm-msse.org considered effective, especially for multiple-joint exer- component to local muscle endurance training is to pro- cises (50). long the duration of the set. Two effective strategies used The repetition velocity is very important for power to prolong set duration are 1) moderate repetition number training. Power production is increased when the same using an intentionally slow velocity and 2) high repetition amount of work is completed in a shorter period of time, number using moderate-to-fast velocities. Intentionally or when a greater amount of work is performed during slow velocity training with light loads (i.e., 5-s CON: 5-s the same period of time. Neuromuscular contributions to ECC and slower) places continued tension on the muscles the development of maximal muscle power may include: for an extended period and may be more metabolically 1) maximal rate of force development; 2) muscular demanding than moderate and fast velocities when the strength at slow and fast repetition velocities; 3) stretch- same number of repetitions are performed. However, it is shortening cycle performance; and 4) coordination of difficult to perform a large number of repetitions using movement pattern and skill (29,37,78). In order to max- intentionally slow velocities. Both slow velocity, moder- imize power training, heavy resistance training needs to ate repetitions and moderate-to-fast velocity, high repe- be accompanied by explosive exercises (13). One limi- titions training strategies increase the glycolytic and ox- tation to performing high-velocity repetitions with free idative demands of the stimulus, thereby serving as very weights is the deceleration phase. The deceleration phase effective means of increasing local muscle endurance. is that point near the end of the CON phase in which bar Frequency. The number of training sessions per- velocity decreases before completion of the repetition. formed during a specific period of time (e.g., 1 wk) may The length of this phase depends upon the load used and affect subsequent resistance training adaptations. Fre- the average velocity as the load is decelerated for a quency also includes the number of times certain exer- considerable proportion (24 - 40%) of the concentric cises or muscle groups are trained per week. It is depen- movement (22,76). This percentage increases to 52% dent upon several factors such as volume and intensity, when performing the lift with a lower percentage (81%) exercise selection, level of conditioning and/or training of 1 RM lifted (22) or when attempting to move the bar status, recovery ability, nutritional intake, and training rapidly in an effort to train more specifically near the goals. For example, training with heavy loads increases movement speed of the target activity (76). Thus, power the recovery time needed before subsequent sessions increases may be most specific only to the initial segment especially for multiple-joint exercises involving similar of the range of motion as power/speed development muscle groups. The use of extremely heavy loads, espe- throughout the full range of motion is limited because the cially when heavy eccentric training is performed, may load can not be maximally accelerated throughout and require 72 h of recovery whereas large and moderate safely released. Ballistic resistance exercise (explosive loads may require less recovery time. In particular, it has movements which enable acceleration throughout the full been shown that untrained women of various ages only range of motion) has been shown to limit this problem recovered approximately 94% of their strength 2 d after (71,76). Examples of ballistic resistance exercises in- a lower-body workout consisting of 5 sets of 10 repeti- clude the loaded jump squat, bench throw, and shoulder tions with a 10 RM load (34), thus demonstrating that throw (7,8,19,107). Loaded jump squats with 30% of 1 lesser-trained individuals may need longer recovery pe- RM (75) have been shown to increase vertical jump riods. Numerous resistance-training studies have used performance more than traditional back squats, plyomet- frequencies of 2-3 alternating days per week in previ- rics, and jump squats performed at 80% of 1 RM ously untrained individuals (18,44). This has been shown (71,107). Recently, it has been reported that peak power to be an effective initial frequency whereas 1-2 d·wk⫺1 was significantly greater for the shoulder throw than the appears to be an effective maintenance frequency for shoulder press at both 30 and 40% of 1 RM (19). These those individuals already engaged in a resistance training studies indicate the importance of minimizing the decel- program (32). In a few studies: 4 -5 d·wk⫺1 were superior eration phase when maximal power is the training goal to 3, 3 d·wk⫺1 superior to 1 and 2 d, and 2 d·wk⫺1 and that explosive lifting velocities are critical for devel- superior to 1 for increasing maximal strength (32,49). oping maximal power. An increase in training experience does not necessarily Training for local muscle endurance, and in some require a change in frequency for training each muscle aspects hypertrophy, may require a spectrum of velocities group but may coincide with alterations in other acute with various loading strategies. Studies examining isoki- variables such as exercise selection, volume, and inten- netic exercise have shown that a fast training velocity, sity. Increasing training frequency may enable greater i.e., 180°·s⫺1, is more effective than a slow training specialization, for example, greater exercise selection and velocity, i.e., 30°·s⫺1, for improving local muscular en- volume per muscle group in accordance with more spe- durance (1). Thus, fast contraction velocities are recom- cific goals. Performing upper/lower body split or muscle mended for isokinetic training. However, it appears that groups split routines during a workout are common at this fast, moderate, and slow velocities are effective for im- level of training in addition to total-body workouts (29). proving local muscular endurance during dynamic con- Advanced training frequency varies considerably. It stant external resistance training, depending on the num- has been shown that football players (with varied training ber of repetitions performed (17,70). The critical backgrounds) training 4 -5 d·wk⫺1 achieved better results PROGRESSION AND RESISTANCE TRAINING Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise姞 681 than those who trained either 3 or 6 d·wk⫺1 (46). Ad- level has been attained. For improvements to occur, the vanced weightlifters and body builders use high fre- program used must be systematically altered so that the quency training, e.g., four to six sessions per week. The human body is "forced" to adapt to the changing stimuli. frequency for elite weightlifters and body builders may Thus, progression may be defined as "the act of moving be even greater. Double-split routines (two training ses- forward or advancing toward a specific goal" (3). Although sions per day with emphasis on different muscle groups) it is impossible to continually improve at the same rate over are so common during training (40) that this can result in long-term training, the proper manipulation of program vari- the completion of 8 -12 training sessions per week. Fre- ables can limit training plateaus (that point in time where no quencies as high as 18 sessions per week have been further improvements takes place) and consequently enable reported in Olympic weightlifters. The rationale for this achievement of a higher level of muscular fitness. Three high-frequency training is that frequent short sessions general principles of progression are: 1) progressive over- followed by periods of recovery, supplementation, and load, 2) variation, and 3) specificity. food intake allow for high-intensity training via maximal Progressive overload. Progressive overload de- energy utilization and reduced fatigue during exercise scribes the gradual increase of stress placed upon the performance (29). One study reported greater increases in body during exercise training. Tolerance of increased muscle cross-sectional area and strength when training stress-related overload is of particular concern for the volume was divided into two sessions per day rather than practitioner and clinician monitoring program progres- one (42). Elite power lifters typically train 4 - 6 d·wk⫺1 sion. In reality, the adaptive processes of the human body (29). It is important to note that not all muscle groups are will only respond if continually required to exert a greater trained specifically per workout using a high frequency. magnitude of force to meet higher physiological de- Rather, each major muscle group may be trained 2 to 3⫻ mands. Considering that physiological adaptations to a wk⫺1 despite the large number of workouts. standard resistance exercise protocol (i.e., a protocol with A recent study examined training frequency with a no variation in any program variable) may occur in a particular focus on resistance training overreaching (86). relatively short period of time, a systematic increase in Overreaching is a short-term training phase in which the the demands placed upon the body is necessary for fur- volume, frequency, and/or the intensity of resistance ex- ther improvement. There are several ways in which over- ercise is increased above normal. The rationale is to load may be introduced during resistance training. For overwork (in order to suppress performance and build up strength, hypertrophy, local muscular endurance, and tolerance) and then taper to produce a subsequent "re- power improvements, either: 1) load (resistance) may be bound" in performance (30). In our study (86), we trained increased, 2) repetitions may be added to the current load, experienced participants for 4 wk using total-body resis- 3) repetition speed with submaximal loads may be altered tance training consisting of two 2-wk phases of over- according to goals, 4) rest periods may be shortened for reaching (phase 1: 3 ⫻ 8 -12 RM, eight exercises; phase local muscular endurance improvements or lengthened 2: 5 ⫻ 3-5 RM, five exercises). Overreaching was for strength and power training, 5) volume may be in- achieved by training each major muscle group on con- creased within reasonable limits, and/or 6) any combina- secutive days for 5 d·wk⫺1 (note: the participants had just tion of the above. It has been suggested that only small completed a 4-wk base training phase of 2 d·wk⫺1 so the acute increases in training volume (2.5-5%) should be overreaching program resulted in a large increase in imposed initially until adaptation has occurred (29), but frequency and volume). After the first week, 1 RM squat this needs further study as larger increases have been and bench press significantly decreased (5.2 and 3.4 kg, successfully prescribed in advanced athletes. respectively) in one group of participants who did not The importance of progressive overload can be ob- ingest an amino acid supplement. However, significant served when examining the interplay between neural and increases in 1 RM squat and bench press were observed muscular adaptations during strength and power training. after the second, third, and fourth weeks of training. In The nervous system plays a significant role in the addition, further increases in strength were observed fol- strength increases observed in the early stages of adap- lowing a 2-wk reduced volume/frequency phase. These tation to training (92,93). That is, improvements in motor results supported the concept of overreaching and indi- unit recruitment, firing rate, and synchronization take cated that a large short-term increase in training volume place and account for early increases in strength and and frequency can produce significant increases in per- subsequent increases in training loads (93). Within a formance. However, it is important to note that over- short period of time (i.e., 4 - 8 wk of training), muscle reaching for an extended period of time may lead to hypertrophy becomes evident (60,82,99), although overtraining in which significant declines in performance changes in the quality of proteins (99), fiber types may be observed. (60,99), and protein synthetic rates (82) take place much earlier. From this initial phase onward there appears to be an interplay between neural adaptations and hypertrophy BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PROGRESSION in the acute expression of muscular strength (93). In order Ultimately, the goal of a resistance training program is to for further neural adaptations to occur with training, a improve some component of fitness or health until a certain progressively greater amount of resistance needs to be 682 Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine http://www.acsm-msse.org lifted (35,84). It has been shown that less muscle mass is tion is not limited to elite athletes or advanced training recruited during resistance training with a given work- but has been used successfully as the basis of training for load once hypertrophy adaptation has taken place (84). individuals with diverse backgrounds and fitness levels. These findings indicate that progressive overload is nec- In addition to athletics, periodized resistance training has essary for maximal muscle fiber recruitment and, conse- been shown to be effective for health and recreational quently, muscle fiber hypertrophy and strength increases. training goals (100). Further evidence for the importance of heavy loads (and Although numerous ways exist in which programs may neural adaptations) with progression during strength and be varied, two general models have been examined in the power training was found with advanced weightlifters literature. One model is the classic model, which is char- who showed significant strength improvements over a acterized by high initial training volume and low inten- 2-yr period with little or no muscle hypertrophy (41). It sity (100). As training progresses, volume decreases and appears that this interplay is closely related to the training intensity increases in order to maximize strength, power, stimulus involved and that progressive overload incorpo- or both (27). Typically, each training phase is designed to rated into the program design is necessary for maximiz- emphasize a particular physiological adaptation. For ex- ing strength, power, hypertrophy, and local muscular ample, hypertrophy is stimulated during the initial high endurance. volume phase, whereas strength and power are maxi- Specificity. There is a relatively high degree of task specificity involved in human movement and adaptation mally developed during the later high-intensity phase. that encompasses both movement patterns as well as Comparisons of classic strength/power periodized mod- force-velocity characteristics (5). All training adaptations els to nonperiodized models have been previously re- are specific to the stimulus applied. The physiological viewed (27). These studies have shown classic strength/ adaptations to training are specific to the 1) muscle ac- power periodized training superior for increasing tions involved (20); 2) speed of movement (51); 3) range maximal strength, e.g., 1 RM squat, cycling power, motor of motion (54); 4) muscle groups trained (66); 5) energy performance, and jumping ability (79,99,106). However, systems involved (57,96); and 6) intensity and volume of a short-term study (e.g., 12 wk) has shown similar per- training (17,87,95). For example, if the training goal was formance improvements between periodized and multi- to increase vertical jump ability, then the resistance train- ple-set nonperiodized models in resistance-trained indi- ing program would include specific exercises (e.g., squat, viduals (6). It has been shown that longer training periods jump squat, power clean) that mimic the vertical jump, are necessary to underscore the benefits of periodized and these exercises would be performed at a high velocity training compared with nonperiodized training (106). to maximize power output. Although there is some car- The results of these studies demonstrate that both peri- ryover of training effects (29,54,66), the most effective odized and nonperiodized training are effective during resistance training programs are those that are designed short-term training, whereas variation is necessary for to target specific training goals. long-term resistance training progression. Variation. Training variation requires that alterations A second examined model is the undulating model. in one or more program variables be made over time to The undulating program enables variation in intensity allow for the training stimulus to remain optimal. It has and volume within each 7- to 10-d cycle by rotating been shown that systematically varying volume and in- different protocols over the course of the training pro- tensity is most effective for long-term progression com- gram. Undulating methods attempt to train the various pared with programs that did not vary any acute program components of the neuromuscular system within the variable (27,100). The concept of variation has been part same 7- to 10-d cycle. During a single workout only one of program design for many years. The importance of characteristic is trained in a given day, e.g., strength, training variation, or periodization, became apparent for power, local muscular endurance. For example, in load- resistance training as a result of the work of Selye (94). ing schemes for the core exercises in the workout, the use His theory (general adaptation syndrome) proposes that the body adapts via three phases when confronted with of heavy, moderate, and lighter resistances may be ran- stress: 1) shock, 2) adaptation, and 3) staleness. Shock domly rotated over a training sequence (M, W, F), for represents the response to the initial training stimulus in example, 3-5 RM loads, 8 -10 RM loads, and 12-15 RM which soreness and performance decrements are pro- loads may used in the rotation. We have recently reported duced. Performance then increases during the second significant improvements in various parameters of mus- stage, adaptation, in which the body adapts to the train- cle fitness using a similar 3 d·wk⫺1 undulated program ing stimulus. Once the body has adapted, no further with each workout dedicated to either power, strength, or adaptations will take place unless the stimulus is altered. hypertrophy in young and older men (78). This model This produces the third stage, staleness, in which a per- compares favorably with the classical model and nonpe- formance plateau is encountered. riodized multiple-set programs (6). Recently, this model Systematic variation has been used as a means of has been shown to be more effective for increasing 1 RM altering program design to optimize both performance bench press and leg press after 12 wk of training com- and recovery (38,39,85). However, the use of periodiza- pared with the classic model (88) although more research PROGRESSION AND RESISTANCE TRAINING Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise姞 683 is needed. This model has also been shown to have distinct advantages in comparison with nonperiodized, low-volume training in women (64,69). EFFECT OF TRAINING STATUS AND PROGRESSION Initial training status plays an important role in the rate of progression during resistance training. Training status re- flects a continuum of adaptations to resistance training such that level of fitness, training experience, and genetic endow- ment each make a contribution. Untrained individuals (those with no resistance training experience or who have not trained for several months to years) respond favorably to most protocols, thus making it difficult to evaluate the effects of different training programs at this level of training (27,33). The rate of strength gain differs considerably be- tween untrained and trained individuals; trained individuals FIGURE 1-General-to-specific model of resistance training have shown much slower rates of improvement (38 - 41). A progression. review of the literature reveals that muscular strength in- creases approximately 40% in "untrained," 20% in "mod- erately trained," 16% in "trained," 10% in "advanced," and 2% in "elite" over periods ranging from 4 wk to 2 yr (3). Similar results have been observed during 1 yr of training Although the training programs, durations, and testing pro- (73). These data demonstrate the rapidity of initial strength cedures of these studies differed, the data clearly show a gains in untrained individuals but also show slower gains specific trend toward slower rates of progression with train- with further training. Decisions must be made regarding the ing experience. This has recently been shown via meta- exercise prescription as to the cost-benefit ratio of putting analysis of 140 studies (89). In this study, statistically additional attention, time, and effort into strength improve- greater effect sizes (ES) were observed in untrained indi- ment as gains become increasingly more difficult. In certain viduals compared with resistance-trained individuals with circumstances small changes in strength require large respect to training intensity (ES range of 0.65-1.80 for amounts of training time as the individual approaches his/ trained vs 1.60 -2.80 for untrained), frequency (ES range of her genetic ceiling. Furthermore, the increase observed may 0.70 -1.40 for trained vs 1.20 -1.90 for untrained), and vol- be far less than the gains observed earlier in a person's ume (ES range of 0.47-1.17 for trained vs 1.16 -2.28 in training history. Such small gains may be the difference untrained) on progression. between winning and losing in certain types of elite athletic The difficulty in continuing gains in strength appears to competitions but may be less important in other situations. occur within as little as several months of training. Each The increased time needed to obtain small gains in strength subsequent improvement brings the individual closer to might not be the best use of available training time, unless his/her genetic limit. It is well documented that changes in the small gains are directly related to needed performance muscular strength are most prevalent early in training when abilities. For example, some athletes may need a "strength the "window of adaptation" is greatest (33). Investigations cap" for those exercises that are already strong (i.e., main- which have examined the time course of strength gains to taining the present training to focus on other areas) so more various training protocols support this view (44,73). Short- attention and time could be given to weaknesses. Thus, term studies (11-16 wk) have shown that the majority of clinical judgments often have to be made regarding the strength increases take place within the first 4 - 8 wk (44). exercise prescription. This requires a solid knowledge of an TABLE 1. Recommendations for progression during strength training. Novice Intermediate Advanced Muscle action ECC and CON ECC and CON ECC and CON Exerc. selection Single and multiple-joint Single and multiple-joint Single and multiple-joint with multi-emphasis Exerc. order Large ⬍ small muscles Large ⬍ small muscles Large ⬍ small muscles Multi ⬍ single Multi ⬍ single Multi ⬍ single High ⬍ low intensity High ⬍ low intensity High ⬍ low intensity Loading 60-70% 1 RM 70-80% 1 RM 70-100% 1 RM Volume 1-3 ⫻ 8-12 reps Multi sets ⫻ 6-12 reps Multi sets ⫻ 1-12 reps Rest intervals 1-2 min 2-3 min-core ⬃3 min-core 1-2 min for others 1-2 min for others Velocity Slow to moderate Moderate Unint. slow to fast Frequency 2-3 d䡠wk⫺1 2-4 d䡠wk⫺1 4-6 d䡠wk⫺1 ⬍, indicates the preceding exercise is to be performed before the succeeding exercise. 684 Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine http://www.acsm-msse.org TABLE 2. Recommendations for progression during hypertrophy training. Novice Intermediate Advanced Muscle action ECC and CON ECC and CON ECC and CON Exerc. selection Single and multiple-joint Single and multiple-joint Single and multiple-joint Exerc. order Large ⬍ small muscles Large ⬍ small muscles Large ⬍ small muscles Multi ⬍ single Multi ⬍ single Multi ⬍ single High ⬍ low intensity High ⬍ low intensity High ⬍ low intensity Loading 60-70% 1 RM 70-80% 1 RM 70-100% 1 RM with emphasis 70-85% Volume 1-3 ⫻ 8-12 reps Multi sets ⫻ 6-12 reps Multi sets ⫻ 1-12 reps with emphasis 6-12 Rest intervals 1-2 min 1-2 min 2-3 min-heavy 1-2 min or less for others Velocity Slow to moderate Slow to moderate Slow, moderate, and fast Frequency 2-3 d䡠wk⫺1 2-4 d䡠wk⫺1 4-6 d䡠wk⫺1 ⬍, indicates the preceding exercise is to be performed before the succeeding exercise. individual's strength profile for a variety of muscles. Fur- design in untrained individuals as these individuals do not thermore, one must understand the basic physiological ad- appear to be sensitive to either volume, or in some cases aptations associated with strength-training programs. intensity, this early in training. Therefore, it is recom- mended that a general program design be used with these GENERAL-TO-SPECIFIC MODEL OF individuals. PROGRESSION Longer-term studies (i.e., 16 wk and longer) have clearly There have been a limited number of studies that exam- demonstrated the need for training variation (56,64,69,106). ined different models of progression over long-term resis- Performance plateaus have been observed with nonperi- tance training. Most resistance training studies have been odized programs whereas periodized resistance training has short-term (i.e., 6 -24 wk) and have used mostly previously been shown to continually increase performance over 24 wk untrained individuals. All of these studies have shown sig- of training. In a recent study, Marx et al. (69) showed that nificant improvements in muscular strength during the similar improvements were observed during the first 3 short-term. However, little is known about adaptations and months of training comparing a nonperiodized single-set improvements in strength in response to longer training (8 -12 repetitions) with a periodized, multiple-set program. periods. Resistance-trained individuals have shown a slower However, only the periodized multiple-set group improved rate of progression (38,41). In addition, advanced lifters over the subsequent 3 months of training. These findings have demonstrated a complex cyclical pattern of training were similar to those reported by Kraemer et al. (64), who variation to optimize performance (38 - 41). It appears from examined periodized multiple-set training versus single-set the available literature that resistance-training progression nonperiodized training in women collegiate tennis players occurs in an orderly manner from a general program design over 9 months. The nonperiodized group improved over the initially to a more specific design with higher levels of first 3 months only whereas the periodized training group training when the rate of improvement becomes slower (see improved over the entire 9-month period. These data dem- Fig. 1). For example, most studies using untrained individ- onstrate the importance of varying the progression of resis- uals have shown great improvements regardless of the type tance training. Therefore, advanced training targeting pro- of training program (37). This has been evident in both the gression is more complex and requires great variation volume and intensity (4,101) chosen. Loads of ⬍ 45-50% of specific to training goals. Figure 1 is a simplified schematic 1 RM and less (i.e., performed with very high repetitions) representing a theoretical continuum of the amount of vari- may increase strength in untrained individuals (4,101), ation needed in resistance training for progression. The whereas trained lifters appear responsive only to heavier narrow segment of the triangle (e.g., novice) suggests lim- loading (35,38). It is difficult to differentiate program ited variation is needed in this population, as most programs TABLE 3. Recommendations for progression during power training. Novice Intermediate Advanced Muscle action ECC and CON ECC and CON ECC and CON Exerc. selection Multiple-joint Multiple-joint Multiple-joint Exerc. order Large ⬍ small muscles Large ⬍ small muscles Large ⬍ small muscles Most complex ⬍ least Most complex ⬍ least Most complex ⬍ least High ⬍ low intensity High ⬍ low intensity High ⬍ low intensity Loading 60-70%-strength 70-80%-strength ⬎80% for strength 30-60%-velocity/tech. 30-60%-velocity/tech. 30-60% for velocity Volume Similar to strength 1-3 ⫻ 3-6 reps 3-6 ⫻ 1-6 reps Rest intervals 2-3 min-core 2-3 min-core ⬎3 min-heavy 1-2 min for others 1-2 min for others 1-2 min-moderate Velocity Moderate Fast Fast Frequency 2-3 d䡠wk⫺1 2-4 d䡠wk⫺1 4-6 d䡠wk⫺1 ⬍, indicates the preceding exercise is to be performed before the succeeding exercise. PROGRESSION AND RESISTANCE TRAINING Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise姞 685 TABLE 4. Recommendations for progression during endurance training. Novice Intermediate Advanced Muscle action ECC and CON ECC and CON ECC and CON Exerc. selection Single and multiple-joint Single and multiple-joint Single and multiple-joint Exerc. order Variety Variety Variety Loading 50-70% 1 RM 50-70% 1 RM 30-80% 1 RM Volume 1-3 ⫻ 10-15 reps Multi sets ⫻ 10-15 reps or more Multi sets ⫻ 10-25 reps or more Rest intervals 1-2 min-high reps 1-2 min-high reps 1-2 min-high reps ⬍1 min-mod. reps ⬍1 min-mod. reps ⬍1 min-mod. reps Velocity Slow-moderate reps Slow-moderate reps Slow-moderate reps Moderate-high reps Moderate-high reps Moderate-high reps Frequency 2-3 d䡠wk⫺1 2-4 d䡠wk⫺1 4-6 d䡠wk⫺1 are effective at this level. It is important to begin gradually SUMMARY (i.e., learn proper technique, allow large recovery time); therefore, a simple program design is recommended. How- In summary, specific needs and goals should be addressed ever, as one progresses, the triangle becomes wider. This before resistance training. 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Fundamentals of Resistance Training: Progression and Exercise Prescription

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Progression in resistance training is a dynamic process that requires an exercise prescription process, evaluation of training progress, and careful development of target goals. The process starts with the determination of individual needs and

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2025 동아리 연구 보고서_20420 김예은_최종

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한반도 기저를 형성하는 1.9 - 1.8Ga(19 - 18억 년 전)에 형성된 고원생대 암석은 임진강대와 옥천대에 의해 낭림육괴, 경기육괴, 영남육괴로 나뉘어진다. 한반도의 현재 형태는 오랫동안 고원생대에 만들어졌다고 믿어 왔다. 하지만 2000년대 초에 한반도의 형태가 페름 - 트라이아스기(250 - 230Ma; 2억 5천만 년 전 - 2억 3천만 년 전)에 일어난 대륙 충돌에 의해 형성되었다는 새로운 증거가 제시되었다. 충청남도 홍성 지역에서 대륙 충돌에 의해 형성된 트라이아스기 에클로자이트 암석이, 강원도 오대산 지역에서 대륙 충돌 후에 형성된 트라이아스기 화성암이 발견되었다. 이는 홍성과 오대산 지역을 연결하는 선을 따라 한반도 남부와 북부가 충돌하여 트라이아스기에 현재의 한반도가 형성되었을 가능성을 제시한다. 임진강대도 대륙 충돌에 의해서 형성되었을 가능성이 제기되었으나 분명한 증거가 제시되지 못하였다. 한반도 내 페름-트라이아스기 대륙 충돌대의 위치가 아직 확실치는 않지만 한반도의 일부는 북중국판에 그리고 일부는 남중국판에 연결되어 있음은 대체로 인정되고 있다. 따라서 본 지도집에서는 북중국판과 그에 연결된 한반도 일부와 남중국판과 그에 연결된 한반도 일부를 각각 북한중판과 남한중판으로 제안하고 사용하였다.

고원생대인 2.1 - 1.8Ga에 전세계 대륙이 모두 하나로 모인 콜롬비아 초대륙이 존재했다. 한반도의 고원생대 화성암 및 변성암은 주로 콜롬비아 초대륙이 형성되는 과정에서 만들어졌다. 고원생대 이후 신원생대에 해당하는 900 - 750Ma 시기에 해주와 원주를 연결하는 지역의 상원계, 경기육괴 구봉산층, 옥천 변성대 북서부의 문주리층과 계명산층, 홍성 지역의 월현리층과 덕정리 화강 편마암, 고군산군도 말도층과 방축도층이 형성되었다. 콜롬비아 초대륙이 1.8Ga년부터 분열하여 여러 대륙 지각이 나뉜 후 다시 모여 신원생대 초기인 1,000 - 850Ma에 로디니아 초대륙이 형성되었고 로디니아 초대륙은 다시 850 - 700Ma에 분열하였다. 한반도의 신원생대 암석은 이러한 로디니아 초대륙 형성과 분열 과정에서 형성되었다.

로디니아 초대륙 분열 후 신원생대 말에 대부분의 대륙들이 다시 모여 곤드와나 초대륙을 형성하였다. 이때 북한중판과 남한중판은 곤드와나 초대륙의 서쪽 부분에 위치하였다가 고생대 초기부터 곤드와나 초대륙으로부터 분리되어 북쪽으로 이동하였다. 이 시기에 평남 분지와 태백산 분지에 캄브리아기에서 실루리아기 초기 사이에 해양 환경하에서 조선 누층군이 퇴적되었고 이후 퇴적 작용이 없다가 고생대 후기인 석탄기 후기에서 트라이아스기 초기까지 육성 환경하에서 평안 누층군이 퇴적되었다. 평남 분지와 태백산 분지에 퇴적되지 않은 데본기 퇴적암이 임진강대에서 퇴적되었다. 함경도 북동부 지역에는 섭입 관련된 석탄기-페름기 시기의 화성암이 나타나며 문경 지역과 홍성 지역에서는 오르도비스기에 일어난 화성 작용이 보고되었다.

고생대 초기에 북한중판과 남한중판은 곤드와나 초대륙으로부터 분리되어 북쪽으로 이동하다가, 페름기말 - 트라이아스기에 충돌하여 현재의 한반도가 형성되었다. 한반도 내 대륙 충돌시 한반도의 남쪽 경계에 섭입대가 시작되어 백악기까지 지속되면서 섭입 관련 화성 활동을 남한에 광범위하게 일으켰다. 이 중 중생대 쥐라기에 관입한 대보 화강암은 고원생대 변성암과 함께 한반도의 기저를 이루고 있다. 백악기에 한반도와 서해 내에 백악기 분지들이 형성되었고 경상 분지도 그중 하나이다. 백악기 한반도에는 많은 공룡이 서식하고 있었다. 신생대에 동해가 형성되면서 일본이 한반도로부터 분리되고 태백산맥이 형성되었으며, 백두산, 울릉도, 독도, 제주도가 형성되었고 길주 - 명천 지역과 연일 지역에서 퇴적암이 형성되었다.

한반도에서 가장 오래된 암석은 약 2.6Ga에 형성된 시생대 말 화성암이며 한반도에 나타나는 선캄브리아기 암석은 대부분 고원생대 암석이다. 낭림육괴와 경기육괴 북부에서는 대륙 충돌 환경에서 형성된 1.93 - 1.90Ga 화성암과 변성암 및 대륙 충돌 후 압축력이 인장력으로 바뀌는 환경에서 형성된 1.88 - 1.84Ga 화성암과 변성암이 나타난다. 이들 고원생대 암석들을 형성시킨 화성 및 변성 작용은 지아오 - 리아오 - 지 충돌대를 따라 일어난 중국 동부 용강지괴와 낭림육괴의 충돌이 원인일 것으로 추정된다. 또한 경기육괴 북부에서는 1.85 - 1.69Ga에 대륙 분열 환경에서 형성된 퇴적암과 화성암도 나타난다.

이에 반해 경기육괴 동남부 지역에서는 섭입대 환경에서 만들어진 1.95 - 1.91Ga경의 화성암과 1.80 - 1.78Ga에 대륙 충돌 후 환경에서 형성된 화성암이 보고되었다. 영남육괴의 북쪽 경계부에서 섭입대 환경에서 형성된 2.02 - 1.69Ga 화성암 및 변성암이 나타나며, 영남육괴의 남서부에서는 1.87Ga에서 1.86Ga 사이에 대륙 충돌 후 환경에서 관입한 후 변성을 받은 변성 화성암이 나타난다. 이는 영남육괴 동부와 서부가 하동 - 산청 경계를 따라 고원생대 말에 충돌하였을 가능성을 제시한다.

강원도 북부 지역에서 황해도 지역 그리고 백령도까지 연장되어 나타나는 상원계는 중원생대 - 신원생대 퇴적암이며, 900Ma에 대륙 열개 환경에서 만들어진 염기성 암맥군에 의해 관입되고 있다.

최근 경기육괴 북부 지역에서 대륙 열개 작용과 관련된 900 -740Ma경 신원생대 화성암이 확인되었다. 그리고 경기육괴 서남부에 위치한 당진 - 홍성 지역에서는 900 - 820Ma경에 섭입대 환경에서 형성된 화성암과 790 - 700Ma경에 대륙 열개 환경에서 형성된 화성암이 나타난다. 옥천 변성대의 북동쪽 지역에서도 870 - 760Ma에 대륙 열개 환경에서 만들어진 화성암이 보고되었다.

고생대 퇴적암류는 평남 분지와 태백산 분지에 주로 분포하며, 하부 고생대 퇴적층과 상부 고생대 퇴적층으로 구분된다. 하부 고생대 퇴적층은 주로 캄브리아기에서 오르도비스기에 퇴적된 석회암층과 쇄설성 퇴적암으로 구성되며, 캄브리아기의 표준 화석인 삼엽충을 비롯한 거대 화석들과 코노돈트와 같은 미화석 등을 다량으로 포함하고 있다.

하부 고생대 퇴적층을 부정합으로 피복하고 있는 상부 고생대층은 석탄기 후기부터 페름기를 거쳐 트라이아스기 초기까지 주로 육성 환경에서 퇴적되었으며, 대부분 쇄설성 퇴적암으로 구성되어 있고 하부 구간에서 석탄층이 나타난다. 옥천 변성대도 대체로 고생대 퇴적암으로 구성되어 있으며, 낭림육괴와 경기육괴 사이에 나타나는 임진강대 에는 데본기의 퇴적암인 임진계가 분포한다.

최근 문경 지역의 옥녀봉층에서 발견된 오르도비스기에 분출한 452 - 445Ma 쌍모식 화산 작용은 한반도 남부 지역이 고생대 초기에 곤드와나 초대륙으로부터 분리될 때 형성되었을 것으로 보고 있다. 한편 경기육괴 내 홍성 지역에서는 470 - 452Ma에 섭입 환경에서 관입한 화성암이 나타나며, 442 - 381Ma에 일어난 중압 혹은 고압의 변성 작용이 인지되고 있다. 임진강대에서는 373 - 361Ma에 후 배호 분지 환경에서 관입한 화성암이 나타난다. 그리고 함경도 북동부 지역에서는 섭입 환경에서 형성된 고생대 후기 화성암이 대규모로 나타난다.

최근 가장 중요한 지질학적 발견은 경기육괴 내 충남 홍성 지역에서 발견된 230Ma 에클로자이트로, 이 암석은 홍성 지역에 트라이아스기 이전에 해양 및 섭입대가 존재하였으나 대륙 충돌에 의해서 사라졌음을 가리킨다. 또 다른 중요한 발견은 홍성에서 양평을 지나 오대산으로 이어지는 선을 중심으로 북쪽에 위치한 경기육괴에 나타나는 230Ma 트라이아스기 충돌 후 화성암이다. 이 암석들은 홍성과 오 대산을 잇는 선이 대륙 충돌 경계부일 가능성을 암시한다. 대륙 충돌 경계부일 가능성이 있는 또 다른 지역은 임진강대와 임진강대 - 홍성을 잇는 선이다. 페름 - 트라이아스기에 일어났을 것으로 생각되는 한반도 내 대륙 충돌에 의해 경기육괴, 임진강대, 옥천 변성대에서 페름 - 트라이아스기 변성 작용이 광역적으로 일어났다.

한반도의 남부 경계부에서는 페름기 말에서 트라이아스기 초기 사이에 섭입 관련 화강암의 관입이 시작되었다. 따라서 트라이아스기 송림 운동 시기에 한반도 중부에서는 대륙 충돌과 관련된 화성 및 변성 작용이, 한반도 남부에서는 섭입에 관련된 화성 작용이 일어나고 있었다.

쥐라기 시기에는 일본이 한반도에 붙어 있었으며 한반도의 동측과 남측에 섭입대가 형성되어 있었다. 이로 인해 섭입 관련된 쥐라기 대보 화강암이 한반도를 광역적으로 관입하였다.

백악기에도 한반도 주변에 섭입대가 형성되어 있었고 섭입하던 해양판이 태평양 쪽으로 이동하면서 발생된 인장력에 의해 상승한 맨틀이 스스로 용융되거나 열을 공급하여 대륙지각을 용융시켜 마그마를 형성하였다. 이들 마그마의 관입에 의해 한반도에 백악기 화성암이 형성되었다. 이 시기에는 화성 작용이 주로 경상도, 전라도 그리고 충청북도 남부 지역에 집중되어 나타난다.

백악기 퇴적암은 호수 환경에서 쌓인 육성층으로 영남 지역 내 경상 분지와 서해 남황해 분지에 넓게 퇴적되었다. 그 외에도 백악기 퇴적암은 한반도 곳곳에 발달된 소규모 백악기 분지들에 퇴적되었다. 백악기 소규모 퇴적 분지들은 한반도 내 분포하는 북동 방향의 주향 이동 단층의 좌수향 운동(단층의 상대편이 좌측으로 수평 이동하는 단층 운동)시 주향 이동 단층들 사이 혹은 단층 주변에 형성된 인장력에 의해 형성되었다.

중생대 백악기 육성 퇴적층에는 공룡의 뼈, 알, 발자국 화석이 다양하게 나타난다. 한반도에서 발견된 최초의 공룡 화석은 1972년 경남 하동군에서 발견된 공룡 알껍데기 화석이다. 27개의 공룡 발자국 화석지가 한반도 남부 백악기 육성층에서 발견되는데 전남 해남, 화순, 여수 지역과 경남 고성 지역이 대표적이다. 한반도에서는 조각류 발자국이 가장 많이 발견되며, 수각류 발자국은 화순 능주 분지에서 발견된 것이 대표적이다. 용각류 발자국은 한반도 남동부에 위치한 진동층에서 풍부하게 나타나며, 용각류 발자국의 크기, 형태, 보행열의 양상은 다양한 종류의 용각류가 한반도에 살았음을 알려 준다. 또한, 해남 우항리에서 발견된 발자국에 의해 확인된 익룡은 새로운 종류인 해남이크누스 우항리엔시스(Haenamichnus uhangriensis) 라는 이름으로 국제적으로 공인되었다.

우항리 지역에서 발견된 익룡 발자국은 443개로 세계 최대이며, 발견된 최대 보행렬이 7.3m로 세계에서 가장 긴 보행 흔적을 나타내고 있다. 이 지역에서는 세계적으로 드물게 익룡, 공룡, 새 발자국이 동일 지층에서 발견되었다. 경남 하동군 백악기 지층에서 우리나라 최초로 공룡의 종류를 알 수 있을 정도로 보존 상태가 양호한 공룡 골격 화석이 발견되었다. 이 화석은 새로운 종의 용각류로 판단되어 부경고사우루스 밀레니움아이(Pukyongosaurus millenniumi) 로 명명되었고, 931번째의 공룡속으로 세계 공룡 목록에 추가 등재되었다.

백악기의 한반도에는 커다란 호수가 많이 분포하고 있었고, 호수 주변에는 공룡의 먹이가 될 수 있는 각종 침엽수와 양치류 등의 나자 식물과 다양한 척추동물과 무척추동물이 살고 있어서 백악기 한반도는 공룡이 생활하기 좋은 환경이었다.

신생대는 동해의 형성과 백두산, 한라산, 독도, 울릉도의 형성으로 특징 지을 수 있다. 동해의 형성 시기(23 - 15Ma)는 백두산 지역과 동북아시아에 광역적으로 나타나는 용암 대지(긴 균열대를 따라 용암이 여러 차례 흘러 쌓여 형성된 고원 지대) 형성 시기(28 - 13Ma)와 거의 유사하다. 이는 이 시기에 동해와 백두산 지역에 긴 열극을 형성시킨 광역적인 인장력이 동북아시아에 가해졌음을 지시한다.

15Ma부터 동북아시아에 인장력 대신 압축력이 가해졌고 백두산 지역에서는 5 - 1.5Ma경에 중심 분출이 일어났다. 그 결과 순상 화산형 화산체가 형성되었다. 독도와 울릉도의 해저 화산부를 형성한 화산 분출이 8.1 - 3.7Ma경에 일어났을 것으로 예상된다. 조면암질 및 유문암질 화산 분출이 백두산 지역에서는 0.61Ma에서 1903년까지 일어났고, 울릉도와 독도에서는 2.9Ma에서 6,300년 전 사이에 일어났다. 특히 백두산 지역에서는 969년경에 가장 강력한 화산 폭발이 일어나 화산재가 멀리 동해와 일본까지 날아가 퇴적되었으며, 천지 칼데라가 형성되었다. 이와 같은 유사성은 울릉도와 독도를 포함하는 동해와 백두산이 유사한 지구조 운동에 의해 형성되었을 가능성을 시사한다.

동해를 형성시킨 광역적인 인장력에 의해 정단층 작용이 일어나 동해 지역이 침강하였고 동해안 지역이 융기하여 태백산맥이 형성되었다. 그 결과 한반도의 동쪽이 높고 서쪽이 낮은 지형이 형성되었다. 이와 달리 서해는 간빙기에 해수면이 높아지면서 물에 잠긴 육지이다.

제주도는 울릉도, 독도와는 근본적으로 다른 지질학적 특징을 보여준다. 제주도는 현재의 모습을 갖추기까지 약 180만 년이 소요되었다. 제주도의 화산 활동은 크게 수성 화산 분화시기 (1.88Ma - 0.5Ma)와 육성 화산 활동 시기(0.5Ma - 25Ka)로 구분된다. 수성 화산 활동 시기에는 국지적이며 간헐적인 화산 활동이 있었고, 육성 화산 활동 시기는 전 제주도에 걸친 활발한 화산 활동이 일어나 제주도의 현재 지형을 만들었다.

제주도는 약 180만 년 전부터 서해 대륙붕에서 일어난 판 내부 화산 활동으로 만들어졌다. 제주도의 초기 화산 활동은 수성 화산 활동(水性火山活動)의 방식을 띠었으며, 빙기- 간빙기 교차에 따른 제4기 해수면 변동의 영향으로 화산 활동은 해저와 육상에서 번갈아 가며 일어났다. 백만 년이 넘도록 산발적으로 일어난 수성 화산 분화에 의해 수백 개의 수성 화산(응회환과 응회구)이 만들어졌으며, 응회암과 육상 및 해상 퇴적암이 혼재된 서귀포층이 100m 넘게 쌓임에 따라 제주도는 제4기 해수면 위로 성장하여 섬이 되었고, 약 50만 년 전부터는 육성 화산 활동이 우세하게 일어났다. 주로 하와이형 분출에 의해 용암 대지와 순상 화산이 만들어졌고, 스 트롬볼리형 분출도 곳곳에서 일어나 오름이라고 부르는 작은 화산 체인 분석구도 무수히 만들어졌다. 한라산체는 약 2만 년 전에 완성되었다. 약 4 - 5천 년 전에는 바닷가 곳곳에서 수성 화산 활동이 또다시 일어나 성산 일출봉, 송악산 등의 오름이 만들어지고 그 주변 지역에 신양리층과 하모리층과 같은 화산 쇄설성 퇴적층도 형성되었다. 역사 문헌에 따르면, 서기 1002년에는 한라산 중턱에서 용암 분출이 있었고, 1007년에는 바닷가에서 수성 화산 분출이 있었으나 그 위치는 확인되지 않고 있다.

백두산의 화산 분출 역사는 4개의 시기로 구분된다. 첫 번째 시기에는 열극 분출에 의해 현무암질 용암 대지인 고원 지대가 형성되었다. 두 번째 시기에는 주로 중심 분출이 일어나 용암 대지 위에 제주 도와 같은 순상암체를 형성시켰다. 세 번째 시기에는 마그마의 성격이 산성 및 중성으로 바뀌면서 폭발성 화산 작용이 일어났고 그 결과 백두산 순상형 화산체 상부에 종형 화산체가 형성되었다. 최종 단계인 폭발성 분출이 홀로세(1690 B.P. - 1702 A.D.)에 일어났다. 이 시기 중 969 A.D.에 일어난 화산 폭발 정도는 폼페이를 멸망시킨 베수비오 화산보다 폭발력이 수십 배 컸을 것으로 생각되는 대규모 폭발이었다. 백두산은 아직도 성인이 명확히 밝혀지지 않은 대륙 내부에 발달한 매우 특이한 화산이다.

2002년 - 2006년에는 백두산 천지 일원에서 화산성 지진이 급증하였고, 2006년도부터는 감소하는 추세를 보여 현재에는 1999 - 2001 년의 수준을 유지하고 있다. 이 시기에 일어난 지진은 모두가 지하 2 - 4km에 위치한 마그마 챔버 활동에 기인하는 것으로 해석하였다. 최근 여러 연구에서도 5 - 10km 지하에 마그마 챔버가 위치하고 있음이 확인되었다. 또한 2002년 이후 천지 칼데라 정상부가 2007년까지 총 10cm 정도 상승하였으며, 2004년도 천지 주변 온천 지하수의 온도가 69℃에서 83℃로 증가하였다. 이는 백두산이 분화 가능성이 있으며 이를 확인하기 위한 백두산 모니터링과 그에 관련된 연구가 필요함을 시사한다.

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한반도 기저를 형성하는 1.9 - 1.8Ga(19 - 18억 년 전)에 형성된 고원생대 암석은 임진강대와 옥천대에 의해 낭림육괴, 경기육괴, 영남육괴로 나뉘어진다. 한반도의 현재 형태는 오랫동안 고원생대에 만들어졌다고 믿어 왔다. 하지만 2000년대 초에 한반도의 형태가 페름 - 트라이아스기(250 - 230Ma; 2억 5천만 년 전 - 2억 3천만 년 전)에 일어난 대륙 충돌에 의해 형성되었다는 새로운 증거가 제시되었다.

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네이버 블로그 | 탐사튜브

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[고생물 뉴스] 티라노사우루스의 최대 크기는 15m, 15t?

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세계 최고의 티라노사우루스 Tyrannosaurus 전문가 데이비드 혼 David Hone 과 조던 말론 Jordan Mall…

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‘기괴한 외형’ 고대 벌레 할루시제니아, 비밀 풀렸다

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외형이 너무 기괴해 환각을 일으킬 듯하다고 해서 ‘할루시제니아’(혹은 할루키게니아, Hallucigenia)로 명명된 고대 벌레의 비밀이 연구 수십 년만에 풀렸다. AFP통신 등 외신에 따르면, 영국 케임브리지대와 캐나다 토론토대 등 고생물학 연구팀이 캄브리아기에 멸종한 할루시제니아(5억 500만년~5억 1500만년 전 바다에 살았던 길쭉하고 작은 벌레)에 관한 기존 이론이 모두 잘못되었다고 밝혔다. 수년 동안 다리로 간주된 부분은 등에 돋아난

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네이버 블로그 | 작은 수장고

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ⓒJason Brougham   속: 모노니쿠스 종: 올라크라누스 학명: Mononykus olecranus   생존시기…

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‘살아남는 게 강자’란 사실 보여준 스밀로돈의 멸종 | 한국일보