# data[].attributes.body
Following the 1879 Constitution, California’s government became increasingly conservative, partly due to anti-immigrant sentiment and the influence of corporate power, especially from the railroads. In the 1880s, labor movements emerged in response to poor working conditions, but were often suppressed or ignored by state leaders. By the 1910s, Progressive Era reforms pushed back against this conservatism, advocating for regulation, worker protections, and political reforms. The rise of unions during this time marked a turning point, challenging elite control and laying the groundwork for later liberal policies. These shifts reflected a growing demand for economic and political fairness (Rolle & Verge, 2008).

# data[].attributes.body
Anti-Chinese sentiment in California has deep roots going back to the mid-1800s, when Chinese immigrants began arriving in large numbers during the Gold Rush. Many white settlers viewed them as economic threats, accusing them of taking jobs by working for lower wages. Racial prejudice also played a major role—Chinese immigrants were seen as culturally and racially “unassimilable,” which made them targets of suspicion and hostility. Laws like the Foreign Miners’ Tax (1850) and the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) reflected this fear and discrimination. Politicians and labor leaders, including some within the growing labor movement, justified their views by claiming Chinese workers were undercutting wages and weakening white labor solidarity. These attitudes were reinforced by media and political rhetoric that portrayed Chinese people as dangerous outsiders who could not become part of American society. Over time, these sentiments became embedded in California’s legal and political systems, shaping immigration policy and race relations for decades.

# data[].attributes.body
Under the Juridical Act of 1928, California Indigenous groups were allowed to file claims against the U.S. government for lands taken without treaties. Many tribes, particularly those left landless after California’s statehood, used this opportunity to seek compensation. However, the process was slow and often unjust. Settlements were typically minimal and did not restore land or fully recognize tribal sovereignty. Early activism included organizing legal teams and collecting documentation to support their claims. As scholar Robert Heizer noted, “the process was more symbolic than compensatory, reflecting the limited federal commitment to Indian justice” (Heizer, American Anthropologist, 1971).

# data[].attributes.body
The Great Depression and Dust Bowl migration of the 1930s brought a large influx of white migrants, often called “Okies” and “Arkies,” to California in search of farm work. Their arrival intensified competition for jobs and deepened hostility toward existing ethnic migrant workers, particularly Mexicans, Filipinos, and Japanese. Events like the Watsonville Riots (1930) and Bloody Thursday (1934) revealed growing racial tensions and violence. Rather than protecting vulnerable communities, local and state governments responded with discriminatory laws and policies, such as anti-picketing ordinances and immigration crackdowns, that marginalized non-white laborers and reinforced segregation. These actions institutionalized racism in California’s farm labor system.

# data[].attributes.body
Anti-Japanese sentiment in California began during World War I, rooted in racial prejudice, fears of economic competition, and the belief that Japanese immigrants could not assimilate. Japanese Americans’ success in farming fueled resentment among white farmers. These attitudes worsened during World War II, especially after the attack on Pearl Harbor, which led to widespread suspicion that Japanese Americans were potential spies. This fear, though unproven, justified Executive Order 9066, which authorized their forced removal and incarceration. California supported such discrimination through state statutes like alien land laws, which barred Japanese immigrants from owning property, reinforcing racial exclusion and economic marginalization.

# data[].attributes.body
Ethnic conflict involving Hispanics in California has deep roots, particularly around Mexican migrant labor. During the 20th century, Mexican workers were welcomed for cheap labor but excluded socially and legally. They faced poor working conditions, low wages, and lived in segregated communities. The Zoot Suit Riots of 1943, where Mexican American youth were attacked by servicemen and blamed by authorities, highlighted racial tensions. California laws reinforced discrimination through school segregation, housing covenants, and immigration raids. As Rolle and Verge note, these policies “reflected a deep-rooted pattern of exclusion aimed at preserving white economic and social dominance” (Rolle & Verge, 2008, p. 317).

# data[].attributes.body
During World War II, California became a hub of defense production, especially in shipbuilding cities like Long Beach and San Diego. With many men serving overseas, women entered the workforce in record numbers, taking on roles traditionally reserved for men. In California shipyards, women, especially white, Black, and Latina women, worked as welders, electricians, and machinists. This shift not only challenged traditional gender roles but also highlighted the discriminatory labor practices and wage gaps they faced. The demand for equality in war industries sparked broader civil rights conversations and laid the foundation for postwar reform. As public awareness grew, California saw new legislation and initiative proposals aimed at reducing workplace discrimination, supporting equal pay, and promoting fair hiring. These wartime contributions helped catalyze support for civil rights measures in the state, setting the stage for more inclusive policies in the decades that followed.

# data[].attributes.body
During World War II, California’s defense industry boomed, creating thousands of jobs in shipyards, aircraft factories, and military bases. This demand sparked the Second Great Migration, bringing thousands of Black Americans from the South to California in search of opportunity and escape from Jim Crow laws. In cities like Los Angeles and Oakland, Black workers contributed significantly to the war effort despite facing discrimination in housing, employment, and education. Their presence and activism increased political pressure for civil rights reform. As PBS SoCal notes, “The influx of Black migrants laid the groundwork for new political voices that challenged systemic racism in California” (“The Great Migration,” n.d.).