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Austria held power of the holy roman empire during the reformation they started to lose control over Germany. In the midst of the Napoleonic wars a German confederation was formed but it was ineffective in stopping the wars between Prussia and Austria. This caused unification to grow stronger. In 1833 Persians formed the sovergein that eventually tied some of the ecomines of the German states together. The strong want of unification led to the revolutions in 1848. the revoloutions encouraged liberals to meet and push for united German constitution. the first king of purssia took advantage of a constitutional crisis and declared war. hoping to claim the reigon of schleswig- holsein. With the help of austria the two states took over the region of bismark. in 1866 they went to war with austria and than were victorious and united the northern states into the northern german confederation.

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The German nationalism, restoring by the experience of Germans in the Napoleonic times, moved Germany toward unification in the 19th century. On January 18, 1871, the unification of Germany into a independent and integrated nation state happened on January 18, 1871. The unification took place in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles in France. The German states princes gathered together to proclaim Wilhelm I of Prussia as German Emperor. This happened after the French capitulation. Unification exposed tensions caused by religious, social, and cultural differences between the public of the new nation. This suggested that 1871 only represented one moment in the larger unification process of the states rather than everyone uniting and putting differences behind.

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The dispute between the two dominant member states of the Confederation, Austria and Prussia, over which had the inherent right to rule German lands ended in favor of Prussia after the Seven Weeks' War of 1866. This led to the creation of the North German Confederation under Prussian leadership in 1867.

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Since the fall of Rome the Italian Peninsula was divided among a lot of independent states. There were debates if they shared some culture there were no real calls for unification. It wasn't until Napoleon came and invaded Italy and created the Kingdom of Italy. However when he was defeated Italy returned to normal states. After the revolution of 1848 that swept across Milan and Venice revolutionaries rose up against the Austrians for independence from Naples. They declared a republic which was led by Giuseppe Mazzini but they were crushed. Austrians re conquered the NE during the first Italian war. After this the new king of Sardia Victor Emanuel would lead troops in the 1850s to fight Russians along the British and French troops. They did this in hope of a new ally the french helped attack austria april 1858. Italy was victorious against Austria. All though they won they still lacked two states venice and rome. Marcus of Purssia was leading German unification and going to war with Austria Italy joined in. They were defeated but Austria wanted to stay neteural with the french. They gave venice to the french and they gave Venice to italy. The purssians went to war with france and the french quickly withdrawled their troops in rome finally letting italians in.

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During Napolenic wars the british helped the portugese royal family exscape europe and set up court in brazil. after King John did not return to purtugal he beleieved his presence in brazil stopped any independence movements from happening. portugal was largley goverened by the british who remainded there after napolenic wars, this angered the population and reduced portugal to sort of a colony. people rebbeled and liberal revolution of 1820 captured major cities and told nobility to declare John to return. he did so in 1822 and promised to uphold the new constitution they created. He than left his son pedro to rule in his place in brazil. brazil would not only just be a colony again but all provisonal goverments would be subortidents of purtgal breaking up brazil. Which meant brazil could only trade with portugal. George d Aviles told pedro to go back to portugal and swear to uphold the consitution. pedro was convinced to still stay and was then deported back to portugal. bonifacio than convinced pedro to travel around the country to gain support, especially after the attempted mutinite. pedro made it to south paulo in late august and there was still no major independenc. he than got news that cortes and portugal wanted to remove all his remaining powers and abolish all reforms made as goverment so far. hearing this pedro declared independence and traveled back to rio that same month he took the title empror. he would rule according to the consitution and brazil would stay seperated from portugal. portguese later surrendored all of there teritory except montevideo. meanwhile in portugal king johns other son migeul led a coup and forced his father to abolish the constitution. portugal decended into civil war and were unable to send re enforcement. the portugese finally surrendored montevideo and made peace in 1824 and in brazil pedro dissmised bonifacio and after months of debate over the constitution he sent troops into the constituent assembly and got rid of it.

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Brazilian Independence | 3 Minute History

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Before the 1861 proclomation of Italy the country had been divided into smaller states and mostly occupied by austria. after the napoleonic wars, a liberal nationalist movement started whose goal was to unify italy. In 1848, they attacked austria but were defeated. The king of sardia Victor Emanuel would later on lead troops to fight russia beside french and british troops. In 1858 french helped fight with italy against austria and won. Though they had won two states were still missing, venice and rome. During this time period Purssia was leading the german unification and ready to go to war with austria. The italians joined in the war against austria but lost. All though they were defeated austria wanted to stay on decent terms with the french and gave over veince to them and the french gifited venice to italy. Purssians later went to war with france and the french retreated there troops from rome allowing italy rome.

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The role of Piedmont

In Piedmont Victor Emmanuel II governed with a parliament whose democratic majority refused to ratify the peace treaty with Austria. This was an exception to the general course of reaction. The skillfully worded Proclamation of Moncalieri (November 20, 1849) favourably contrasted Victor Emmanuel's policies with those of other Italian rulers and permitted elections. The victorious Liberals installed a new cabinet under Massimo d'Azeglio, a moderate trusted by the king. D'Azeglio introduced the Siccardi law, which curtailed the power of ecclesiastical courts. In October 1850 another prominent moderate, Camillo Benso di Cavour, entered the cabinet and directed a laissez-faire economic policy. He formulated international commercial treaties and drew on foreign capital to reduce the public debt, stimulate economic growth, and develop a railroad system. Cavour's dynamism alarmed conservatives and even d'Azeglio. In 1852, through an alliance with centre-left deputies that became known as the connubio ("marriage"), Cavour displaced d'Azeglio as head of the cabinet. Despite disagreements with the king (who favoured the clerical party and occasionally displayed absolutist tendencies), Cavour introduced various ecclesiastical, judicial, and fiscal reforms.

A number of events promoted Piedmont's prestige in Italy and abroad. In March 1854 France and England intervened in support of the Ottoman Empire against Russia in the Crimean War. To obtain Austrian support, they were prepared to guarantee the status quo in Italy. Only Piedmont was in a position to disrupt it at that time, and Cavour negotiated an alliance with the Western powers. In May he sent to Crimea an army that performed brilliantly. As a result, Piedmont was able to assume a place among the victors at the Congress of Paris (February 1856). From this platform Cavour, achieving a diplomatic coup for Piedmont and Italy, declared that the only threat to peace in Italy, and the root cause of subversive plots, was the burdensome Austrian overlordship. Cavour's pronouncements at the congress increased the standing of Piedmont among nationalists.

Meanwhile, Mazzini's democratic and republican movement was crumbling. In February 1853 an insurrection against the Austrians failed in Milan. The discovery and execution at Belfiore (1852-53) of the leaders of a conspiracy in Mantua, as well as abortive insurrections in Cadore and Lunigiana, discredited the democratic movement and discouraged its most dedicated adherents. Mazzini faced complete isolation for his support of an expedition to the southern mainland to incite insurrection, known as the Sapri expedition (June-July 1857), in which the Neapolitan republican and socialist Carlo Pisacane and some 300 companions lost their lives. The democrats were divided and unable to carry on the revolutionary struggle; nothing was to be expected from the restored governments. In Lombardy-Venetia, Austria carried out stern repressive measures. Pius IX, now under the influence of the reactionary Giacomo Cardinal Antonelli, refused to grant any reforms in Rome. Liberal Catholicism could not remain viable without reforms in the Papal States. In Naples and the duchies, reaction became pervasive, although the grand duke of Tuscany sought to make his subjects forget that he owed his throne to Austrian military intervention. Only in Piedmont was there any hope left for the reformers.

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Italy - Unification, Risorgimento, Nation-State

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Italy - Unification, Risorgimento, Nation-State: In Piedmont Victor Emmanuel II governed with a parliament whose democratic majority refused to ratify the peace treaty with Austria. This was an exception to the general course of reaction. The skillfully worded Proclamation of Moncalieri (November 20, 1849) favourably contrasted Victor Emmanuel's policies with those of other Italian rulers and permitted elections.

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A war conducted between the new independent Empire of Brazil and Kingdom of Portugal. Brazil and the Algarves which had just undergone the Liberal Revolution of 1820. in 1822 king john promised to uphold the new constitution that was created. He than left his son pedro to rule in his place in brazil. Brazil would be a colony again and all goverments would be subortidents of purtgal breaking up brazil. Meaning brazil could only trade with portugal. George d Aviles told pedro to go back to portugal and swear to uphold the consitution. pedro was convinced to stay and then was deported back to portugal. pedro later was convinced by bonifacio to travel around the country and gain others support. Once pedro made it south he than got news that cortes wanted to remove all his remaining powers and rid of all reforms he made as goverment so far. pedro quickly declared independence and traveled back to rio and took the title empror. he would rule according to the consitution later portguese surrendored all of there teritory except montevideo. king johns other son migeul led a coup and forced his father to end the constitution. civil war started in portugal and the portugese finally surrendored montevideo and made peace in 1824.