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Russia stretches from west to east over 11 time zones. From the European border, Russian territory runs eastwards, mostly flat, to the Bering Strait. From there, only 83 kilometres of sea separates Russia from the United States. The border with Europe has always been a source of instability for Russia, which had to face the growing power of Germany during World War II.

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Russia, the largest country in the world, occupies one-tenth of all the land on Earth.

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Japan is an archipelago consisting of four main islands and other smaller islands, located in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Asia. Japan stretches 3500 kilometres from the subarctic to the subtropical climate zone. Over the centuries it remained isolated for a long time, but after World War II it became one of the most developed countries in the world.

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People first came to Japan about 30,000 years ago. At the time, the main islands were connected to Siberia and Korea by bridges of dry land, so people crossed on foot. The first society, called the Jomon culture, arose about 12,000 years ago. Around the same time, the Ainu people arrived by boat from Siberia.

The Jomon and Ainu survived for thousands of years, hunting, fishing, and gathering plants. In 300 B.C., the Yayoi people came to Honshu Island from Korea and China. They were skilled weavers, tool makers, and farmers who began cultivating rice in flooded paddy fields.

In 660 B.C., Japan's first emperor, Jimmu Tenno, came to power. Emperors controlled Japan until the 12th century A.D., when military rulers, called shoguns, took control and ruled by might.

Europeans first arrived in Japan in 1543, bringing guns and Christianity. In 1635, the ruling shogun closed Japan to foreigners and forbade Japanese to travel abroad. This isolation lasted more than 200 years. In 1868, the shoguns were overthrown and emperors returned. This was a time of great change and modernization for Japan.

During World War I (1914-1917), Japan fought on the side of the U.S. But on December 7, 1941, Japan bombed the United States navy fleet at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii and the U.S. entered World War II. From 1941-1945, Japan's military leaders fought against the U.S. and the allied forces. In August 1945, the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing about 115,000 people. Japan surrendered a few days later.

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Japan is an archipelago, or string of islands, on the eastern edge of Asia.

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Italy is a peninsula extending into the Mediterranean Sea. It consists of a continental part in the north and a peninsular and insular one, which includes the two largest islands in the Mediterranean, and several smaller islands. Until the end of World War II, its economy was mostly agricultural. Its period of great industrial development (the so-called ‘economic boom’) was between the 1950s and 1960s.

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When you think of Italy, what springs to mind? The Leaning Tower of Pisa? Yummy pizza and pasta, perhaps? Well, there's a lot more to this incredible country, gang - see for yourselves with our fascinating facts about Italy ...

Official Name: Italian Republic
Form of Government: Republic
Capital: Rome
Population: 60, 606, 230
Official Language: Italian
Money: Euro
Area: 301,277 square kilometres
Major Mountain Ranges: Alps, Apennines
Major Rivers: Po, Adige, Arno, Tiber

Italy is a boot-shaped peninsula that juts out of southern Europe into the Adriatic Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Mediterranean Sea and other waters. Its location has played an important role throughout its history.

The sea surrounds Italy, and mountains crisscross the interior, dividing the land into regions. The Alps cut across the top of the country and are streaked with long, thin glacial lakes. From the western end of the Alps, the Apennines mountains stretch south down the entire peninsula.

West of the Apennines are wooded hills that are home to many of Italy's historic cities, including Rome. In the south are hot, dry coastlands and fertile plains where olives, almonds, figs and other crops are grown.

For 22 centuries, Italians and their ancestors have hunted wild animals, cleared fields and grazed livestock. As a result, forests that once covered large areas of the country are gone. But the country's remote places still have wilderness largely untouched by humans. The lower slopes of Italy's Alps remain covered with thick forests, and above these woodlands are meadows where specially adapted wildflowers bloom.

Amongst the amazing mammals found in Italy are the Eurasian lynx, Italian wolf, Roe deer and Etruscan shrew - the smallest land mammal in the world! Sadly, however, human activity and habitat loss has put much of Italy's awesome animals under threat. To help protect them, National Parks have been set up, such as Abruzzo National Park - the only place in the world where the critically endangered Marsican brown bear can be found.

Throughout Italy, millions of beautiful birds stop to rest during their annual migration to Africa.

Italy's location on the Mediterranean linked it with the trade routes of the ancient civilisations that developed in the region. With the city of Rome's rise to power, the Italian peninsula became the centre of a huge empire that lasted for centuries.

Italy's first societies emerged around 1200 BC. Around 800 BC, Greeks settled in the south and a civilisation called the Etruscans arose in central Italy.

By the sixth century BC, the Etruscans had created a group of states called Etruria. Meanwhile, Latin and Sabine people south of Etruria merged to form a strong city-state called Rome.

Etruscan kings ruled Rome for nearly a hundred years. But the Romans kicked out the Etruscans in 510 BC and went on to conquer the whole peninsula. They then set out to build a vast empire which, at its greatest extent in AD 117, stretched from Portugal to Syria to Britain to North Africa. Pretty huge, eh?

The first sole emperor of Rome, Octavian, took power in 27 BC and took the name Augustus Caesar. The empire flourished for more than 400 years, but by the fourth century AD it was in decline. In 395, the empire was split in two, and in 476, Germanic tribes from the north toppled the last emperor.

In the 12th century, Italian city-states began to rise again and grow rich on trade. But Italy remained a patchwork of territories, some of which were controlled by foreign powers. Beginning in 1859, an uprising forced the foreigners out, and in 1861 the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed.

In 1914, Italy took the side of the United Kingdom and the United States in World War I, but was left in poverty at war's end. Benito Mussolini and his Fascist Party rose to power soon after, promising to restore Italy to its former glory. He ruled as a dictator and entered World War II on the side of Germany and Japan. In the final days of the war in 1945, Mussolini was captured and executed.

Throughout history, Italian art, architecture and culture have had an influence around the world. Famed Italian painters include Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. Italy is also at the heart of the Catholic Church, which is governed from the Vatican City, a city-state surrounded by Rome.

The family is at the centre of Italian society. Young people often live at home until they are in their 30s, even if they have a job. When parents retire, they often go to live with their children.

Italians are also known for their love of food! Many Italian dishes have become popular worldwide, such as their famous pizza Margherita, spaghetti Bolognese and super-tasty tiramisu!

In Italy, politics can often be exciting and noisy. Crowds gather in the streets to protest government policies or to show support for their party.

Since World War II, Italy has enjoyed an economic transformation. Industry grew, and by the mid-1960s, Italy had become one of the world's leading economies. Today, the country's main exports include machinery, vehicles, pharmaceuticals, plastics and clothing. Tourism is also an important part of Italy's economy, with millions of people visiting every year to enjoy the country's famous cities, historical buildings and beautiful beaches!

Map of Italy: National Geographic Maps. Ancient ruins, Italy: Horst Gossmann, Dreamstime. Florence Cathedral: Dmitry Rozhdestvenskiy, Dreamstime. Fresh pasta: Stevanzz, Dreamstime. St. Peter's Square, Vatican City: Viorel Dudau, Dreamstime.

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Italy facts: check out this beautiful country! - National Geographic Kids

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Facts about Italy for kids: learn all about Italy, with facts about Italian culture, politics, economy wildlife and geography, including a map of Italy

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The United States occupies the central part of North America, between Canada and Mexico. Its 50 states form the third largest and most populous country in the world. Until its involvement in World War II, the United States were mostly influential in the American continent. From 1945 onwards it became a global power and the most advanced economy in the world.

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USA GEOGRAPHY

Facts about America

North America map

Where is America

The United States is located in the continent of North America, North of Mexico and South of Canada. It stretches from the Atlantic in the East to the Pacific in the west.

Population of America

The population of America is 321,368,864 (Jul 2015 estimate). It is the 3rd largest population in the world. America has a large population with an even larger land mass and so the population density in America is very low. It is the 182nd most densely populated country in the world.

Land area

The United States covers an area of 9,833,517sq km making it the third largest country in the world. It is roughly the same size as China and the United States. It is half the size of Russia and three tenths the size of Africa.

﻿Languages of America

English is spoken by 79% of the population with next most popular language being Spanish (13%) and other European languages, (4%) followed by languages from Asia (3%) amongst others. The United States does not have an official language but some of the states have decreed that English is the first language.

Capital city of America

The capital city of America is Washington DC, which has a population 672,000 people living in its federal district. This makes it the 25th largest city in America.

The White House in Washington DC

National Flag of America

Dating back to 1775, there have been over twenty different versions of the flag of the United States. The reason the flag keeps changing is the symbolism represented by the stars and stripes. The thirteen stripes represent the British colonies who declared independence giving birth to a nation. The stars represent the states and territories of the United States and the flag kept changing as more states joined the union.

National day

America celebrates Independence day every year on the 4th July. It recognises the date that the thirteen American colonies adopted the declaration of Independence on the 4th July in 1776.

In America, the American Dollar is used for currency.

Time zone

Being such a large country, it comes as no surprise that America has six time zones. Some states choose to observe daylight saving time and some do not so there can be wide variety in the times between states. The day on which daylight saving time is started is the same in all states.

America's large size means that it has a very varied climate ranging from tropical in Florida and Hawaii to Arctic in Alaska. Whilst mostly temperate, the United States is semi-arid in the great plains to the west of the Mississippi river and arid in the Great Basin in the Southwest. Low winter temperatures in the North can sometimes be altered by the warm chinook winds coming off the Rocky Mountains.

Images of the United States

The United States has 58 national parks and 23 World Heritage sites. A wide variety of different environments can be found in the national parks.

Maps of the United States

This map of the different states of America is colourful and child friendly. We have a wide range of different maps that are free to download and use today to help you with your studies.

Facts about The United States

Houston is one of the fastest growing major cities in America. And Texas is home to three of the top ten fastest growing cities in the US.

Top 10 largest cities in America*

1 New York 8,244,000

2 Los Angeles 3,819,000

3 Chicago 2,707,000

4 Houston 2,145,000

5 Philadelphia 1,536,000

6 Phoenix 1,469,000

7 San Antonio 1,359,000

8 San Diego 1,326,000

9 Dallas 1,223,000

10 San Jose 967,000

*as measured by the population that lives in the incorported cities.

Large companies in America

America is home to many of the largest companies in the world when measured by revenue.

1 Walmart $485 billion

2 ExxonMobil $268 billion

3 Apple $235 billion

4 Berkshire Hathaway $195 billion

5 McKessen $179 billion

6 Philips 66 $161 billion

7 General Motors $152 billion

8 General Electric $149 billion

9 Ford $144 billion

10 CVs Health $139 billion

Source: Wikipedia

Space exploration

The United States has the largest space industry in the world spending more than the next 25 countries combined.

America has launched over 1100 payloads into space and has a large satellite manufacturing and delivery industry.

The average family unit in America has 1.87 children.

Life expectancy is relatively high. The 43rd highest in the world. Life expectancy

for men is 77.3 years

for women is 82 years

Source CIA factbook

A typical home in the suburbs will be two storeys

tall, have space for a garage and a garden.

Urban or Rural?

82% of the population are considered urban living in the towns and cities.

Transport in the United States

Due to the large size of the country, America has the world's longest road network, the world's longest rail netowrk and the world's largest air travel market. Car ownership is often essential with 92% of people commuting to work by car.

Source: Economist

Shopping in California

Family life in America

Pregerson Interchange, LA

Service industries in America

The service industries, as in many modern economies, accounts for 78% of what the country produces. The largest segment here is retail, employing 10% of the people in work. The next largest sectors are hotels and restaurants 8% and professional services 6%.

Source: Wikipedia

A suburban American home.

Videos for school - United States

The American National anthem.

Fascinating facts about the White House

In this topic, we look at the geography of America. We look at facts about America and images of America and we learn where the United States is. We go on to find out more about the US through the use of interesting images of America and this pages leads on to more colourful resources and information all designed to help you learn about the Geography of America. Lets read on to find out more about what makes America such a wonferful country to learn about.

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USA GEOGRAPHY Facts about America North America map Where is America The United States is located in the continent of North America, North of Mexico and South of Canada. It stretches from the Atlantic in the East to the Pacific in the west. Population of America The population of America is 321,368,864 (Jul 2015 estimate).

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France is the third largest country in Western Europe and the second one in terms of population. France was a colonial power, with dominions in all continents. Also because of this, the French population is multi-ethnic, with many people from North Africa.

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France has ample land area to provide habitat for a wide variety of plants and animals. More than 25 percent of its territory is covered with forest, and another 50 percent is countryside or farmland.

Lowland forests are home to deer and wild boar, while the woodlands of the Alps and Pyrenees provide refuge for rare chamois antelope, ibex, brown bears, and alpine hares, among many other species. The Mediterranean coastline is a stopover of millions of migrating African birds, including flamingos, vultures, egrets, and bee-eaters.

The French government has made a broad commitment to preserving open spaces and the wildlife they contain. About 10 percent of the country has been set aside as national or regional parklands and nature reserves.

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France Country Profile - National Geographic Kids

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France, the largest country in Western Europe, has long been a gateway between the continent's northern and southern regions.

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Great Britain is the largest island in Europe and the largest in the British archipelago. It lies to the north-west of the European continent, separated by the English Channel. Naval force has allowed British rule to extend over a fifth of the world.

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British Empire facts

What is an empire?

Empire is a term used to describe a group of territories ruled by one single ruler or state. Empires are built by countries that wish to control lands outside of their borders. Those lands can be close by or even thousands of miles away. For example, the Roman Empire (1st - 5th Centuries A.D.) stretched all the way from Britain to

What was the British Empire?

The British Empire is a term used to describe all the places around the world that were once ruled by Britain. Built over many years, it grew to include large areas of North America, , New Zealand, Asia and Africa, as well as small parts of Central and South America, too.

How big was the British Empire?

Why did Britain* want an empire?

But they weren't alone. Other European countries were also exploring the world, discovering new lands and building empires, too - the race was on, and England did not want to be left behind...

*It wasn't until 1707 that Scotland joined with England and Wales to become The Kingdom of Great Britain.

Where were the first colonies?

The first English colonies were in North America, at the time known as the ' New World'. Creating colonies was no easy task for the English! In 1585, the famous explorer Sir Walter Raleigh tried and failed to build an English settlement at a place called Roanoke in Virginia. It wasn't until 1607 that Captain John Smith founded the first permanent English colony at Jamestown in Virginia.

The 'First British Empire'

Over time, the English would claim more and more territories. This sometimes meant fighting with other European nations to take over their colonies.

Trading settlements were also created in India by a company called the East India Company. This company became so powerful, it allowed England to control of the trade of luxury goods like spices, cotton, silk and tea from India and China, and it even influenced politics.

The years 1775-1783 were a turning point in British history, as the nation lost a huge part of its empire in the American War of Independence. Feeling 'American' rather than 'British', and resentful of sending money back to Britain, 13 colonies in North America united and fought to be free from British rule. With the help of Spain, France and the Netherlands, they won the war, and gained independence, becoming the United States of America. This marked the end of what is now called the ' First British Empire '.

The 'Second British Empire'

Although Britain had lost a huge part of its North American territories, it claimed new lands in the late 18th Century and early 19th Century, forming the ' Second British Empire'. Colonies were founded in parts of , and later Trinidad and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), Singapore and Hong Kong () as well as other parts of Asia.

From 1881 to 1902, Britain competed with other European empire-builders in what became known as the ' Scramble for Africa'. By the early 1900s, huge parts of Africa - including , Kenya, Nigeria and large areas of southern Africa - all came under British rule. The British Empire was larger and more powerful than ever...
As Queen of Great Britain, Queen Victoria was also Queen of all the countries in the British Empire. She was even Empress of India! Here she is pictured on a Canadian postage stamp during her reign.

The British Empire and Indigenous Peoples

During the Second World War, India suffered some of the worst famines (lack of food) in human history, partly caused by the British government taking vital supplies away from the Indian people to support the war effort elsewhere - causing the death of millions.

Many Indigenous Peoples, including Indigenous Australians, lost not just their land, food and possessions, but their traditions, too. When British settlers arrived, they forcibly replaced the beliefs, language and traditions of Indigenous populations with their own, removing their cultural identities.

Today, many Indigenous communities are trying to reconnect with the heritage the British tried to erase, by celebrating their cultural identities and protecting them for the future.

Slavery and the British Empire

One of the most horrific parts of the history of the British Empire was its involvement in the trade of enslaved people - people who were made the property of others and forced to obey their owners' demands.

Throughout history, slavery has existed on all continents and in many societies, but when the European imperialists arrived in Africa in the 15th Century, they began the most organised slave operation the world had ever seen - the Transatlantic Slave Trade.

Slavery made Britain incredibly wealthy. It provided slave owners with unpaid labour to farm expensive items like sugar, tobacco and cotton, which they could sell for huge profits - at the expense of the enslaved people and their homelands. It also largely funded Britain's Industrial Revolution, which only went on to make Britain richer.

Even when slavery was abolished, former slave owners were paid compensation by the British government for the loss of their human 'property'. No compensation was paid to the enslaved people themselves! The compensation sum was vast, and in fact, the loan taken out to pay for it was still being paid off by British tax payers as recently as 2015!

Many former slave owners went on to invest their compensation money in businesses - some of which still exist today - or in development projects like the British railways. Therefore, even though slavery had ended, its legacy continued to live on.

*Slavery continued in territories run by the East India Company until 1843.

Why did the British Empire collapse?

Over the course of the 20th century, Britain's empire broke down in stages. After the First World War (1914-1918) there was a feeling of ' nationalism' sweeping the globe, whereby countries should have the right to be independent and rule themselves. In 1926, , Australia, New Zealand and South Africa became independent, meaning they were no longer under British control.

Over the next decades, however, the remaining colonies continued to push for independence. After the Second World War, Britain no longer had the wealth or strength to manage an empire overseas. Many colonies had fought for the British during the war (although people of colour were mainly given low-rank positions), and were making their own plans for independence.

That said, there are some small fragments of the British Empire that still exist today, known as 'British Overseas Territories'. These are mainly self-governing countries separate to the United Kingdom, that continue to share a bond with Britain. They include Anguilla, Bermuda, British Antarctic Territory, British Indian Ocean Territory, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Monserrat, Pitcairn Islands, St. Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands.

The fight for independence

An Indian postage stamp remembers the 1942 'Quit India' movement, which fought for freedom from British rule.

In their efforts to free themselves from British rule, many people were treated cruelly - and, in some cases, demands and protests were met with violence from British forces.

In 1919, for example, in an event known as the Amritsar Massacre, the British imprisoned and killed thousands of Indian people taking part in a peaceful independence protest.

What is the Commonwealth?

As the British Empire began to fall, it was replaced by what is today called The Commonwealth (or The Commonwealth of Nations) - an organisation that countries can choose to join, or leave. It began in 1931, when the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa formed the British Commonwealth of Nations. Today, it is made up of over 50 countries who work and trade together. They also share a common set of values, including fair political elections, the respect of human rights and working towards international peace.

What do we think about the British Empire today?

By the time the British Empire came to an end, it had truly left its mark on the world. Countries had experienced huge social, economic and political changes under British rule. But what the British Empire left behind is a complex topic that is questioned and discussed to this very day...

In the past, the British largely looked proudly on its empire, as a period that brought power and wealth to Britain, funding exciting new inventions, technology, the trade of exotic goods and helping other countries to 'modernise'.

Today, those British attitudes are changing. People are learning more about the wrongs that the Empire forced on Indigenous Peoples and the long-lasting damage that it left on its overseas territories, long after the empire was over.

While empire made Britain richer, its lands overseas became poorer, as much of the wealth was taken and sent back to Britain, or enjoyed by British landowners. This created vast differences in wealth - not only between countries, but between people of different races, too.

In societies across the British Empire, people of European descent (with white skin) were seen as 'superior' and had more wealth, rights and privileges than Indigenous people, especially enslaved people, and later, their descendants - who had darker or black skin.

In fact, following European imperialism, people of colour have had to work incredibly hard for equal rights and opportunities. Sadly, this struggle is still ongoing in countries around the world, including the United Kingdom. Even though laws state everyone should be treated equally regardless of race, people continue to face hardships and disadvantages because of the colour of their skin.

The good news is that more and more people are speaking out against racism and their voices are being heard. And thankfully today, more than ever, organisations, charities, governments and individuals around the world are working together to create a future where everyone is treated fairly and equally.

And you can help, too!

- Treat everybody equally, no matter the colour of their skin.

- If you see or hear someone being treated unfairly, because of where they come from or what they look like, tell a trusted grown-up, like a parent or teacher.

- Learn about different people and cultures around the world, and encourage others to do the same! You can find lots of fab features on different countries and cultures, here.

- Discover the stories of famous figures who have fought for equality, such as Rosa Parks, Nelson Mandela and Martin Luther King.

What did you think of our British Empire facts? Leave us a comment and let us know!

Images ⓒ Getty Images: 'British Empire Throughout the World' map (172849572), illustration of Jamestown, St Helena (1130096285), wood engraving of Tobago (1211948053), Canada postage stamp (93298541), Polynesian and Australian Indigenous people (1201874497), enslaved people boarding a vessel (157479463), British Empire 1914 map (96229510), Quit India postage stamp (175417247), Commonwealth of Nations flags (135350558), paper people (1187828086).

Words by: Paul Kane and Molly Groarke

Special thanks to the Museum of British Colonialism and the British Empire & Commonwealth Collection.

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British Empire facts! - National Geographic Kids

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Learn about one of the most important periods in history in our British Empire facts. How big was the British Empire? When and why did it rise and fall...?

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CITIZENSHIP - THE 2030 AGENDA: Nelson Mandela

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CITIZENSHIP - THE 2030 AGENDA: Nelson Mandela

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Nelson Mandela was the leader of the anti-Apartheid movement. Involved in the military actions against the regime, he was imprisoned for 27 years. Released from prison in 1990, Mandela was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 and became the first black president of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He promoted reconciliation to overcome Apartheid and finally bring democracy to his country.

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Nelson Mandela - Former President of South Africa | Mini Bio | Biography

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CITIZENSHIP - THE 2030 AGENDA: Apartheid in South Africa

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CITIZENSHIP - THE 2030 AGENDA: Apartheid in South Africa

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Apartheid was the racial segregation regime in force in South Africa from 1948 to 1991. According to it, white population must be separated from black and Asian people, who could not enjoy the same freedoms and rights. Although it was declared a crime in 1973, Apartheid was only finally abolished in 1994.

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CITIZENSHIP - THE 2030 AGENDA: Racist discrimination: Nazi anti-semitism and the Holocaust

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CITIZENSHIP - THE 2030 AGENDA: Racist discrimination: Nazi anti-semitism and the Holocaust

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Anti-Semitism is hatred towards the Jewish people. Hostility towards the Jews goes back many centuries, but under Nazism it took the form of systematic genocide. Between 1933 and 1945, the goal of Nazis was the extermination of all Jews: with method and planning, they carried out mass murders, also known as the Holocaust or Shoah.

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We're in the Holocaust Galleries at the Imperial War Museum in London. What we're looking at here is a concrete tile that has recently gone on display. It's a small object that tells one part of the devastating history of the Holocaust.

Lauren Wilmott: "So this is a tile or part of a tile from one of the gas chambers at the Treblinka death camp. It's most likely a wall tile and we know this from the limited survivor testimony that's in existence that describes the colour of the wall and the floor tiles in the gas chambers, and the reason that I say limited testimony is that there were very few survivors from the Treblinka death camp. It was a camp designed specifically for mass murder. Between July 1942 and September 1943 approximately nine hundred thousand Jews and two thousand Roma were murdered at the Treblinka death camp. To hide all traces of what had happened at Treblinka, the Nazis demolished the camp and turned it into a farm. Because of this it had been assumed that there was nothing left to find at Treblinka but in 2014 there was a large excavation. This tile was one of the artifacts found during this excavation so it's some of the only physical evidence in existence that was once witness to what happened in the gas chambers at Treblinka."

The genocide now known as the Holocaust was the state-sponsored mass murder of six million Jewish men, women and children. There was nothing inevitable about the decision of the Nazis and their collaborators to attempt to exterminate Europe's Jews, and hundreds of thousands of people were complicit. The Nazi regime came to power in 1933, which saw the spread of their insidious ideas of racial ideology. Persecution and violence towards Jewish people living within the Reich became sinister and overt. Jewish people were initially pressured to emigrate, and many escaped from the Reich. But thousands were left behind. War was declared on 3 September 1939. The events that followed eventually led to the Nazis' plan for the extermination of Europe's Jews.

Newsreel: "It was in September 1939 when Warsaw first made front-page news. With horror and bewilderment, fear and incredulity the world followed it."

The invasion of Poland and the start of the war in Europe provided circumstances for more extreme behaviour from the Nazi regime. Their invasion and occupation tactics were brutal and ruthless. Civilians were on the front line and were not spared. Nazism had become an explicitly murderous regime. Germany's territorial expansion also brought about a large increase in the number of Jews under the control of the Reich. This led to the formation of the first ghettos.

James Bulgin: "When the Nazis first occupied Poland they knew that they wanted to try and address their so-called Jewish problem, this self-invented problem of theirs, but they weren't quite sure about how to go about it so Heydrich sent out a schnellbrief to all of the Nazis going into this territory which laid out a kind of a principle that Jewish people should be centralised into population centres, and these places were described as ghettos. So these are places that Jews are forced to live. They become massively overpopulated. Now at first ghettos are open so people are able to leave and re-enter, but over time most of them become sealed and once they become sealed it means that levels of hardship amplify very quickly and ghettos become places of enormous suffering. They have very little access to food, very little access to medicine and death rates start to climb, and some people are forced to live in these places for years on end.

Wlodka Robertson: "We moved into the ghetto and we moved with my grandparents, and at first the conditions anyway for us, for the children, didn't seem so threatening but very quickly the conditions together became
worse and worse. There was German soldiers and some Ukrainians and that things just walking around the streets of the ghetto and shooting people or beating them up. They particularly like to beat up old men especially men who had beards. There was so much hunger that very quickly people began to die of hunger and I remember seeing children who I knew from the school before with swollen bellies and then then they were outside the gates even bodies put out because so many people died and people couldn't bury them."

The invasion of the Soviet Union was a turning point in the course of the war and the Holocaust. As the Nazis occupied Soviet countries in the East, they slaughtered hundreds of thousands of non-combatants that they considered 'enemies' within these territories.

JB: "As the German army advanced east into the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa they are followed by four units of Einsatzgruppen. Now these Einsatzgruppen answer to Heinrich Himmler head of the SS, and they're supposed to be a security unit protecting the advancing German line. In practice, it's really about the Nazis' racist ideology. So Einsatzgruppen are given orders to shoot any Jewish people in positions of authority within the Soviet Union. It doesn't take long for this to evolve to include all Jewish people. So it only takes six weeks for the Einsatzgruppen to move from shooting military-age men to shooting women and children. This has nothing to do with camps or gas chambers, this is about brutal face-to-face killings in ditches, in fields, in beaches, in ravines, in barns all across the occupied Soviet Union and the scale of this is vast. In Babi Yar for example over 32,000 people are shot in a matter of days, so this is when the Nazis' whole policy towards Jews becomes unambiguously murderous."

By early 1942, annihilation of the Jews had become the formal policy of the Nazis. The confirmation of the covert plan (Operation 'Reinhard') to 'liquidate' the 2 million Jews under Nazi control in occupied Poland was approved. This would begin with the deportation and murder of those living in ghettos. The extermination of all Jewish people in Europe is the ultimate goal. This requires immense logistical organisation and complicity not just from the Nazis, but commercial companies and hundreds of thousands of individuals across occupied Europe.

The so-called Reinhard camps, Belzec, Sobibor and Treblinka II, were the final destination of approximately 1.75 million men, women and children. Located within occupied Poland, they were designed to be discreet and efficient. People were told that they are being processed for work 'in the east', but will need to be showered before this procedure. The showers were actually gas chambers that pumped carbon monoxide into the sealed rooms. The process was brutal, barbaric, and routinely inefficient.

Separate to the small number of extermination camps, was the concentration camp network. This network had started in the early years of the regime to target all of those the Nazis considered enemies of the state, including communists, Jehovah's Witnesses, and homosexual men. The camp network grew rapidly as the war developed and the Nazis' need for additional labour to support the crumbling war effort became increasingly acute. Auschwitz became a centre of this process and by 1944 had become the focal point of both the mass murder and enslavement of Europe's Jews.

JB: "Within the concentration camp system Jewish people were considered by the Nazis to have no worth at all. They were treated incredibly badly, and from the Germans' point of view the ultimate aim was still to ensure all Jewish people within Europe were murdered, they just saw this as a different way of killing them rather than killing them directly they would work them to death, so they made them work on very, very, very meager rations in dreadful conditions, in barracks living with three or four or five people to a bunk infested with lice, and they made them work incredibly dangerous versions of hard labour in order to serve Germany's ailing war effort."

LW: "This jacket belonged to Leibish Engelberg when he was a prisoner in the concentration camp system. Leibish survived several forced labour camps and numerous concentration camps. Leibish, his wife Liber and two young sons David and Israel moved from Belgium to the unoccupied zone of France thinking that they would be safer. But in the summer of 1942 roundup of Jews, particularly foreign Jews which the Engelbergs were, began and Leibish and his family were arrested on the 26 of August 1942. Leibish and his family which included his wife, sons and brothers, and their families, were put on convoy number 29. This convoy was one of those from France and the Netherlands that was stopped at a town called Kosel on its way to Auschwitz. Here men between about the ages of 15 to 50 were selected for forced labour. Leibish and his brother Joseph were likely selected, the rest of his family continued on to Auschwitz where they were murdered in the gas chambers on arrival. Leibish and his brother Joseph actually remained together throughout the duration of the war. They were held together in several forced labour camps and then in concentration camps including Auschwitz-Birkenau and Dachau and they were liberated from a sub-camp of Dachau in April 1945.

"This jacket was worn by Leibish within the concentration camp system and he kept this jacket after liberation. He actually kept it in a cupboard at his home but never spoke about his experiences. After his death his daughter Rita donated the jacket to Imperial War Museums so that we could tell his story. There were only 34 men of Leibish's entire transport of a thousand people who were known to have survived until the end of the war. Leibish and his brother Joseph were among the 34."

As the Reich became encircled by the Allies on all sides, the Germans became very aware that the concentration camps on the edges of their territories were in the path of the advancing armies. So they forced the few prisoners who are left alive to walk huge distances through the winter back to Germany. These became known as the death marches. They were enormously dangerous. If people couldn't keep up they were shot, and many froze or starved to death. They were also walking straight through towns and villages and were hugely visible. About a third of the people on these death marches did not survive.

JB: "So from relatively early on the Germans are aware of the fact that the world might not see things as they do, and so from 1941 they begin efforts to cover the traces of their crimes. But as the Allies close in on the right these efforts start to begin with an increased volume so the Germans seek to raze any remaining sites to the ground if they're able to, they seek to destroy paperwork and they also become really aware that the prisoners themselves are sources of testimony to potential Allied investigators, so they don't want any prisoners to be found alive also because of the volume of this crime means that it's not possible to destroy all
of these traces. So whilst a huge volume of it is destroyed, a huge volume of it isn't as well."

The camps were liberated from July 1944, and footage of the scenes that Allied soldiers encountered were witnessed across the world. The conditions are so bad that many prisoners continued to die after liberation due to malnutrition and disease. For those prisoners that did survive, liberation was not the end of their suffering.

JB: "So as soon as the Allies begin to liberate the few remaining concentration camps and they find the people within them these people cease to be prisoners of the Nazis and become displaced persons, and these people have nowhere to go. The homes that they had come from that they've been forced out of or taken from aren't theirs anymore. A lot of them don't want to go back to the countries or the neighbourhoods and be surrounded by the people who are happy to see them deported, but also a lot of them don't have homes to go back to because the homes have been taken from them or been destroyed. And these DP camps become the homes of the people who live within them for years, some of them are in the sites of former concentration camps, others are not, and they become places where people start to rebuild their lives and make connections with the few people that they can find who are left alive, but of course that's a massive challenge for these individuals because what they'd experienced is more than a lot of people can bear, and they know that whatever the years in front of them hold it's going to be a very, very, very different reality to the one that they'd left before the Second World War."

LW: "So what we have here is the wedding dress worn by Gena Goldfinger on her wedding day to Norman Turgel in October 1945, and what's so special about this dress, about this story, is that Gena and Norman met when Norman entered Belsen concentration camp upon its liberation, and the two met and were engaged within a week, and they got married a few months later, and this is the dress that Gena was wearing. It's made of British parachute silk and made into a dress by a local tailor. So Bergen-Belsen was liberated on 15 April 1945 and the conditions at that time were catastrophic, it was in a state of absolute chaos. The British soldiers upon arrival found almost 60,000 prisoners so it's severely overcrowded, and typhus was running rampant throughout the camp. This wedding dress tells the story of Gena who survived the Holocaust. She was forced to face a future and rebuild her life, but it was a future that she had to face without her family, the majority of whom didn't survive, without a home to go to and without any possessions."

While accounts of survival help us to remember and give a human face to a series of events that are so hard to comprehend, it is also important to recognise that millions of people - the vast majority - were not able to escape or survive. The Nazis were ultimately unsuccessful in their attempt to annihilate Europe's Jews, but nevertheless, the Holocaust is overwhelmingly a history of loss.

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The Holocaust was the systematic murder of Europe's Jews by the Nazis and their collaborators during the Second World War. This programme of targeted mass murder was a central part of the Nazis' broader plans to create a new world order based on their ideology.

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CITIZENSHIP - THE 2030 AGENDA: Goal 16 Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions

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CITIZENSHIP - THE 2030 AGENDA: Goal 16 Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions

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Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.

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ENGLISH: Wystan Hugh Auden, ‘Refugee Blues’ (1939)

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ENGLISH: Wystan Hugh Auden, ‘Refugee Blues’ (1939)

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With the advance of Nazism in Europe, Auden immediately saw its danger and horror. He wrote a series of poems including Refugee Blues, in which he described the terrible conditions of European Jews, forced to leave their homelands, and persecuted by Hitler. At the same time, he denounced the indifference of Western democracies.

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Sheila Hancock - 'Refugee Blues' by W H Auden for Holocaust Memorial Day 2017

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MUSIC: Fabrizio De André, 'La guerra di Piero'

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MUSIC: Fabrizio De André, 'La guerra di Piero'

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This is one of Fabrizio De André's best known lyrics and an anti-war anthem. This song explains that the sense of humanity is the first victim of war.

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Fabrizio De André. La Guerra Di Piero.1969

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ITALIAN: Salvatore Quasimodo, 'Alle fronde dei salici'

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ITALIAN: Salvatore Quasimodo, 'Alle fronde dei salici'

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Is it possible to make poetry in the face of the horror of war? Quasimodo suggests that it is not possible. Poetry is an expression of the human soul, but war has shown that the human soul is dead. And poets cannot make poetry because poetry is helpless in the face of war.

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E come potevamo noi cantare
con il piede straniero sopra il cuore,
fra i morti abbandonati nelle piazze
sull'erba dura di ghiaccio, al lamento
d'agnello dei fanciulli, all'urlo nero
della madre che andava incontro al figlio
crocifisso sul palo del telegrafo?
Alle fronde dei salici, per voto,
anche le nostre cetre erano appese,
oscillavano lievi al triste vento.

Note di L'impossibilità creativa del poeta non è data da mancanza di ispirazione, ma dalla barbarie delle guerra, dall'orrore dell'occupazione del suolo italiano da parte della Germania Nazista ("il piede straniero sopra il cuore"). I salici (piangenti) sono le piante a cui sono appese, volontariamente, le cetre dei poeti. In questa immagine ci sono echi della La poesia fu "scritta alla fine dell'inverno del 1944, nel periodo più crudele della nostra storia"* e fa parte, come * Salvatore Quasimodo citato da Rosalma Salina Borello in Danilo Ruocco

Il canto poetico, simbolo di comunicazione serena tra gli uomini, resta muto per scelta ("per voto"). A tale proposito Quasimodo scrisse in una nota dedicata alla poesia: "Il poeta non canta, dico io, nel primo verso, [...] perché il canto è la rivelazione più profonda del sentimento dell'uomo"*.
Restando mute le voci "calde", "vere" (perché rivelatrici del "sentimento dell'uomo") dei poeti, la comunicazione umana sembra affidata soltanto a uno strumento "freddo" (in quanto tecnologico e "funzionale") quale è il telegrafo. Ma anch'esso, però, in tempo di barbarie, perde la sua unica funzione (quella, appunto, di facilitare la comunicazione tra gli uomini) e ne assume un'altra del tutto inumana (quella di crocifisso per i giovani: i "figli").

Bibbia (il Salmo CXXXVII nel quale si parla della sofferenza degli ebrei durante la cattività babilonese) e del Nabucco di Verdi (il coro "Va' pensiero sull'ali dorate", precisamente i versi "Arpa d'or dei fatidici vati | perché muta dal salice pendi?", cui sembra dare una risposta Quasimodo). Milano, agosto 1943 (leggi), di Giorno dopo giorno (vedi scheda).

Per conoscere Quasimodo, Milano, Mondadori, 1973, p.71.

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E come potevamo noi cantare con il piede straniero sopra il cuore, fra i morti abbandonati nelle piazze sull'erba dura di ghiaccio, al lamento d'agnello dei fanciulli, all'urlo nero della madre che andava incontro al figlio crocifisso sul palo del telegrafo? Alle fronde dei salici, per voto, anche le nostre cetre erano appese, oscillavano lievi al triste vento.

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ITALIAN: Salvatore Quasimodo, ‘Milano, agosto 1943’

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ITALIAN: Salvatore Quasimodo, ‘Milano, agosto 1943’

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In August 1943, Milan was heavily bombed by the Allied army. The war caused destruction and death in the city. The whole “city is dead”, the poet wrote, the living is like the dead, nature is dead. It is not only a poem, but also a snapshot of the tragedy of war.

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Invano cerchi tra la polvere,

povera mano, la città è morta.

È morta: s'è udito l'ultimo rombo

sul cuore del Naviglio. E l'usignolo

è caduto dall'antenna, alta sul convento,

dove cantava prima del tramonto.

Non scavate pozzi nei cortili:

i vivi non hanno più sete.

Non toccate i morti, così rossi, così gonfi:

lasciateli nella terra delle loro case:

la città è morta, è morta.

Nell'agosto del 1943 Milano fu bersaglio di una serie di bombardamenti da parte degli Alleati anglo-americani che, oltre al capoluogo lombardo, colpirono anche le altre città industriali del Nord.

Quasimodo descrive la desolazione post-bombardamento. Anche se il nazi-fascismo andava debellato, il poeta è profondamente scosso dalla ferocia della guerra e dai lutti che essa porta con sé. Nella poesia, Quasimodo non parla di un lutto in particolare, ma di quello totalizzante riguardante la città di Milano che, nella poesia, risulta essere "morta".

Dei cadaveri, Quasimodo, traccia una descrizione, sommaria quanto efficace: essi sono "rossi" e "gonfi".

Dei vivi, il poeta non dà indicazioni descrittive, ma solo dettagli: di essi s'intravede una "povera mano", se ne sente il rumore dei loro aeroplani e si dice che essi "non hanno più sete".

Anche la Natura è stata colpita a morte: l'usignolo è morto precipitando dall'antenna e l'acqua potabile delle condutture non è più utilizzabile (ed è per questo che si ricorreva ai pozzi).

La poesia fa parte di Giorno dopo giorno ( vedi la scheda).

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Invano cerchi tra la polvere, povera mano, la città è morta. È morta: s'è udito l'ultimo rombo sul cuore del Naviglio. E l'usignolo è caduto dall'antenna, alta sul convento, dove cantava prima del tramonto. Non scavate pozzi nei cortili: i vivi non hanno più sete.

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ITALIAN: Beppe Fenoglio, ‘Il partigiano Johnny’ (1968)

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ITALIAN: Beppe Fenoglio, ‘Il partigiano Johnny’ (1968)

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It is one of the most important novels on the Italian Resistance. Published after the death of Fenoglio, it recounts the author’s partisan experience which, through the novel, becomes a universal epic story. ‘Il partigiano Johnny’ is a fundamental text of 20th century literature also for its innovative style, in which the Italian language is often mixed with English expressions and words.

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Fotografie tratte dall'album di famiglia di Beppe Fenoglio aprono questo video, dedicato in particolare alla partecipazione dello scrittore alla resistenza partigiana. Fenoglio seppe tradurre quell'esperienza in letteratura in maniera esemplare. , romanzo del 1968, viene definito dal critico Lorenzo Mondo, "summa della narrativa partigiana". La lettura delle pagine de Il partigiano Johnny fa da sfondo a filmati d'epoca e al viaggio per immagini nei luoghi di vita dello scrittore; sequenze del film per la televisione si alternano alle testimonianze di studiosi e partigiani.

Johnny stava osservando la sua città dalla finestra della villetta collinare che la sua famiglia s'era precipitata ad affittargli per imboscarlo dopo il suo imprevisto, insperato rientro dalla lontana, tragica Roma fra le settemplici maglie tedesche. Lo spettacolo dell'8 settembre locale, la resa di una caserma con dentro un intero reggimento davanti a due autoblindo tedesche not entirely manned, la deportazione in Germania in vagoni piombati avevano tutti convinto, familiari ed hangers-on, che Johnny non sarebbe mai tornato; nella più felice delle ipotesi stava viaggiando per la Germania in uno di quei medesimi vagoni piombati, partito da una qualsiasi stazione dell'Italia centrale - Il partigiano Johnny, incipit

Beppe (Giuseppe) Fenoglio nasce ad Alba (Cuneo), il 1º marzo 1922 da Amilcare e Margherita Faccenda. I genitori gestiscono una macelleria. Agli anni del liceo risale la sua passione per la lingua e la letteratura inglese e americana. S'iscrive alla Facoltà di Lettere di Torino. Chiamato alle armi, interrompe gli studi universitari. Nel 1943 frequenta un corso per allievi ufficiali; quindi viene trasferito a Roma, da dove, dopo l'armistizio dell'8 settembre, riesce a tornare ad Alba. Qui si arruola tra i partigiani. Negli ultimi mesi di guerra è ufficiale di collegamento con la missione inglese di stanza nel Monferrato. Dopo la liberazione, ritorna ad Alba. Lavora come procuratore presso un'azienda vinicola, la ditta Marenco e inizia a dedicarsi alla narrativa. Nel 1960 sposa Luciana Bombardi e nel 1961 nasce la figlia Margherita. Nel 1949 l'editore Einaudi rifiuta la sua prima raccolta Ra cconti della guerra civile; e l'anno successivo Elio Vittorini, sempre per Einaudi, gli consiglia di sacrificare il romanzo La paga del sabato per ricavarne due racconti. Solamente nel 1952 Vittorini gli pubblica, nella collana di narrativa I gettoni, di Einaudi, la raccolta di racconti I ventitregiorni della città di Alba. Poi, nel 1954, sempre nella stessa collana, esce il romanzo breve, centrato sul mondo delle Langhe, La malora. Deluso dalla sfavorevole accoglienza della critica e dalle riserve espresse da Vittorini su La malora, rompe con Einaudi e nel 1959 pubblica presso Garzanti il romanzo Primavera di bellezza, per il quale nel '60 gli viene assegnato il Premio Prato. Nel 1962, inoltre, vince il Premio Alpi Apuane per il racconto Ma il mio amore è Paco, apparso sul n.150 di "Paragone". Nella notte tra il 17 e il 18 febbraio 1963 Fenoglio muore a Torino per un cancro ai polmoni. Nello stesso 1963 viene edita, insieme con Una questione privata, la raccolta di racconti Un giorno di fuoco, che ottiene il Premio Puccini-Senigallia. Postumi appaiono Frammenti di romanzo su "Cratilo" (luglio 1963), Aloysius Butor su "45° Parallelo" (1964) e L'affare dell'anima su "Fenoglioinedito" (1968). Dai manoscritti, raccolti ad Alba in un apposito Fondo Fenoglio sono stati ricavati: Il partigiano Johnny, vincitore del Premio Prato (1968) e La paga del sabato (1969).

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Beppe Fenoglio, da partigiano a scrittore - Letteratura - Rai Cultura

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Fotografie tratte dall'album di famiglia di Beppe Fenoglio aprono questo video, dedicato in particolare alla partecipazione dello scrittore alla resistenza partigiana. Fenoglio seppe tradurre quell'esperienza in letteratura in maniera esemplare. , romanzo del 1968, viene definito dal critico Lorenzo Mondo, "summa della narrativa partigiana".

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Neorealism was a literary movement that developed at the end of World War II. Neorealist novels criticised the society and customs of the time and promoted a radical social renewal. Created during the Resistance, Neorealist literature is strongly marked by the experience of war and inspired by anti-fascist values.

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ITALIAN: Italo Calvino, 'Il sentiero dei nidi di ragno ' (1947)

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ITALIAN: Italo Calvino, 'Il sentiero dei nidi di ragno ' (1947)

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Pin is a child at a very difficult time: Italy was occupied by Nazi-Fascist forces, fought by partisan groups. It is through the eyes of a child that Italo Calvino recounts the complex experience of the Italian Resistance movement and war. A tragedy in which people were often involved without knowing the real reasons.

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Salvador Dalì, Le Visage de la guerre (1940), Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam

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ART: Painting, Salvador Dalì, 'The Face of War' (1940)

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ART: Painting, Salvador Dalì, 'The Face of War' (1940)

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Salvador Dali painted ‘The Face of War’ between the Spanish Civil War and the beginning of World War II. In his painting, the face of war is a skull, while its mouth and eyes contain other skulls, endlessly repeating themselves. For the artist, war and its horrors are part of human destiny.

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ART: Movie, 'Dunkirk' by Christopher Nolan

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ART: Movie, 'Dunkirk' by Christopher Nolan

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Dunkirk is a small town in northern France. Here, between May and June 1940, the largest evacuation of the Allied armies - pushed out to sea by the Nazi army – took place. In nine days, more than 400,000 soldiers were evacuated using every type of vessel, from warships to civilian boats.

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Facing the unstoppable advance of the Nazi army, some in the UK would prefer to make a deal with Adolf Hitler. Not Winston Churchill. With this speech Churchill presents to Parliament the hard reality that Britain and Europe are living and declares his ultimate aim: 'Victory at all costs'.

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"Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat" -- Winston Churchill's first speech as Prime Minister

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ART: Movie, 'Darkest Hour' by Joe Wright

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ART: Movie, 'Darkest Hour' by Joe Wright

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The darkest hour for the UK was May 1940. The Nazi army was advancing across Europe and the UK was preparing to defend itself against a possible attack by Germany. Winston Churchill, newly appointed Prime Minister, has to answer the dilemma: find an agreement with Hitler or resist to the end?

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Darkest Hour - Official Trailer #2 | IMDb

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This true story begins at the precipice of World War II as, within days of becoming Prime Minister of Great Britain, Winston Churchill (Academy Award nominee Gary Oldman) must face one of his most turbulent and defining trials: exploring a negotiated peace treaty with Nazi Germany, or standing firm…

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SCIENCE: Enrico Fermi and the atomic bomb

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SCIENCE: Enrico Fermi and the atomic bomb

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Enrico Fermi was an Italian physicist who won the Nobel Prize in 1938. He studied the atom, and in particular the possibility of generating a nuclear chain reaction. In 1944, he participated in the Manhattan Project to build the first atomic bomb. That is why he is called the ‘architect of the atomic bomb’.

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On December 2, 1942, the world's first self-sustaining, controlled nuclear chain reaction took place paving the way for a variety of advancements in nuclear science.

The experiment took place at the University of Chicago's football stadium under the direction of Enrico Fermi-a Nobel Prize-winning scientist.

Chicago Pile-1 was the world's first nuclear reactor to go critical and fueled future research by the Energy Department's national laboratories to help develop early naval and nuclear reactors.

Fifteen years to this historic day, America's first full-scale atomic electric power plant went critical on December 2, 1957 as the nation began reaping the benefits of clean and reliable nuclear power.

Here are 10 intriguing facts you probably didn't know about the world's first controlled release of nuclear energy.
1. The experiment took place at 3:36 p.m. in a converted squash court at the University of Chicago's abandoned Stagg Field in Chicago, Illinois. 2. Forty-nine scientists, led by Fermi, were present for the event. Leona Marshall was the lone female researcher. 3. The word "pile" was used in the first few years of the atomic age and gradually gave way to "reactor" to identify the key device that controls the nuclear fission reaction.

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10 Intriguing Facts About the World's First Nuclear Chain Reaction

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On December 2, 1942, the world's first self-sustaining, controlled nuclear chain reaction took place paving the way for a variety of advancements in nuclear science. The experiment took place at the University of Chicago's football stadium under the direction of Enrico Fermi-a Nobel Prize-winning scientist.

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