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Members: Cabana, Derramas, Miguel, Singh, Uy

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We are Group 6, and this are the members of the group. In this Padlet, we will dig up about our chosen SDG number, which is No.14 Life Below Water.

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Want to know more about SDG 14 and our Research Topic?

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These are the list that we need to dig or to learn more, especially for our Marine Life and Ecosystem:

1. Short Form Social Media Content

2. Local News Article

3. National News Article

4. International News Article

5. Local or National News Video Segment

6. International News Video Segment

7. Advocacy Poster or Print AD

8. Public Service Message or Promotional Video

9. Magazine Article

10. Professinal Blog Article

11. Professional Vlog Feature

12. Data Inforgraphic or Statistics

13. Government Website Content

14. Non-Government Organization or Academic Institution Article

15. Podcast

16. Documentary

17. Webinar, Lecture, or Ted Talk

18. Book

19. Research Paper

20. Visual or Literary Art

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URL: https://www.facebook.com/100005377205614/posts/pfbid0WNSvvapTNWUcbeMbyQyRbRF7QSrjK9pepc2Pf1F2osP74QzByoCJzcictE2hJf5hl/?d=n&mibextid=5zvaxg
TITLE: Coastal Clean-up at Davao Del Sur
AUTHOR: Bfp Rxi Bansalan Firestation
(Facebook page)
KEY INFO: Other organization teams up with the BFP Personnel of the different fire stations of Davao del Sur to clean the coastline of Brgy. Aplaya, Digos City of Davao del Sur on 09 December 2022.

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IN PHOTOSI COASTAL CLEAN-UP

Be a wise man, OCEAN IS NOT A GARBAGE CAN. Save our Oceans.  

The Bansalan Fire Station personnel spearheaded by INSP EDWIN L SILAGAN Acting Municipal Fire Marshal with...

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Coastal cleanup, mangrove planting isinagawa sa Davao City (RESEARCHED BY: Allyza Renee R. Cabana)

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URL: https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/09/17/22/coastal-cleanup-mangrove-planting-isinagawa-sa-davao-city
TITLE: Coastal cleanup, mangrove planting isinagawa sa pawikan nesting site sa Davao City
AUTHOR: ABS-CBN News
DATE PUBLISHED: September 17, 2022
KEY INFO: Teachers and members from various organizations picked up trash in the sea and by the sea at Aboitiz Power's Cleanergy park and also planted mangrove trees.

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Larawan mula sa Davao Light and Power Company

Nagkaisa ang iba't ibang sektor para linisin ang dalampasigan na nesting site ng mga pawikan o sea turtles sa Matina Aplaya, Davao City nitong Sabado.

Namulot ng mga basura sa dagat at sa tabi ng dagat ang mga guro at mga miyembro mula sa iba't ibang organisasyon sa Cleanergy Park ng Aboitiz Power.

Nagsagawa rin ng waste analysis at brand audit ang environmental group na Ecoteneo sa mga basura na kanilang napulot.

Nagtanim naman ng 150 na mangrove trees o bakawan ang mga miyembro ng non-profit organization na JCI Durian City sa Cleanergy Park.

Mula noong 2014, umabot na sa 14,000 na puno ang naitanim ng volunteers at partner organizations sa Cleanergy Park.

Itinatag ang Cleanergy Park noong 2014 bilang hatching at nesting site ng mga pawikan, kung saan umabot na sa 7,200 na mga pawikan ang napakawalan sa dagat.

Ayon sa Aboitiz Power, mahalaga ang coastal cleanup para masiguradong magiging ligtas ang natural na tirahan ng mga pawikan na kanilang inaalagaan. - ulat ni Hernel Tocmo
IBA PANG ULAT
Bisitahin ang Patrol.PH para sa iba pang mga balita.

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Coastal cleanup, mangrove planting isinagawa sa Davao City

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Nagkaisa ang iba't ibang sektor para linisin ang dalampasigan na nesting site ng mga pawikan o sea turtles sa Matina Aplaya, Davao City nitong Sabado. Namulot ng mga basura sa dagat at sa tabi ng dagat ang mga guro at mga miyembro mula sa iba't ibang organisasyon sa Cleanergy Park ng Aboitiz Power.

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Philippines island Boracay reopens for test run following huge cleanup (RESEARCHED BY: Allyza Renee R. Cabana)

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URL: https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/boracay-philippines-reopen-trial-run-intl/index.html
TITLE: Philippines island Boracay reopens for test run following huge cleanup
AUTHOR: CNN
DATE PUBLISHED: October 15, 2018
KEY INFO: The famous tourist spot Boracay reopens after 6 months of rehabilitation due to the drainage system.

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waste management and remediation services

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Philippines island Boracay reopens for test run following huge cleanup | CNN

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Boracay, one of the world's most famous beach destinations, has reopened for a test run almost six months after closing for a cleanup operation in the Philippines.

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A floating device created to clean up plastic from the ocean is finally doing its job, organizers say (RESEARCHED BY: Allyza Renee R. Cabana)

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URL: https://edition.cnn.com/2019/10/02/tech/ocean-cleanup-catching-plastic-scn-trnd/index.html
TITLE: The Ocean Cleanup successfully collects ocean plastic, aims to scale design
AUTHOR: CNN
DATE PUBLISHED: October 3, 2019
KEY INFO: The creator of a large-scale waste collection system finally declared that his creation is now collecting waste and would hopefully result in less garbage.

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a floating device created to clean up plastic from the ocean is finally doing its job

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A floating device created to clean up plastic from the ocean is finally doing its job, organizers say

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A huge trash-collecting system designed to clean up plastic floating in the Pacific Ocean is finally picking up plastic, its inventor announced Wednesday.

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Ways to Reduce Ocean Pollution (RESEARCHED BY: Earl John D. Derramas)

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URL: https://web.facebook.com/DENR2Official/photos/a.270345436757514/932451773880207/
TITLE: Ways to Reduce Ocean Pollution
AUTHOR: DENR Cagayan Valley
DATE PUBLISHED: May 8, 2020
KEY INFO: The poster reminds people about what actions should we do in reducing ocean pollution to save our marine resources and what we will do if we visit at seas or oceans.

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One Mindanao: International Coastal Clean Up Day (RESEARCHED BY: Earl John D. Derramas)

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URL: https://youtu.be/gPnDqFKn99s
TITLE: One Mindanao: International Coastal Clean Up Day
AUTHOR: One Mindanao
DATE PUBLISHED: September 19, 2022
KEY INFO: Several volunteers in Zamboanga City are participating in International Coastal Clean Up Day, for them to reduce the amount of trash in the oceans or seas that came from our actions.

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One Mindanao: International Coastal Clean Up Day

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WION Climate Tracker: Plastic Pollution Threatens Marine Life (RESEARCHED BY: Earl John D. Derramas)

# data[].attributes.body
URL: https://youtu.be/Ij0ZFUBB0OA
Title: WION Climate Tracker: Plastic Pollution Threatens Marine Life | World News | English News
Author: WION
DATE: PUBLISHED: February 4, 2023
KEY INFO: The news was all about marine animals are eating plastics and that's one of the reasons of their death. With that, it is alarming if the number of plastics are increasing in coastal areas and us humans who are started the issue will not take actions in our bad behavior.

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URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1312/10/10/1532
TITLE: Unraveling Macroplastic Pollution in Rural and Urban Beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, Mindanao, Philippines
AUTHOR: Frank T. Acot, Jr.,Recca E. Sajorne, Nur-Ayn K. Omar, Peter D. Suson, Lynn Esther E. Rallos, and Hernando P. Bacosa
DATE PUBLISHED: October 19, 2022
KEY INFO: Plastic pollution in the ocean is a fast growing worldwide environmental hazard, with high concentrations (up to 580,000 pieces per km2) and a global dispersion caused by exponentially expanding manufacturing. Plastic buildup in the marine environment has resulted from the exponential expansion in the use of plastics in modern life and the insufficient handling of the ensuing garbage. This is a significant environmental concern that impacts coastal and coastlines worldwide.

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1. Introduction

Plastic pollution in the ocean is a rapidly emerging global environmental concern, with high concentrations (up to 580,000 pieces per km ²) and a global distribution, driven by exponentially increasing production [ 1]. The exponential increase in the use of plastics in modern society and the inadequate management of the resulting waste have led to plastic accumulation in the marine environment [ 2]. This is a major environmental issue that affects coasts and coastlines all around the world [ 3].

According to a model developed by Meijer et al. [ 8], the Philippines is the largest emitter of plastics from rivers to the marine environment. The country also ranks third in total plastic waste input from land into the ocean, just below China and Indonesia, by contributing 0.28-0.75 million metric tons of plastic litter every year [ 9]. These findings are mainly based on simulation and numerical modeling, empirical observations, and a limited amount of field data. Validating the results of these findings through a more representative field sampling is crucial to science-based decision-making. Several studies on plastic pollution monitoring were conducted on the beaches of the Philippines, and the majority of the beaches were categorized as dirty to extremely dirty based on the clean-coast index (CCI) [ 10, 11, 12]. These beach areas were mostly categorized as urban areas where the rate of infrastructure development is higher than in rural areas. Aside from this, activities such as fishing and swimming are also frequently conducted by the local community and beachgoers, which helps development and economic growth, particularly in local coastal communities [ 13]. However, these activities may contribute to plastic pollution as indiscriminate disposal of solid waste is highly rampant in coastal settlements [ 12, 14, 15, 16]. This emerging threat requires the development and enforcement of plastic regulation policies. In a study conducted by Galarpe et al. [ 17], it was determined whether studies on macro- and microplastics should be the basis of the institutionalization of existing policies on waste management. Unfortunately, they were unable to arrive at sound conclusions due to a limited number of studies on macro- and mesoplastics in the Philippines, and therefore a limited amount of field data, considering that the country is seen as a plastic pollution hotspot around the world.

The intensity of human pressure on marine systems has led to a push for stronger marine conservation efforts. The Philippines has been the site of some of the earliest marine reserves and marine-protected areas [ 18]. Marine reserves, as defined by [ 19], are areas of marine environment protected from various forms of human exploitation. Within the last decade, South Cotabato-Sarangani-General Santos City (SOCSARGEN) in the southern Philippines has emerged as one of the most economically dynamic regions in the Philippines [ 20]. A significant factor propelling growth in the area is the presence of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape (SBPS), a marine-protected area that provides various goods and services that cater to the SOCSARGEN economy. The bay encloses an area of 449.22 km ² and is bounded by the Sarangani Province and chartered city of General Santos. Besides providing a sanctuary for marine life, the bay also offers a wide range of choices for recreational activities due to the presence of white-sanded beaches, beautiful coral reefs, and scuba diving sites [ 21]. Despite its status as a marine-protected area, the bay has faced several environmental pressures, including massive population growth, uncontrolled human settlement in coastal areas, urbanization, and various anthropogenic pressures, including pollution [ 22]. However, the plastic pollution in the area has not been documented. Thus, with the growing concern of plastic pollution in the Philippines, this study was conducted to (1) determine the density of macroplastic litter on the rural and urban beaches, (2) identify the types of macroplastic litter, (3) quantify the accumulation rate of macroplastic litter for eight non-consecutive days, and (4) determine the clean-coast index of rural and urban beaches of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first monitoring of marine plastic litter pollution in the protected seascape of the Philippines.

2. Materials and Methods

The study was conducted in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape ( Figure 1). Sarangani Bay is located on the southern tip of Mindanao Island in the Philippines. It opens up to the Celebes Sea in the Pacific Ocean. The bay was declared a protected seascape in 1996 (Proclamation no. 756 signed by President Fidel V. Ramos), covering an area of 215,950 hectares. Plastic litter was sampled from 14 beaches in rural (n = 7) and urban (n = 7) areas in Sarangani Bay, and the sampling sites were classified as urban (U) or rural (R) ( Table 1).

Sampling was performed by following the methods of Sajorne et al. [ 12] with minor modifications. At each sampling site, a 100-m transecting line was established parallel to the shoreline. Three quadrats measuring 4 m × 4 m were laid along the transecting line. Plastic litter found within the quadrat was collected, counted, and classified. The collected plastics were classified based on their uses, such as food packaging, polyethylene bags (locally known as sando bags), Styrofoam, mats, plastic bottle, plastic fragments, plastic caps, toiletries, Styrofoam cups, clothing, and other items ( Figure S1) [ 12, 23]. Meanwhile, to monitor the accumulation rate of macroplastics, non-consecutive sampling was conducted for eight days in beach areas [ 16]. The transecting line and quadrats were placed in the same area in each sampling site throughout the monitoring. Sampling collection was conducted from 11 August 2021 until 4 September 2021. The collection of macroplastics was conducted on Wednesdays to represent the weekdays and Saturdays to represent the weekends

The density of plastic litter was determined by dividing the total number of items per unit area sampled [ 24, 25] and reported as items/m ² ± SD. The cleanliness of the coastal beaches was assessed using the clean-coast index (CCI) [ 26], where CCI is equal to the density of litter items/m ² multiplied by 20, a constant to make the numerical value of CCI more intuitive. According to the CCI scale, values from 0 to 2 are very clean, 2 to 5 are clean, 5 to 10 are moderately clean, 10 to 20 are dirty, and greater than 20 are extremely dirty. Meanwhile, the daily accumulation rate, mean count, and cumulative density were computed using the formula of Ammendolia et al. [ 27]. The accumulation rate was reported as items d −1 m −2 [ 28].

An independent two-sample t-test was conducted to determine significant differences between urban and rural beaches in Sarangani Bay in terms of macroplastic abundance as the data are parametric. Statistical analysis was performed in Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26, a free software, developed by International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) headquartered in Armonk, New York, and values of p < 0.05 were considered significantly different.

3. Results

Regarding the sampling sites, all beaches were found to contain macroplastic litter. A total of 2580 items of plastic litter were collected over a cumulative area of 672 m ² in urban and rural areas of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, with a density of 3.83 items m −2. The highest density was recorded in urban areas U3 (1.06 items m −2), U4 (0.88 items m −2), and U5 (0.82 items m −2) ( Table 1). Overall, the plastic litter density on urban beaches (0.66 items m −2) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the plastic density on rural beaches (0.29 items m −2) ( Figure 2).

In terms of macroplastic types, there is a difference in the percentage composition in rural and urban areas of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape ( Figure 3). In urban areas, food packaging (27%, n = 474 items), polyethylene bags or sando bags (15%, n = 271 items), and mats (13%, n = 237 items) were the most predominant types of macroplastic. Meanwhile, sando bags (23%, n = 180 items), food packaging (19%, n = 154 items), and Styrofoam (14%, n = 108 items) were predominant in the rural areas. Overall, the types of plastics sampled were predominantly food packaging (24%, n = 628), sando bags (18%, n = 451), and other items (19%, n = 496). The "other items" were composed of combined plastic classifications that made up less than two (2%) percent of the total plastic types.

Meanwhile, Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape was monitored for eight non-consecutive days, and it revealed that the daily density of macroplastic ranged from 0 to 2.52 items m −2, with a mean density of 0.48 items m −2 (SD = 2.26) ( Table 2). The accumulation rates of macroplastic litter ranged from 0.07 items d −1 m −2 to 0.40 items m −2, with an average rate of 0.18 items d −1 m −2. On average, the accumulation rate in urban areas (0.25 items d −1 m −2) was significantly higher than those in rural areas (0.11 items d −1 m −2) (p = 0.007). Meanwhile, it was shown that day 2 of the collection was found to have the highest density (1.35 items d −1) (n = 456), while the lowest density (0.75 items d −1) (n = 255) was recorded on day 8 ( Figure 4). Over the sampling period, a significant decrease in the density of plastic litter on both urban and rural beaches was not observed, which was characterized by a recurring amount or lingering presence of these pollutants in the area ( Figure 4).

Based on the CCI of the beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, 36% (5 out of 14) were considered dirty to extremely dirty ( Table 3). Out of the seven urban beaches, only one (site U3) (21.35) was categorized as extremely dirty, with a high CCI. Four of the sampling sites (U1, U2, U4, and U5) (11.25 to 17.65) were categorized as dirty. However, there were still some beaches (U6 and U7) categorized as clean ( Table 3). Meanwhile, on rural beaches, all of the sampling sites were considered as clean to moderately clean. Notably, dirty to extremely dirty sites were located in urban areas, while clean to moderately beaches were located in rural areas. Overall, on average, Sarangani Bay (9.59) is categorized as moderately clean.

4. Discussion

With these results, we confirmed the significant difference between the amount of macroplastic litter in rural and urban beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape. Urban beaches were noted to have two times higher macroplastic litter density compared to rural beaches. We observed that within the urban beaches, fishing activity was frequently conducted by the local community, while recreational activities were very seldom. However, no fishing paraphernalia was collected throughout the study period. Additionally, there are several residential areas within the vicinity of the urban beaches which can be one of the main sources of plastic litter. It is believed that the number of people in an area has a significant relationship to the quantity of plastic waste disposal [ 12, 13]. These factors might be the reason why we recorded the highest density and accumulation rate of macroplastic litter at urban beach sites U3 and U4. This result also supports the findings of Sajorne et al. [ 12, 24], where the majority of the plastic litter was collected from residential and fishing areas. Meanwhile, several studies on plastic monitoring on the Philippine coasts also found plastic food wrappers/containers, cups, and sachet wrappers [ 10, 11, 29] as the dominant macroplastic waste. Basic necessities and commonly used plastic types are believed to be the underlying reasons for such findings. For instance, sando bags were listed as the dominant type of macroplastics collected in rural areas, while they were placed second in urban areas. This may be due to the need for sando bags for carrying food and other purchased items in rural areas, which may not be the same in urban areas where food and other items are in closer proximity to buyers. Living conditions and activities in urban areas seem to allow for easy purchases anytime and anywhere. In rural areas, however, stores are located far apart, which probably drives residents to purchase items in bulk, resulting in the use of more sando bags. During sampling, it was also observed that mats and clothing were littering the beaches of urban areas but were hardly seen in rural areas. In urban areas, residents can conveniently replace such items because of greater access to them, whereas rural residents are known to recycle both mats and clothing. Conversely, on rural beaches, activities related to tourism, such as swimming, were more frequently conducted by beachgoers than fishing activities. The high number of plastic cups in rural areas may be attributed to tourism as beachgoers or tourists usually bring disposables for special occasions or recreational activities [ 30]. This shows that the overall plastic usage in urban and rural areas varies. It can be said that the plastic composition is due to the necessities and activities of a particular place. The findings of this study, however, do not deviate from the findings of other studies that found plastic food wrappers and containers/sando bags to be the dominant plastic waste on or near the beaches of the Philippines [ 31].

The temporal pattern observed in this study reveals that plastic spells a big problem for the future as it is non-biodegradable. In a study conducted by Browne et al. [ 32], the influence of physical factors, such as wind, wave action, and the density of plastic litter, on the spatial pattern of the accumulation of plastic litter was highlighted. During the collection, it was observed that the difference in waste generation was due to geographical location, and the number of residents [ 33]. Rural areas were a bit more mountainous with rocky beaches, and the number of households was not yet populous, unlike urban areas where beaches were plainly sandy and the coastline was occupied with houses. Additionally, the rural areas were close to the open sea, while the urban areas were by the bay. These data suggest that the accumulation rate of plastic in a given area does not depend only on human population size, but also on the geographical formation and activity of the site. Other than that, we also consider the influence of winds and waves [ 34, 35] and meteorological conditions [ 36] on the transport and accumulation of macroplastic litter in these areas. In comparison to other areas in the Philippines, the beaches of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape are cleaner than the beaches of Puerto Princesa, Palawan (29) [ 12], and Macajalar Bay, Misamis Oriental (84.99) [ 11]. In this study, the urban sites of Sarangani Bay were found to be moderately clean, dirty, and extremely dirty. Our CCI findings agree with the findings of Esquinas et al. [ 11] and Kalnasa et al. [ 29], who found the urban sites of Baloy, Macabalan, Bonbon, and Balua as clean and extremely dirty. As aptly stated, the highly urbanized nature of the adjacent environment greatly influenced the litter deposition in the surface sand of Macajalar Bay [ 11].

This study also reveals that plastic litter is now recognized as an emerging threat to Sarangani Bay. Marine macroplastic litter not only negatively affects ecology and biodiversity [ 37] but also has a direct impact on the economic value [ 7] of the coastal community as Sarangani Bay is a protected seascape and uplifts the economy of the SOCCSARGEN region through tourism. However, this study also revealed that tourism-related items were the dominant macroplastic litter found on the rural and urban beaches of Sarangani Bay. With the presence of plastic litter on coastal beaches, the beaches lose their aesthetic value [ 38], thus making them unattractive and unsuitable for recreational activities [ 39, 40]. The advancement toward meeting the main tenets of the UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) has been hampered by insufficient initiatives for solid waste management policies at regional and national levels.

Meanwhile, SDG 6-clean water and sanitation-and SDG 14-life below the water-are both directly impacted by the pollution brought on by incorrect solid waste disposal in coastal regions. Recent reports in Philippine marine waters have also revealed the first case of plastic ingestion in a rare Deraniyagala's beaked whale (Mesoplodon hotaula) [ 41] and green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) [ 42]. As a result, there may be a loss of biodiversity in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems as well as a reduction in the livelihoods of the local coastal community [ 43]. Furthermore, if this continues, through the influence of physical and chemical factors [ 44], secondary MP and nanoplastics will eventually form and put the health of the local coastal community at risk [ 7]. Due to its high dependence on marine foods, SDG 3-good health and welfare of the local community-and SDG 12-responsible consumption and production-become vulnerable as a result of these records of plastic ingestion in biota. Pieces of evidence on microplastic ingestion in fish and other marine animals [ 45] have also been reported in the Philippines. Overall, the occurrence of marine macroplastic pollution in the urban and rural beaches of Sarangani Bay can be partially ascribed to inadequate regional and national initiatives for solid waste management in Mindanao.

5. Conclusions

This study is the first to provide an account of the current status of plastic litter on urban and rural beaches in Mindanao, Philippines. We observed that plastic litter is more prevalent in urban areas than in rural areas in terms of density. The collection patterns of plastic litter suggest that the number of plastics in a given area may either increase or decrease but is never zero, which means that plastic waste is always being deposited in coastal areas, possibly aided by wind and wave actions. Similar to other studies, the dominant types of plastic litter are food packaging and sando bags. The values of the clean-coast index in this study revealed that beaches in urban areas are moderately clean, dirty, and extremely dirty, while rural areas are clean and moderately clean. Since the urban and rural beaches of Sarangani Bay were classified over a range of moderately clean to extremely dirty, this implies that both beach areas require a stricter plastic waste policy implementation-one for maintaining the clean status and the other for rehabilitating dirty beaches. Furthermore, data on the identification of dominant macroplastic items can serve as a guide for legislators in creating policies to strengthen the promotion of environmentally friendly products to curb or limit the rapid production of these dominant items.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/jmse10101532/s1, Figure S1: Types of macroplastic litter based on their uses: (A) food packaging; (B) fragment; (C) polyethylene bag or sando bag; (D) Styrofoam; (E) plastic bottle; (F) bottle cap; (G) mat; (H) toiletry; (I) disposable cup.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.T.A.J. and H.P.B.; investigation, F.T.A.J.; formal analysis, F.T.A.J., R.E.S., N.-A.K.O., P.D.S., L.E.E.R. and H.P.B.; writing original draft preparation, F.T.A.J., R.E.S. and N.-A.K.O.; writing-review and editing, P.D.S., L.E.E.R. and H.P.B.; supervision, P.D.S., L.E.E.R. and H.P.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed Consent Statement

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by the Philippines' Department of Science and Technology through the Accelerated Science and Technology Human Resource Development Program (DOST-ASTHRDP). The first author would like to thank the DOST-ASTHRDP for the scholarship to pursue graduate studies at MSU-IIT and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Region 12, especially the Protected Area Management Board of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape for allowing the researchers to conduct this study in Sarangani Bay.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 2. Density of macroplastics sampled from seven rural beaches and seven urban beaches of Sarangani Bay, Philippines. Error bars represent the standard deviation of 14 sampling times. Different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).

Table 2. Summary of macroplastic surveys including the item counts, densities (items m −2), and accumulation rates (items d −1 m −2) in sampling sites of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape. The standard deviation (SD), daily minimum (min.), and maximum (max.) counts and densities are also presented.

Publisher's Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Acot, F.T., Jr.; Sajorne, R.E.; Omar, N.-A.K.; Suson, P.D.; Rallos, L.E.E.; Bacosa, H.P. Unraveling Macroplastic Pollution in Rural and Urban Beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, Mindanao, Philippines. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 1532. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10101532

Acot FT Jr., Sajorne RE, Omar N-AK, Suson PD, Rallos LEE, Bacosa HP. Unraveling Macroplastic Pollution in Rural and Urban Beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, Mindanao, Philippines. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2022; 10(10):1532. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10101532

Chicago/Turabian Style

Acot, Frank T., Jr., Recca E. Sajorne, Nur-Ayn K. Omar, Peter D. Suson, Lynn Esther E. Rallos, and Hernando P. Bacosa. 2022. "Unraveling Macroplastic Pollution in Rural and Urban Beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, Mindanao, Philippines" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 10, no. 10: 1532. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10101532

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Unraveling Macroplastic Pollution in Rural and Urban Beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, Mindanao, Philippines

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Plastic pollution in the ocean is an emerging environmental concern in the Philippines. This study was conducted to investigate the prevalence of macroplastics, composition of plastic litter, and the clean-coast index (CCI) of urban and rural beaches in Sarangani Bay. Plastic litter was collected by delineating a 100-m transecting line with three 4 m × 4 m quadrats.

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The Plastic Problem in The Philippines We Need To Solve (RESEARCHED BY: Earl John D. Derramas)

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URL: https://youtu.be/OdHY9s5Pi7g
TITLE: The Plastic Problem in The Philippines We Need To Solve
AUTHOR: FEATR
DATE  PUBLISHED: September 7, 2021
KEY INFO: Philippines has all over 1/3 of the world's ocean plastic wastes, and this country needs to take responsible for this. Even plastics is something that we can't live on, it's light and durable, but plastic is forever and not in the good sense. Additionally, we are the one who create the problem, and with this problem, we also need to create a solution in a fine and delicate way.

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The Plastic Problem in The Philippines We Need To Solve

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Shocking Ocean Plastic Statistics: The Threat to Marine life, The Ocean & Humanity( RESEARCHED BY: Ramphel P. Miguel)

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URL: https://www.condorferries.co.uk/plastic-in-the-ocean-statistics#:~:text=8%20million%20pieces%20of%20plastic%20pollution%20find%20their%20way%20into,tonnes%20float%20on%20the%20surface.
TITLE: Shocking Ocean Plastic Statistics: The Threat to Marine life, The Ocean & Humanity
AUTHOR: Condor Ferries
DATE PUBLISHED: 2021
KEY INFO: It tells us the sources of ocean plastic pollution and how does plastic get into the ocean. The biggest polluting country in the world is China. Plastic enters our oceans by poor management at landfills, illegal dumping, being washed down rivers and drains and litter being left on beaches, in towns and cities.

Where we are all contributing to the plastic problem, the country contributing the most to plastic in our oceans is China, producing 8.8 million metric tonnes of mismanaged waste and around 3.53 million metric tonnes of ocean plastic. Other top offenders include Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka & Egypt. Along with 8 of Asia’s rivers and 2 rivers in Africa.

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Same Dream, Different Team! (RESEARCHED BY: Ramphel P. Miguel)

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URL: https://www.lessplastic.org.uk/same-dream-different-team/
TITLE: SAME DREAM, DIFFERENT TEAM!
AUTHOR: Jo Morley
DATE PUBLISHED: December 8, 2022
KEY INFO: Organizations Less Plastic and City to Sea have always shared the same vision a world where people use less plastic and connect our actions to our oceans.

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POWERFUL VIDEO: Why We Need to Stop Plastic Pollution in Our Oceans FOR GOOD | Oceana (RESEARCHED BY: Ramphel P. Miguel)

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URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yomf5pBN8dY&feature=youtu.be
TITLE: POWERFUL VIDEO: Why We Need to Stop Plastic Pollution in Our Oceans FOR GOOD | Oceana
AUTHOR: Oceana
DATE PUBLISHED: October 9, 2019
KEY INFO: The video shows us the many reasons as to why we need to stop throwing Plastics in to our oceans. Our oceans are being filled and killed by throwaway plastics. But together, we can create a movement to reduce throwaway plastic at the source and save our oceans. Oceana and they're allies are already winning plastic-free victories -- victories that aren't possible without your help.

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POWERFUL VIDEO: Why We Need to Stop Plastic Pollution in Our Oceans FOR GOOD | Oceana

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Gina Lopez, a "Crusader," Sets Philippines Water, Mining Safety on Unexpected New Course (RESEARCHED BY: Harshveer Singh)

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URL: https://www.circleofblue.org/2016/water-management/gina-lopez-crusader-sets-philippines-water-mining-safety-unexpected-new-course/
TITLE: Gina Lopez, a “Crusader,” Sets Philippines Water, Mining Safety on Unexpected New Course
AUTHOR: Keith Schneider
DATE PUBLISHED: August 25, 2016
KEY INFO: Duterte and Lopez have stated their intention to reshape the Philippine mining industry. Lopez fulfilled her mandate on July 1, just one day after taking office. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) announced the launch of a campaign to audit the environmental performance of the country's large hard rock mines. Lopez promised to enforce existing water quality and land conservation measures in order to put an end to the illegal practices.

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By Keith Schneider, Circle of Blue
Before Regina Lopez agreed in June to serve as the secretary of the Philippines Department of Environment and Natural Resources, her standing as one of the Pacific island nation's determined environmental activists was unchallenged.

As the top executive of the foundation established by her family's big media company she organized courageous campaigns to safeguard water, forests, and coastal areas from mining and logging in a nation where 88 environmental activists were murdered from 2010 to 2015. One of the victims, Gerry Ortega, was a close friend who was killed in January 2011 while he and Lopez worked to defend the island of Palawan from several proposals for big new mines.

At the same time as the mining campaigns, Lopez led a national project to clean up portions of the desperately polluted Pasig River, which flows through Manila, the capital.

And four years ago, after the chairman of the country's largest mining company publicly accused her of lying about environmental damage from hard rock mining, Lopez stood her ground at a well-attended industry conference and impassively offered unassailable facts to support her view. The confrontation between the slim, serene environmentalist and the red-faced industrialist was videotaped, and attracted national headlines. ( See 8:03 of this YouTube video.)

It also impressed Rodrigo Roa Duterte, the longtime mayor of Davao City who won the Philippines presidential election in May on an internationally notorious "change is coming" message to battle crime, corruption, illegal drugs, and environmental degradation.

Duterte was not joking. The flamboyant president, who has gained international attention for waging a bloody campaign against drug trafficking, met with mining executives before election day to issue a warning. He told them that if he won, his administration was prepared to rein in the industry's rapacious practices with much stricter regulatory enforcement. "Just take care of the environment," he said.

Philippine mines are among the world's biggest suppliers of gold, copper, and nickel. The mining industry is an important source of foreign revenue in the fast-growing nation of 102 million people, and it employs 235,000 workers. The industry has a dismal record, though, of polluting water, disturbing land, and managing wastes. Three times since 1995 the dams containing big ponds of toxic mine tailings collapsed, pouring millions of tons of debris into Philippine rivers and forcing the evacuation of thousands of people. Environmental enforcement has been weakened by endemic payoffs and corruption, according to government reports.

In recruiting Lopez to his administration, Duterte pledged to back her work with the support of national police and military units. A week after his inauguration on June 30, Duterte appeared at a meeting of mining executives to support his new environment secretary, and to issue clear guidelines for what he expected of the industry.

He said companies should plant trees and prevent chemical contamination that wrecks ecosystems. He gave notice that his administration would close mines that violated the law. "When you're spoiling the land, I'll cancel the permit without hesitation. That's the bottom line," Duterte warned.

Such direct environmental mandates are rare in developing nations. Indonesia's coal mining sector, for example, operates with such flimsy government oversight that miners are regularly injured or killed, and children drown in the deep waters of abandoned pits. India's coal mining region in Meghalaya, a northeastern state, was shut down by a national court in 2014 after state and national government regulators showed themselves utterly incapable of preventing mine accidents and deaths, or curbing rampant acid mine water pollution. South Africa does not rigorously enforce its mine reclamation regulations. The hills and free-flowing streams of the coal region in KwaZulu-Natal are marred by the black sores of eroding abandoned mines and the contaminated waters that drain from mine mouths.

New Direction for Philippine Mine Industry

Duterte and Lopez say they are determined to tilt the Philippine mine industry in a different direction. On July 1, a day after taking office, Lopez acted on her mandate. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) made public its campaign to audit the environmental performance of the country's big hard rock mines. Lopez promised to enforce existing water quality and land conservation measures to halt the outlaw practices. "If they are killing our rivers, how can their business interest be more important than the lives of our people? I will not allow suffering," said Lopez. "The main thing is that whatever we do, the welfare of the people must be paramount."

Leaders of the country's gold, copper, and nickel mining industry, accustomed to fawning government support, feel like they've been struck by a swarm of bees.

In late July, prompted by results of the audits, Lopez ordered the closure of four mines for various violations of land, water quality, and air emissions standards. In early August she ordered four more mines to be shut down. The shutdown orders are under appeal by mining companies and the mines continue to operate. The prices, though, for mining shares on the Philippines Stock Exchange plunged.

The Chamber of Mines of the Philippines has pushed back against Lopez's critique of their industry, especially her view that the poorest areas in the Philippines are mining areas.

"We do not cause suffering in areas where we operate, contrary to Lopez's belief. In fact, we ease such suffering by complementing the government's delivery of social services and by implementing our environmental protection and enhancement programs," Nelia Halcon, the Chamber's executive vice president, said in a statement to reporters.

The Chamber's view is not shared by most observers. The Manila Times, an important newspaper, called Lopez's appointment a "masterstroke." Philippine environmental organizations are thrilled. "We wish Ms. Lopez to be the spark that will stop the reign of corporate mining, coal power, and other vested big business interests in the DENR," Kalikasan, a major environmental group, said in a statement. "Her resolve, experience and stand for the environment will be an important contribution to the incoming Duterte government's shaping of a regime that will diverge from the anti-people, anti-environment pathway of the past Aquino administration."

Fast Start for Regulator Who Promises More Environmental Scrutiny

Born into the family that owns and manages ABS-CBN Corporation, the largest entertainment and media conglomerate in the Philippines, Lopez took a distinctive path to the top of the country's environmental policy and enforcement infrastructure. As a young woman she dropped out of Newton College of the Sacred Heart, near Boston, to become a yoga nun dedicated to self-realization and service to humanity. A divorced mother of two sons, she describes herself as intensely spiritual. She meditates 90 minutes a day. Her devotion to nature and communities developed during years of living in villages in India, Kenya, Zambia, Ghana and Nigeria.

Her goal, she has told interviewers, is to end poverty in the Philippines by replacing some of the country's industrial resource development with less damaging tourism, "especially in the places which are beautiful. In these places agriculture and eco-tourism is the way to go."

As the chairperson of the ABS-CBN Foundation, Lopez supported a number of successful eco-tourism projects that employed hundreds of villagers. She also understood politics. She endorsed Duterte for president early in his campaign.

As chief of the Philippine environment agency, Lopez is making a very fast start. In early August she signed agreements with the police and the military to ensure the safety of her staff in carrying out enforcement measures. She alerted the timber industry that its practices are under review. And she set her sights on more thoroughly evaluating the mining permits that previous administrations approved for big open-pit operations that have not started on the Philippines' biggest islands. All of those proposed mines threaten forest and coastal villages, and a treasure trove of world-class wildlife, forests, clean rivers, and seashore reserves, according to various studies by universities and environmental groups.

The largest pending project is the $US 5.9 billion Tampakan open-pit copper and gold mine proposed on Mindanao, a southeast island. The company says the project will span roughly 10,000 hectares (24,700 acres), operate for two decades, and produce 375,000 metric tons of copper concentrate and 360,000 ounces of gold concentrate annually. The mine plan has generated fierce public protests prompted by its size, and the consequences for damaging forests, farmland, and water. Some 5,000 villagers would need to be removed from their lands.

The previous administration, led by President Benigno Aquino III, approved the project's environmental compliance certificate in February 2013. According to Philippine mining law, the certificate is issued to projects that "will not bring about an unacceptable environmental impact." Neighboring villagers hold a much different view. In 2012, and again in 2013, security forces opened fire during big and fierce demonstrations to oppose the mine. A woman and two sons were killed in the first incident. A tribal leader and his son were killed in the second.

Lopez says she will stop the mine's development. "Open-pit mining? It's horrible," Lopez told reporters in July. "Tampakan is on top of hundreds of hectares of agricultural land, the food basket of Mindanao, and you want to put an open-pit mine the size of 700 football fields? I don't care how much money they give us. It's not worth it. Who is making the money here and who is taking the risk?

"It's immoral," she added. "It is socially unjust to allow businesses to make money and put all lives of farmers and indigenous peoples there at risk."

The Duterte administration is not yet two months old. The Philippine industrial sector's response to Lopez's aggressive start has not emerged. It will.

Her most important ally, though, is convinced he offered the job to the right person.

On July 25, in Duterte's first State of the Nation Address, the Philippine president commended Lopez. "Many are complaining against the appointment of Gina Lopez," he said. "But we share the same paradigm. The interest of the country must come first. There's a law allowing mining. Gina Lopez and I are just telling you: Follow government standards. Do not destroy the environment. Follow it to a tee. Just pay the correct taxes, follow the standards. Gina is just doing her job. You know, she's a really a crusader. That is how I describe her persona: Crusader."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Gina Lopez, a "Crusader," Sets Philippines Water, Mining Safety on Unexpected New Course

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
New environment secretary vows to enforce rule of law. By Keith Schneider, Circle of Blue Before Regina Lopez agreed in June to serve as the secretary of the Philippines Department of Environment and Natural Resources, her standing as one of the Pacific island nation's determined environmental activists was unchallenged.

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World Wildlife Day focuses on 'life below water' for first time (RESEARCHED BY: Harshveer Singh)

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URL: https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1063721
TITLE: World Wildlife Day focuses on ‘life below water’ for first time
AUTHOR: Catherine Teves
DATE PUBLISHED: March 5, 2019
KEY INFO: The Biodiversity Management Bureau (BMB) of the Environment Department is urging all sectors to do more to conserve wildlife and protect it from illegal trade, environmental degradation, and other threats.

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Cleanup day comes to Philippine capital’s polluted bay (RESEARCHED BY: Harshveer Singh)

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14) Non-Government Organization or Academic Institution Article

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14) Non-Government Organization or Academic Institution Article

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URL: https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/cleanup-day-comes-philippine-capitals-polluted-bay-2022-09-17/
TITLE: Cleanup day comes to Philippine capital's polluted bay
AUTHOR: Peter Blaza & Jay Ereño
DATE PUBLISHED: September 17, 2022
KEY INFO: On Saturday, hundreds of volunteers participated in a mass cleanup drive along the polluted Manila Bay coast in the Philippine capital to commemorate International Coastal Cleanup Day.

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Cleanup day comes to Philippine capital’s polluted bay

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Hundreds of volunteers joined a mass cleanup drive along the coast of the polluted Manila Bay in the Philippine capital to mark International Coastal Cleanup Day on Saturday.

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Philippine Seas, a documentary by Atom Araullo (RESEARCHED BY: Harshveer Singh)

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URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gxqgm-ruiW8
TITLE: Philippine Seas: A documentary by Atom Araullo
AUTHOR: GMA Public Affairs
DATE PUBLISHED: November 5, 2017
KEY INFO: The Philippines is widely regarded as the world's center of marine biodiversity. But, in addition to its indescribable wealth, our ocean faces a number of challenges. Atom Araullo explores the Philippines' oceans to determine their current state.

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Philippine Seas: A documentary by Atom Araullo (Full Episode) (with English subtitles)

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13 Artists Who Turned Ocean Trash Into Amazing Art (RESEARCHED BY: Sophia Erika Uy)

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URL: World Oceans Day: 13 Artists Who Create Art From Ocean Trash | Time
TITLE: 13 Artists Who Turned Ocean Trash Into Amazing Art
AUTHOR: Marisa Gertz
DATE PUBLISHED: June 8, 2016
KEY INFO: Marine plastic has been used by certain artists and activists as a medium that is similar to paint or clay. Communities of artists and activists have taken note of the issue, and some of them have begun using marine plastic as a medium. These sculptures, however breathtaking they may be, bring to light the troubling pervasiveness of plastics in our world. This is an issue that has to be addressed as soon as possible.

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13 Artists Who Turned Ocean Trash Into Amazing Art

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For World Oceans Day, 13 artists using marine plastic in their work.

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Ocean Plastic Pollution | Sasha Privat | TEDxYouth@EB (RESEARCHED BY: Sophia Erika Uy)

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URL: https://youtu.be/Yt2FSgzVTUg
TITLE: Ocean Plastic Pollution | Sasha Privat | TEDxYouth@EB
AUTHOR: TEDx Talks
DATE PUBLISHED: December 8, 2018
KEY INFO: Plastic pollution is a major environmental problem. Sasha provides an up-to-date look at some of the projects taken to combat plastic pollution, particularly in the ocean, and suggests practical solutions to the problem to which we can all contribute. Sasha also provides suggestions for how we can all contribute to the problem. Sasha estimates that there are approximately 2 trillion pieces of plastic in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, which is the cause of death for millions of marine animals every year.

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Ocean Plastic Pollution | Sasha Privat | TEDxYouth@EB

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Plastic Pollution (RESEARCHED BY: Sophia Erika Uy)

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URL: Plastic Pollution - Geoffrey David Knight - Google Books
TITLE: Plastic Pollution
AUTHOR: Geoffrey David Knight
DATE PUBLISHED: 2012
KEY INFO: Plastic is a material that may assist make life simpler and more enjoyable because of its high practicality and adaptability. This substance is infamous for being difficult to recycle, and it also takes a very long time to biodegrade. This book describes the problem of plastic trash in the environment, with a particular focus on how it gets up in the oceans across the world, and also recommends strategies to remedy the problem.

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Plastic is an incredibly useful and versatile material that offers ease and convenience. Unfortunately it is difficult to recycle and takes a very long time to break down naturally. This book describes plastic pollution, especially as it effects the world's oceans, and offers solutions to the problem.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Plastic is an incredibly useful and versatile material that offers ease and convenience. Unfortunately it is difficult to recycle and takes a very long time to break down naturally. This book describes plastic pollution, especially as it effects the world's oceans, and offers solutions to the problem.

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URL: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305773161_Ingestion_of_Marine_Plastic_Debris_by_Green_Turtle_Chelonia_mydas_in_Davao_Gulf_Mindanao_Philippines

TITLE: Ingestion of Marine Plastic Debris by Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) in Davao Gulf, Mindanao, Philippines
AUTHOR: Neil Angelo S. Abreo, Edison D. Macusi, Darrell D. Blatchley and Ginalyn C. Cuenca
DATE PUBLISHED: March 2016
KEY INFO: Marine plastic waste is a significant threat to marine biodiversity. It has been susceptible to both the fatal and non-fatal consequences of this problem. Drowning, gastro-intestinal obstruction, and stomach rupture are all fatal outcomes. Marine turtles are especially vulnerable to these impacts because they actively ingest plastic, mistaking it for food. On April 17, 2015, a dead adult female green turtle was discovered in Brgy. Lapu-lapu, Agdao, and Davao City are all in the Philippines. The necropsy found that numerous plastic objects had plugged the pyloric end of the turtle's stomach, perhaps causing the turtle's death.