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Summary of the event: In 1969, Chandler and Plakos investigated the intelligence of Spanish speaking Mexican- American students and potential misuse of intelligence tests. When conducting intelligence testing in Spanish, it was found that students who were previously classified as educable mentally retarded (EMR) based on English- only testing, were in fact not EMR.

Importance of assessment of MLs today: Chandler and Plakos’ study clearly demonstrates the importance of appropriately testing non- English speaking students. Their research indicates that when tests are English- only, students are not only disadvantaged but likely to be classified or labeled as educable mentally retarded (EMR), and then inappropriately placed in such classes.

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 “Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Work” 

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 “Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Work” 

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Summary of the event: In a 1980 study, Anyon analyzes the curriculum of five elementary schools in differing social class communities. Anyon finds that in working class schools, learning is based around rote behavior and little choice or decision making; this lacks higher order thinking. Contrastingly, in professional affluent schools, learning is viewed as a creative process, carried out independently.

Importance of assessment of MLs today: “Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Work” by Jean Anyon has had lasting impacts on social class analysis arguments. Anyon’s work also directly impacts the understanding of instructing and assessing MLs. MLs are more likely to be from working class families and communities, and therefore the instruction they receive is less likely to provoke higher order thinking. With instruction based on rote behavior, measurements of learning must consider this and base assessments off this.

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Summary of the event: In a 1996 paper, Guadalupe Valdés suggested that school failure can be explained with a genetic argument, cultural argument, or a class analysis argument. The ideas put forth by Valdés have not been recognized by many, especially the genetic argument. The cultural argument and a class analysis argument claim school failure is an environmental result, either cultural environment or school environment.

Importance of assessment of MLs today: Valdés’s ideas demonstrate how thinking around diverse groups still needs growth and change, and how some may view racially and culturally diverse groups as fundamentally different. MLs are often subjected to judgements and prejudice, and this has lasting impacts on how they are assessed. Although Valdés does create a conversation around social class analysis, which is needed, in all I believe these ideas can negatively affect MLs.

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Summary of the event: In 2002, No Child Left Behind (NCLB) altered how students throughout the United States are tested, and how these assessments are used to categorize schools as successful or not. NCLB instituted standardized testing that tested all students, regardless of English proficiency, in their English and math skills.

Importance of assessment of MLs today: No Child Left Behind (NCLB) resulted in MLs across the United States being tested in English before they knew English; thus impacting the validity of scores. NCLB also resulted in labels such as Limited English Proficient (LEP). There have been many documented harmful effects of NCLB, including “increasing the number of MLs classified as having special education needs (Mahoney, 2024, 39)”.

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Summary of the event: When Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) was passed in 2015, standardized tests remained the method for measuring academic progress. Unlike No Child Left Behind (NCLB), the ESSA gave states freedom to improve scores in their own ways; but also instituted progress tracking for certain groups such as MLs. ESSA still requires all students take standardized tests, however test scores from students who have been in the United States for less than a year will not contribute towards a school’s rating.

Importance of assessment of MLs today: The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) improved upon standardized testing from No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and provided support for MLs. However, ESSA still focuses heavily on tests as main forms of assessments. ESSA also is thought to be anti- bilingual education and promotes English- only policies.