# data[].attributes.body
URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AJrLMO6OYPY

TITLE: One Mindanao: Poor Water Supply

AUTHOR: GMA Regional TV

DATE PUBLISHED: August 6, 2021

KEY INFO: The short video highlights an issue where residents are facing a very low supply of water in the morning, due to multiple factors.

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URL:

https://www.sunstar.com.ph› davao63 Davao City elementary schools 'have no access' to clean water

TITLE: 63 Davao City elementary schools ‘have no access’ to clean water

AUTHOR: SunStar Philippines

DATE PUBLISHED: September 14, 2019

KEY INFO: DepED Davao City Division Health Unit discovered that out of 290 public elementary schools in Davao City, 63 schools with no clean and potable water source.

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UR: https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1204098?fbclid=IwAR3mHo1KZXiKB_ZdeTenmZvDp6S0tMSopry_Tp6lZ8F26wkfiAh6Zrp6imc

TITLE: DOST, MSU-IIT innovation help Bukidnon IPs get clean water

AUTHOR: Nef Luczon

DATE PUBLISHED: June 22, 2023

KEY INFO: CAGAYAN DE ORO CITY – A joint project between the Department of Science and Technology in Northern Mindanao (DOST-10) and Mindanao State University–Iligan Institute has helped an indigenous community in Talakag, Bukidnon have access to potable water.

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URL:

https://www.ilo.org/manila/projects/WCMS_734317/lang--en/index.htm

TITLE: Improvement of Water Supply Equipment Management Capacity for the Establishment of Peace in Mindanao

AUTHOR: International Labour Organization (ILO)

DATE PUBLISHED: April 1, 2019

KEY INFO: Households in Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM) have little no no access to potable water supply, Making these communities vulnerable to water-borne diseases as they rely on unsafe or unprotected water source.

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Despite having vast water resources, majority of households in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM) still have inadequate access to potable water supply. Most communities are vulnerable to water-borne diseases with many poor families relying on unprotected and contaminated water resources.

Data from the Philippine Statistical Authority in 2016 showed that only 53 per cent of families in the region have access to safe water. This is lower than the national average of 85 per cent.

The International Labour Organization (ILO) and the Government of Japan through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs have partnered to provide jobs and promote peace through improved water supply and sanitation services in post-conflict areas in the region. The project builds on ILO's existing and previous work in the Philippines, including on crisis recovery and prevention, skills development and employment creation especially for vulnerable groups, green works, green jobs, just transition, and local economic development.

ILO interventions in affected communities contributes to reducing poverty with jobs created, with new and practical skills acquired, and with better living conditions through improved water supply, sanitation and hygiene facilities, and improving agricultural productivity through water infrastructure. The project further advocates for workers' rights, social dialogue, social protection and employment creation. Local communities are also involved in developing, constructing, operating and maintaining water supply, sanitation and hygiene facilities.

The ILO-Japan project implements water supply development initiatives in selected municipalities of the region from the provinces of Basilan, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Sulu and Tawi-Tawi. Over 1,800 workers and almost 12,000 households in conflict-affected communities stand to benefit from economic activities. The project further integrates environmental standards and conservation measures to promote green jobs and to provide immediate income. It contributes towards the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), specifically Goal 6 on clean water and sanitation, and Goal 8 on decent work and economic growth.

The Government of Japan has a longstanding cooperation with the ILO dating back to 1974. Japan is a key partner of the ILO in the promotion of social justice and decent work, especially in the Asia and the Pacific region. In the Philippines, the Government of Japan has supported a number of projects including on disaster response, sustainable livelihood, peace and security, local economic development, social protection, and human trafficking.

For further information please contact:

Ms Ma Jennylyn Aguinaldo
Project Manager
Tel +6364 4255342
Email

Ms Ma. Concepcion Sardaña
Senior Programme Officer
Tel +632 8580 9900
Email

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Improvement of Water Supply Equipment Management Capacity for the Establishment of Peace in Mindanao

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The ILO and the Government of Japan have partnered to provide jobs and to promote peace through improved water supply and sanitation services in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM).

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5.) LOCAL OR NATIONAL NEWS VIDEO SEGMENT

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5.) LOCAL OR NATIONAL NEWS VIDEO SEGMENT

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URL:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-j_QSN44GTo

TITLE: Northern Mindanao stakeholders discuss ways to ensure water security

AUTHOR:
PTV Philippines (On Youtube)

DATE PUBLISHED: May 31, 2023

KEY INFO:

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Northern Mindanao stakeholders discuss ways to ensure water security

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URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=--lC1sNdgA0\

TITLE: Water security remains a problem for many in the Philippines

AUTHOR: CNA (On Youtube)

DATE PUBLISHED: Nov. 2, 2021

KEY INFO: The news segment covers the situation of a family that lives below the poverty line which does not have access to sanitary water as a call for world leaders to discuss the effects of climate change on the water cycle.

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Water security remains a problem for many in the Philippines

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URL: https://satoyama-initiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/23.-Hydrology-for-the-Environment-Life-and-Policy_HELP_Davao-2.pdf

TITLE: WSP4IP Project: Development and implementation of community-based Water Safety Plans (WSP) for two peri-urban indigenous people (IP) communities in Mindanao, Philippines

AUTHOR: Hydie R. Maspiñas

DATE PUBLISHED: March 2014

KEY INFO: The poster outlines the Water Safety Plans implemented to improve health and reduce poverty. It also showcases issues and challenges faced by the plans, as well as solutions and keys for success of the program.

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8.) PUBLIC SERVICE MESSAGE OR PROMOTIONAL VIDEO

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8.) PUBLIC SERVICE MESSAGE OR PROMOTIONAL VIDEO

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URL:https://www.usaid.gov/philippines/our-work-mindanao

TITLE: OUR WORK IN MINDANAO

AUTHOR: USAID

DATE PUBLISHED:

KEY INFO: USAID highlights their work in Mindanao, showcasing multiple projects, one of which is strengthening water and environmental efficiency through sustainable water access and management of biodiversity and forest ecosystems.

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U.S. Agency for International Development

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Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago comprise about one-third of the Philippines' territory and one-quarter of the country's total population. In spite of its significant potential for economic growth, conflict and instability discourages investment, drains government resources, and impedes development. Mindanao has the highest levels of poverty in the Philippines, weak rule of law and poor accountability, inadequate social services, and limited economic opportunity.

USAID seeks to improve peace and stability in focus areas in Central Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago. A number of activities are implemented to strengthen local governance capacity to provide improved services and enhance the participation of civil society organizations in development planning. Activities are focused in six conflict-affected areas and their surrounding regions: Marawi, Cotabato, Zamboanga, Isabela City in Northern Basilan, Southern Basilan, and the island of Sulu.
ACTIVITIES Enhancing Governance, Accountability, and Engagement

Establishes partnerships between local institutions, civil society organizations, and local government units (LGUs)

Strengthens local governments and their capacity to deliver services.

Enhances government transparency and accountability to increase people's confidence in government

Expands mechanisms that facilitate public participation in governance.

Increases civic engagement and education

Strengthens community-driven socio-economic development

Encourages communities to advocate for change and resolve conflicts

Promotes youth leadership and engagement

Promoting Peace and Security in Mindanao

Increases participation and leadership by women in the target conflict-affected areas

Addresses land conflict in Central Mindanao to reduce tensions and reconcile conflicts related to land access, use, and ownership

Transforms social relationships and establishes linkages among influential members of rival groups to reduce localized violence

Builds the capacity of male and female religious and community leaders to prevent or mitigate conflict and engage in peace and development efforts

Increasing Equitable Access to Quality Education in Crisis and Conflict Environments

Provides access to safe learning opportunities to out-of-school youth in vulnerable communities

Enhances the life and leadership skills, community engagement and employability of at-risk out-of-school youth

Strengthens institutional capacities of local communities through the establishment of development alliances, which ensure effective delivery of education services for out-of-school youth

Improves education governance through decentralization, with the overall objective of improving learning outcomes, particularly early grade reading

Improving Health and Productivity

Supports the Department of Health scale-up of high-impact services and client-centered information to improve child health and nutrition, reduce maternal and infant deaths, and decrease unmet family planning needs

Improves the supply of integrated family health services

Strengthens demand for essential health services

Improves health policies and systems

Builds public private partnerships to assure access to quality family planning and maternal and children's health products and services

Strengthening Water and Environmental Resiliency

Promotes sustainable access to water supply and sanitation services, and resilience to climate-related water and hydrological extremes

Promotes an integrated ecosystems approach to conserve forest cover and biodiversity

Improves management of biodiversity and forest ecosystems

PROGRAM IMPACTS Local Governance Strengthened
Transparency and Accountability of LGUs Enhanced: LGUs improved transparency and accountability through participatory planning and budgeting, and the updating of revenue codes, real property tax systems and citizen charters.

Service Delivery of LGUs Improved: USG supported partner LGUs to improve health, education, water, electric, sanitation and security services.

Mechanisms that Facilitate Public Participation in Governance Enhanced: USG supported LGUs to expand public participation; with community input, they updated citizen charters, executive-legislative agendas, and community development plans.
Civic Engagement Increased
Civil Society Strengthened: USG supported capacity building, dialogues, and LGU engagement for NGOs, health, education and water committees, Ulamas, religious leaders, women's leaders, and interfaith and village pacification committees.

Civic Education Enhanced: Community service is integrated into USAID's Education, Governance, Environment, and Health activities. The curriculum for OSY also integrates modules on civic engagement.

Youth Leadership and Engagement Increased: More than 3,000 OSY were trained as leaders, young entrepreneurs, and peer educators to support local governance and community initiatives for peace and development.

Community Driven Socio-Economic Development Strengthened: An economic development plan was prepared to assist reintegration of IDPs in Zamboanga.

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Our Work in Mindanao | Philippines | U.S. Agency for International Development

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USAID seeks to improve peace and stability in focus areas in Central Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago. A number of activities are implemented to strengthen local governance capacity to provide improved services and enhance the participation of civil society organizations in development planning.

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URL:

https://smartwatermagazine.com/news/international-labour-organization/ilo-and-japan-launch-five-new-water-systems-mindanao?amp

TITLE: ILO and Japan launch five new water systems in Mindanao

AUTHOR: Smart water magazine

DATE PUBLISHED: November 4, 2022

KEY POINTS: A collaboration between the International Labor Organization and the government of Japan has enabled the construction of water-related facilities in the BARMM region in Mindanao.

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The International Labour Organization (ILO) and the Government of Japan have launched five new water systems that will provide safe and clean water to more than 3,000 households in Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao and a Bangsamoro Special Geographic Area in Cotabato.

Under the ILO Japan Water and Sanitation Project , community members indigenous peoples and former combatants built the water systems in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM) where access to safe water is lower than the national average in the Philippines.

"The project has contributed to building peace, promoting decent work, and reducing poverty. Communities including former combatants, indigenous peoples, and vulnerable groups have gained access to decent work and livelihoods with better working conditions and social protection benefits. These are integral to sustainable development and a human-centred recovery from COVID-19," said Khalid Hassan, Director of the ILO Country Office for the Philippines.

The ILO and the Government of Japan handed over the water systems on March 9, 10 and 15, 2022 in Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao and a Bangsamoro Special Geographic Area in Cotabato. The partnership, which started in 2019 provided decent jobs and promoted peace through improved water supply and sanitation services in BARMM.

"Food, water, shelter, and livelihoods are among the prerequisites to attaining personal security. By ensuring better access to these basic necessities, we empower the people to realize their own potential, and eventually, to contribute to the development of their own society. This is the principle of Human Security that Japan is strongly advocating for," said Ambassador Koshikawa Kazuhiko of the Embassy of Japan in the Philippines .

In Balabagan, Lanao del Sur, three new water systems built by 269 workers will benefit over 2,000 households in five barangays. A melting pot of various cultures, Balabagan is home to the Maranaos, settlers, and indigenous peoples who used to buy drinking water for US$ 2 per 200-litre drum.

Meanwhile, more than a thousand households and a school with 292 enrolled children in a Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) community in Barangay Nanga-an, Kabacan, Cotabato have also gained access to safe and clean water. About 57 local workers built the water system, the majority of them former combatants. The level II water system has 22 tap stands where safe and clean water will flow.

In Datu Piang, 82 locals from the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) community of the historical Barangay Reina Regente, Datu Piang, Maguindanao hurdled challenges of access and security to build a water system benefitting 95 households. About 34 per cent of local workers engaged by the project were women, while 32 per cent were former combatants.

With support from ILO's Implementing Partner, A Single Drop for Safe Water, Inc., workers were trained in skills development and water construction. They received the minimum wage and social protection benefits. The project further ensured safety and health through the observance of occupational safety and health protocols that are also COVID-19 responsive. Issues were resolved through social dialogue, as the project also promoted equal opportunity, and involved communities in every step of the implementation.

BARMM officials such as Bangsamoro Transition Authority (BTA) parliament member Romeo Sema, Ministry of Labor and Employment (MOLE) Minister and Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) Chairperson Muslimin Sema and other key local government officials witnessed the handover of the five new water systems in Cotabato, Lanao del Sur and Maguindanao.

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ILO and Japan launch five new water systems in Mindanao

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The International Labour Organization (ILO) and the Government of Japan have launched five new water systems that will provide safe and clean water to ...

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URL: https://blogs.worldbank.org/eastasiapacific/water-access-philippines-fixing-institutions-fix-pipes

TITLE: Water Access in the Philippines: Fixing the Institutions that Fix the Pipes

AUTHOR: Aileen Castro

DATE PUBLISHED: March 22, 2017

KEY INFO: The article discusses the programs that members of the National Water Resources Board have facilitated, resulting in improved systems of water access. For example, the Visayan Village Tagum Rural Waterworks and Multi-Services Cooperative has increased service connections by 50%. totaling to 4,653. A member of the NWRB has also assisted 18 water utility programs in Compostela Valley.

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Water Access in the Philippines: Fixing the Institutions that Fix the Pipes

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Photo: NorthEyes Production/World Bank As we celebrate World Water Day, I find myself thinking about my work and one central question: how do you reach 8 million Filipinos with no access to clean water? I remember growing up in Pampanga, a province north of Manila, and visiting my aunt's house ...

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URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MlQtvFZ6Hgk

TITLE: Mindanao Water Supply Program

AUTHOR: Mindanao Development Authority

DATE PUBLISHED:

KEY INFO: The video highlights key participants in programs that enable the supply of water in rural areas of Mindanao, and how they are approaching this issue.

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URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7153040/

TITLE: Water Quality: Mindanao Island of the Philippines

AUTHOR: National Library of Medicine

DATE PUBLISHED: May 10, 2018

KEY INFO: Water supply situation in Mindanao as well as the nation, particularly the issue of scarce clean drinking water (potable water); How potential threats and areas of heavy pollution contribute to various health and environmental problems related to water availability, distribution, and quality.

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Translating National Policy to Improve Environmental Conditions Impacting Public Health Through Community Planning. 2018 May 10 : 219-253.

Guest Editor (s): Beth Ann Fiedler

Independent Research Analyst, Jacksonville, Florida USA

Abstract

The Philippines is an archipelagic country dominated by water and inland water sources. Water quality has been the subject of attention for the country and specifically, Mindanao Island, because of the role this natural resource plays in agriculture. Water supply and usage for the island and the nation are identified and discussed in relation to the scarcity of potable water. Potential threats and pollution hotspots bring forth the various health and environmental impact attributed to the water system accessibility, distribution, and quality. Strategies addressing water resources problems are taken into consideration side-by-side the numerous national laws, policies, standards, and guidelines in addressing water quality control and management. Therefore, the legal framework for various agencies to carry out these policies on quality control, usage, and water management are pivotal to recommendations on revision of certain provisions that rely on embedding local community involvement to lessen the environmental impact that is causal to poor population health. The World Bank has been instrumental in prompting local activity with initiatives first established in relation to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals that are being carried forward today in the Sustainable Development Initiatives. This chapter extends the recent UN and World Bank initiatives to demonstrate how further community involvement can continue to improve quality of life for Philippine citizens through education and participation.

Keywords: Community involvement, Water monitoring, Water quality, Public health, Water shortage

Introduction and Background

Living on an island nation with multiple natural water resources did not guarantee access to clean water for the 75% of the Philippine population that has low socioeconomic status and live in rural villages called barangays (United Nations 2017, para 2). However, global concern generated by the introduction of the United Nations (UN) Millennium Development Goals (MDGs ) (United Nations 2015) and a steady flow of financial support from the World Bank at $638.1 million (United Nations 2017, para 7; World Bank 2014) provides guidance and funding that led to the development of important national legislation and the enactment of institutions to respond to these and other community needs. Stronger institutions represent greater opportunities for citizen engagement through community-driven development ( CDD) initiatives prompted by the UN. CDD is a platform for citizens to "make their own decisions in identifying, developing, implementing, and monitoring development initiatives based on their priorities" (United Nations 2017, para 2).

The progression of moving policy decision-making process from global initiatives to national initiatives began first with the UN establishing internal partnerships with existing Philippine government institutions, such as the Department of Social Welfare and Development and the National Statistical Coordination Board, providing community access and local monitoring. The UN also had external development partnerships, such as the Japan Social Development Social Fund and several governments, which were instrumental in developing important internal mechanisms and metrics based on monitoring the MDGS (United Nations 2017). These metrics establish empirical evidence for decision-making with the long-term goals of a healthy environment and population. "The monitoring of the MDGs taught us that data are an indispensable element of the development agenda," and that "what gets measured gets done" (United Nations 2015, p.10).

Monitoring at the turn of the millennium quickly brought forth data indicating the leading water consumers, the problem of scarcity of water resources, and other threats to the availability of potable water that remains problematic in the nation. The baseline established the disproportionate use of agricultural consumption for irrigation and fisheries (Greenpeace 2007) accounting for 85.27% of the total water supply followed by the industrial sector (7.46%) and the remaining 7.27% for domestic consumption (World Bank 2004, p.29). Further, differentiating groundwater and piped-water supply systems sources was instrumental in revealing harmful practices in which groundwater extraction is done without permit. This indiscriminate and unregulated method of withdrawal led to the enactment of Executive Order No. 123 Series of 2012. The order mandates the transfer of National Water Resources Board (NWRB ) from the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH ) to the Office of the President then to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources' (DENR ) jurisdiction. Furthermore, the NWRB was tasked to immediately review the implementing rules and regulations of the Water Code of the Philippines (Barba 2004). These modifications to multiple water agencies and the introduction of new legislation were brought into action to regulate, monitor, and redistribute usage of water resources but distribution remains the same today. Further, the water agencies struggle with interagency integration, manpower shortages, and lack of financial resource allocation at the local levels often rendering their mandated efforts ineffective (Rola et al. 2015).

The success of the UN MDG targets in the Philippines were evident meeting goals to improve access to drinking water up from 85% of the population in 1990 to 92% in 2010 (Fehr et al. 2013, p.638) but several challenges remain. Improved water sources (e.g., bottled, regulated water refilling stations) (Israel 2009; Madrazo 2002; Magtibay 2004; UNICEF and WHO 2012), an adequate freshwater supply and high rate of precipitation contributed to improvements (see Table 12.1 ). However, several factors such as biased geographic distribution, seasonal variations , and water shortages based on population distribution remain problematic (Barba 2004; Dumlao 2016; Ranada 2015). Damage to infrastructure due to civil unrest (Malapit et al. 2003) and the long history of the southern part of the Philippines being disenfranchised and underrepresented in the government is apparent in the lack of infrastructure projects there (Clausen 2010; Silva 2005) providing a historical basis leading to the present conditions. Furthermore, investments and policies crafted to better provide water access have been greatly affected by these conflicts (Clausen 2010). Earlier analysis of these political factors (e.g., institutional deficiencies, weak regulatory policies, lack of government leadership and political will, and lack of an integrated water resources management system) (Madrazo 2002) continue to pose additional barriers to the water crisis. Therefore, the legal framework on water quality, use and management are important factors for any proposed solutions.

Table 12.1

Region

Water district

LGUa

RWSAb/BWSAc

Cooperatives

Total population served

The National Water Resources Board (NWRB ) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA ) identified nine urbanized areas in the country, three of which are in Mindanao Island (Davao, Cagayan de Oro City, and Zamboanga City), facing water demand challenges in the next several years (JICA 1998). Health hazards associated with the shortage include an increasing number of gastrointestinal diseases caused by unpotable water and new housing developments that alter the balance of supply of and demand (Cortes-Maramba et al. 2006; Tacio 2014). Consequently, these areas establish the basis for a growing concern for a national water crisis by 2025 (JICA 1998). Striking a national balance between the water supply and demand, especially in the areas limited by infrastructures and facilities, is vital to optimizing, producing, and distributing potable water.

This chapter unfolds the problem scope and legal framework for surface and ground water management, the important aspects of assessing water quality, and the health and environmental impact of contaminated water. Then, several water quality initiatives will be discussed followed by a series of recommendations promoting civic engagement to support local community involvement in government organized projects. The chapter concludes with a high-level summary.

Water Scarcity Problem Scope

The scope of water scarcity in the Philippines still rests on systemic problems brought forth at the onset of baselining the nation's status in relation to UN MDGs by the World Bank in 2003. Several major and tangential issues remain the foremost, of which access to clean water is important to population health. Ranked number 5 in the overall causes of death for the nation in 2010 analysis was preventable diarrhea attributed to unsanitary water at a rate of 354.5 per 100,000 population (DOH 2012, p.14). Therefore, the location of natural resources in the form of surface and groundwater provide geographic references demonstrating regional water availability and the problem location poses to access in areas of need.

Major issues concerning the use and scarcity of water include: (1) inconsistency of water supply and demand (Barba 2004; Madrazo 2002), (2) lack of water allocation system and distribution formula (Barba 2004), (3) NWRB weak regulation , permit monitoring, and enforcement of water use due to insufficient manpower and low operating budget (Barba 2004), (4) outdated principles mandated in the Water Code of the Philippines "first in time priority in right" and discretion is vaguely granted to a deputized government agency to investigate violations (Barba 2004, p.2), and (5) unsustainable water pricing that does not properly reward efficient water users with economic incentives (Barba 2004). Other threats to water availability are linked to (1) outdated research and framework plans, and (2) hampered policy decision-making due to insufficient data collection in certain areas, lack of data sharing protocols governing inter-agency access, and lack of a common integrated knowledge management database (Barba 2004).

Natural water-related disasters and environmental degradation are persistent threats to most of the watersheds in Mindanao impacting water access and quality. A super typhoon Bopha (Pablo) struck significant part of Mindanao in 2012 and super typhoon Sendong (Washi) in Cagayan de Oro caused watershed damage leading to high rates of erosion (Franta et al. 2016; Rodolfo et al. 2016). In 2015, the Butuan City Council approved the Resolution declaring a city-wide water crisis due to low water supply to 200,000 residents attributed to the damaged facilities and infrastructures of Butuan City Water District after onslaught of tropical storm Seniang. However, investigation later revealed that the water crisis was a result of the neglect, callousness, and inefficiency of the officials of the local water district (Serrano 2015).

Man-made activities, such as deforestation or denudification, also spur on water-related disasters that degrade watersheds. DENR representatives cited three such watersheds due to the urgent need for rehabilitation from excessive deforestation (BusinessWorld 2011). Reducing nonrevenue water, the water that is lost from leaks, pilferage through illegal connections, and wastage, is another aspect in the problem scope of water scarcity.

While the problem of water scarcity spans several areas (e.g., policy, poor oversight, natural disasters, environmental degradation), there some are cases of emerging solutions. For example, Cagayan de Oro City and USAID partner to implement water-saving measures by reducing the percentage of nonrevenue water. The local water district of Cagayan de Oro estimates that they lose 53% (80,000 m ³) of their water supply as nonrevenue water and aim to reduce to acceptable levels ranging from 20 to 30% (Jerusalem 2016). Upon completion of the project, water recovered in the process was slated to serve areas still lacking a water service connection.

Mindanao Water Source Potential

The water resources of the Philippines are composed of inland freshwater, coastal, bay, and oceanic water (Raymundo 2015). The portion of potential supply of water both surface and groundwater of Mindanao Island per region is shown in Table 12.2 demonstrating the uneven distribution of these resources that favor the Northern and Southern regions. Water resources differ also from province to province based on several factors like population density, rainfall patterns, watershed quality, and the rate of groundwater recharge (Senate Economic Planning Office 2011).

Table 12.2

Region

Surface water

Groundwater

Total

Southwestern Mindanao

12,100

1082

13,182

Northern Mindanao

29,000

2116

31,116

Southeastern Mindanao

11,300

2375

13,675

Southern Mindanao

18,700

1758

20,458

Mindanao Surface Water Resources

The Philippines have five principal river basins and two are found in Mindanao-the Agusan and Pulangi River Basins (Tan et al. 2012). The surface water resource of the nation is primarily the inland freshwater resources occupying 1830 km ² of the Philippine area (World Bank 2003) with an estimated 262 watersheds (Tan et al. 2012). Eight of the 18 significant rivers covering an area greater than 1000 km ² are in Mindanao (World Bank 2003) which makes up watersheds or river basins that further drains into the bays in the north, east, and south.

Groundwater Resources

Mindanao houses two of the four major groundwater reservoirs in the Philippines, the Agusan Groundwater Reservoir (8500 ha) and Pulangi Groundwater Reservoir (estimated at 6000 ha). These groundwater resources lie beneath Mindanao's vast watersheds or recharging zones-the Agusan and Ligawasan Marshes (Tan et al. 2012) establishing Southeastern and Northern Mindanao as the highest potential groundwater resources (World Bank 2003).

A 5.3% annual increase in total demand for groundwater resources (e.g., domestic, industrial, and commercial) throughout the Philippines also saw a decline in precipitation reducing recharge by an average 3.7% annually and a steady decline in the volume of groundwater at an average annual rate of 1.4% from 1988 to 1994 (Philippine Statistics Authority 2016, para 4). This reveals that there is a continuing trend towards depletion of the country's groundwater resource stock making Mindanao Island, heavily reliant on the agricultural and industrial sectors for economic development, highly susceptible.

Legal Framework and Policies on Quality Control, Regulation on Water Usage, and Water Management

Understanding the existing national legal policy and framework on water use establishes important systemic factors in the existing protocols and presents an opportunity to apply analysis techniques to generate novel responses to the water scarcity problem. This section introduces government agencies, national laws, quality and emission standards, and presents problems associated with enforcement of existing guidelines.

Government Agencies

The water resources management of the Philippines is divided into several components performed by multiple government agencies and offices (Table 12.3 ) mandated by law and their charter, to perform roles in water supply, hydropower, irrigation, pollution, flood control, and watershed management (Dayrit 2001). The foremost agency in water management is the National Water Resources Board (NWRB ), responsible for policy formulation, administration, and enforcement of the Water Code of the Philippines (Madrazo 2002). The overlapping duties of the agencies and their regulatory framework can create a complex and competitive environment hindering effective water resource management.

Table 12.3

Agency

Function

URL

Supply and water distribution

Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA) b

Local water districts managing water supply and sewerage systems

http://www.lwua.gov.ph/

Policy formulation and planning

Water resource regulation

Other relevant regulatory agencies

National Water Use, Management Laws and Policies

The adoption of National Water Code of 1976 (Presidential Decree of 1067) is the first attempt by the national government to systematically manage the water resources of the Philippines. The main purposes of this policy are to (1) provide basic principles and structural framework for the appropriation, control, conservation, and protection of water resources to achieve optimum development and efficient use to meet present and future needs; (2) determine the scope of the rights and obligations of water users and provide for the protection and regulation of such rights; and (3) the necessary and essential administrative machinery and systems. Several related laws and policies are enumerated below.

Republic Act No. 8041 or . Water supply, distribution, finance, privatization of state-run water facilities, conservation and protection of watersheds, and wastage and pilferage of water including the matters of graft and corruption in all water agencies.

Presidential Decree No. 198 or . Mandates to create, operate, maintain, and expand local water districts (LWDs); direct and administer economically viable and sound provincial water supply and wastewater disposal systems.

Presidential Decree No. 1586 or . Mandates the administration of environmental impact assessment for all investments undertaken by the government of private sectors.

Presidential Decree No. 424 or . Mandates the creation of a National Water Resources Council; primary duty of coordinating and regulating national water resource development; planning and policy for social and economic development.

Republic Act No. 7160 or . Mandates the LGUs to enforce water-related laws and policies for sanitation, water supply, and flood control (Chan Robles Virtual Law Library 2015).

Water Quality Control Laws, Classification, and Assessment

The main document establishing and defining the basic regulatory programs (e.g., discharge standards, issuance of permits, monitoring of compliance) is the Philippine Environment Code (Presidential Decree No. 1151). Several national laws have also been passed and established defining policy on abatement, control, and water quality management. These laws are summarized below.

Republic Act No. 9275 or . Mandates the protection, preservation, and revival of the quality of the country's freshwater, brackish, and marine waters; pollution abatement; market-based instruments that charges fees based on effluent discharge volume impacting applications for permitting; and strengthens enforcement by imposing stiffer penalties for violations of standards.

Commonwealth Act 383 or . Early legislation addressing environmental pollution (e.g., solid waste dumping) in rivers causing water levels to rise and/or streamflow blockage.

Presidential Decree No. 984 or . Guideline for water pollution control water from industrial sources; establishes penalties for noncompliance and violation; requires industries to acquire necessary permits before operation.

Presidential Decree No. 856 or . Establishes the standards for collection and disposal of sewage, refuse, excreta covering both solid and liquid wastes; mandates cities and municipalities the responsibility to furnish efficient and proper waste disposal systems and to manage nuisance and offensive trades and occupations.

Republic Act No. 9003 or . Mandates the systematic implementation of a national program that will govern the transfer, transport, processing, sorting, and disposal of the country's solid waste; establishes the criteria and standard for identifying landfill sites ensuring that their operation does not affect the groundwater sources in nearby aquifers.

Republic Act No. 6969 or . Establishes the standards in the control and management of the importation, manufacturing, processing, distribution, utilization, treatment, transportation, storage, and disposal of toxic, hazardous, and nuclear wastes and substances (Chan Robles Virtual Law Library 2015).

DENR Administrative Order No. 34 Series of 1990 or . Establishes the categories and classification of water bodies in terms of their best usage; defines the minimum required for different water quality parameters per type of water classification.

DENR Administrative Order No. 35 Series of 1990 or . Stipulates the national standards for the discharge of effluents for the different classifications of water bodies.

DENR Administrative Order No. 26A Series of 1994 or Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water . Establishes the national standard values for the different water quality parameters; guidelines and methodologies accepted for assessing the drinking water quality.

DENR Administrative Order No. 38 Series of 1997 or . Establishes the policies on regulation and control of the importation, manufacturing, distribution, and use of mercury and mercury compounds; defines the accepted procedures on storage, transportation, and disposal of mercury and mercury compound wastes.

DENR Administrative Order No. 39 Series of 1997 or . Establishes the requirements and procedures for importing, manufacturing, distributing, and using cyanide and cyanide compounds; determines protocol for the storage, transport, and waste disposal for these compounds.

DENR Administrative Order No. 58 Series of 1998 or Priority Chemical List/DENR Administrative Order No. 27 Series of 2005 or . Determines the potentially harmful substances which pose unreasonable health risks to the public and even to the environment. The order requires companies, industries, distributors, importers, and manufacturers of chemicals listed to submit reports twice a year (DENR 2017; Chan Robles Virtual Law Library 2015).

Many of the water resource problems relate to quality rather than the quantity (Senate Economic Planning Office 2011) as water pollution affects island marine waters, fresh and groundwater sources. Surface water quality in the Philippines is classified in terms of its beneficial use (Table 12.4 ) and different portions of a water body can have several uses with multiple classifications. One example is the Lipadas River in Region 11 which has four classifications; Class AA upstream, Classes A and B midstream, and Class C downstream (EMB 2014). Notable is that two of the five Class AA inland waters can be found in Mindanao Region 11-the Lipadas River (upstream) and Baganga-Mahan-Ub (upstream).

Table 12.4

Class

Beneficial use

Number in Class

AA

Public water supply class I. Intended primarily for waters having watersheds which are uninhabited and otherwise protected; require approved disinfection to meet the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW)

5

A

Public water supply class II. For sources of water supply that will require complete treatment (e.g., coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection) to meet the PNSDW

234

B

Recreational water class I. For primary contact recreation such as bathing, swimming, and skin diving. (particularly those designated for tourism purposes)

197

C

1. Fishery water for the propagation and growth of fish and other aquatic resources

2. Recreational water class II (e.g., boating)

3. Industrial water supply class I (for manufacturing processes after treatment)

333

D

1. For agriculture, irrigation, livestock watering.

2. Industrial water supply class II (e.g., cooling)

3. Other inland waters as determined by their quality belong to this classification

27

Mindanao has 236 classified inland waters as of 2013 which were based on data monitored and collected by the EMB from 2006 to 2013 as shown in Table 12.5 (EMB 2013). Based on the data available, further efforts must be employed to classify the remaining inland waters to provide additional information and for further management and rehabilitation if needed, especially in the case of Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM ).

Table 12.5

Region

Class AA

Class A

Class B

Class C

Class D

TOTAL

2

101

60

56

17

The assessment of water quality is based on the number of samples taken from the body of water meeting the DAO 1990-34 water quality criteria per parameter (EMB 2014, p.9). Only bodies of water with at least four sampling events, representing both the dry and wet seasons, were included (EMB 2014). Please refer to the EMB ( 2014) for details on assessment methodologies used to rate water bodies for optimum levels of various particulate matter based on DENR formulations of ambient standards. DENR standards emphasize parameters such as dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD ), total suspended solids (TSS ), total dissolved solids (TDS ), and heavy metals to assess inland water quality. The standard value in each parameter serves as the benchmark data for monitoring and assessing water quality in their respective classification.

Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a parameter used to indicate level of water pollution and the capacity to support aquatic plants and animal life (Greenpeace 2007). Water movement, temperature, and pollution can also affect the concentration of DO in a body of water. High levels of DO are observed in water bodies with these activities.

Only 138/164 (84%) of the inland waters monitored by the EMB met the required sampling events from 2006 to 2013 while 81/138 (59%) were deemed to have "good" water quality (EMB 2014, p.9). Most of these are Class A or C designated bodies of water located in Regions 10, 12, and 13 of Mindanao (EMB 2014).

Biological Oxygen Demand

Biological oxygen demand (BOD ) is a measure of the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms in decomposing organic matter from a pollution source (EMB 2014). Higher levels of BOD manifest downstream where decomposition occurs and not where the effluent is directly discharged (EMB 2014).

Only 75/131 (57%) if the inland waters that met the sampling requirements are considered "good" (EMB 2014, p.11). They were from Class A or Class C water bodies in Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) and in Regions 10, 12, and 13 of Mindanao.

Total Suspended Solids

Total suspended solid (TSS ) is a measure of undissolved solid in water (e.g., silt, decaying plant and animal matter, domestic and industrial wastes) (EMB 2014). A body of water with high TSS value has lower capability of supporting aquatic life due to reduction of the light penetrating the body of water.

Only 40/138 (29%) Class AA and Class A water bodies met the sampling requirements while only 13/40 (33%) bodies of water manifested "good" quality (EMB 2014, p.12). Two out these water bodies were just shy of reaching 100% compliance rating-(1) Mindanao, upper portion of Taguibo River (99%), and (2) Lake Mainit (98%) (EMB 2014, p.12). Several water bodies from Mindanao received a "poor" rating including the Davao River (upper reach) in Region 11, Lun Masla River in Region 12, and Iponan River in Region 10.

Total Dissolved Solids

Total dissolved solids (TDS ) refers to a broad array of chemical contaminants coming from agricultural runoff, leaching soil contamination, and point source pollution from industrial or domestic sewage (EMB 2014).

Only 17 (55%) bodies of water manifested "good" quality out of 30 Class AA/A bodies of water monitored which are mostly concentrated in Region 3 and only Marilao River in Bulacan had a "poor" quality level (Greenpeace 2007, p.16).

Heavy Metals

Heavy metal ions are soluble in water that forms toxic sediments at the bottom of bodies of water. These are considered harmful to aquatic life and to humans who consume seafood contaminated with high concentrations of heavy metals. Monitoring heavy metals is important to maintaining healthy waterways especially in water bodies that are near mining industries, electroplating, tanning, and other similar activities (Appleton et al. 1999; Baharom and Ishak 2015; Canencia et al. 2016).

Additional findings in the EMB report include results from 63 inland surface water bodies that were monitored in terms of total mercury, cadmium, and lead from 2006 to 2013. These monitored rivers exhibited 100% total mercury compliance except for Agno, Malaguit, Panique, and Tubay Rivers (Mindanao) (EMB 2014, p.16). Tubay River (Class A) did not meet the criterion in two sampling events out of 56 conducted. However, the presence of mercury there could remove the Tubay River as potential source of potable water.

Similarly, the maximum limit of cadmium was present in 10/18 bodies of monitored waters from 2006 to 2013. Of these ten, the lower part of the Davao River (Class B) is found in Mindanao. Although this river did not completely meet the compliance standard, notable is that of the ten rivers, the Davao River exhibited the highest compliance rating with 93% (EMB 2014, p.17).

Lead monitoring indicates that only 7/18 bodies of water monitored met the maximum limit demonstrating a 100% compliance rating. The Davao River in Mindanao, both upper and lower sections did not meet the maximum limit and both sections failed some aspect of sampling collection event (EMB 2014, p.18). These findings are particularly alarming for the upper section of Davao River, because of the Class A designation as a source of potable water.

Standards Overview: Ambient Water Quality, Wastewater Emission, and Enforcement

Various Philippine legislations cover different water quality parameters. This section provides an overview of major evaluation protocol for surface water, groundwater used to produce drinking water, bottled water, and wastewater. Then we present some high-level issues of enforcement relating to these standards.

Ambient Water Quality

Ambient water (e.g., lakes, rivers, oceans) quality is defined as the average water purity distinguished from discharge measurements taken at the source of the pollution as defined by the Clean Water Act of the Philippines (Greenpeace 2007). DENR Administrative Order No. 34 Series of 1990 sets forth 33 water quality assessment for minimum and desired levels for drinking water, water purification, polyvinyl chloride, and bacteria. Five key parameters determine classification and reclassification of surface water bodies: (1) pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD ), and total coliforms.

Drinking Water

For drinking water, the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water (DOH 2007) holds criteria for bacteriological, physical, chemical, radiological, and biological qualities across 56 parameters used to assess groundwater source quality. Only three measures-fecal coliform, salinity or chloride content, and nitrates (EMB 2014) are highly relevant. Chloride and nitrates constitutes the total dissolved solids (TDS ) with a maximum limit of 500 mg/L while no total coliform must be detectable in 100 mL sample for the fecal coliform parameter (World Bank 2003).

Bottled Water

Standards for bottled water are stipulated in Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFAD) Administrative Order No. 18-A Series of 1996. The BFAD stipulates assessment of several parameters including the levels of bacteria, viruses, parasites, fertilizers, pesticides, hydrocarbons, detergents, phenolic compounds, heavy metals, radioactive substances, and other soluble organic and inorganic substances. Source quality, production processes and facilities, and handling and proper labeling are also part of the BFAD order.

Wastewater

The protocol for wastewater effluent emission standards are gathered in DENR Administrative Order No. 34 and 35 Series of 1990 as they apply to the different classifications of water bodies. Several standards dictate maximum corresponding numerical values coming from any point source for any effluent discharge but target toxic and deleterious substances which can affect the quality of the receiving body of water. Discharge of effluents in bodies of water categorized as Class AA is strongly prohibited to ensure protection of public health while for other categories, industrial discharges and effluents should not contain toxic substances greater than the indicated value in the said order (Greenpeace 2007). Standard values on conventional and other pollutants which affect the aesthetic and oxygen demand are also established in these administrative orders. Some researchers have suggested that despite the number of governing policies, standards, and guidance, these assessment parameters appear to be relatively insensitive to the actual ambient standards due the utilization of concentration-based standards (Luken 1999).

Current wastewater standards do not reflect the proliferation of toxic chemicals used for and as a byproduct of modern industrial and commercial processes especially in electronics and semiconductor industry, such as beryllium, nickel, copper, tin, zinc, vanadium, and many other volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

Enforcement

Enforcement of existing laws and regulations are another prominent issue. Several researchers have identified the problematic nature of government institutions due to inefficient and/or ineffective activities. For example, overlapping, or in some cases competing, water resource management function and enacted responsibilities across various levels of government challenging leaders to agency realignment (Rola et al. 2015). Because of this problem of variance in policy and implementation mechanisms, consistent enforcement remains a challenge for the national and local governments (USAID and AECEN 2004). The problem becomes transparent when a new law is enacted but then adopts a new or different strategy, giving varied powers and responsibilities to existing government agencies like the EMB, LGUs, and other especially constituted multisectoral management and regulatory bodies.

Several challenges in the enforcement of existing regulations, such as an unclear reporting structure, accountability, enforcement responsibilities, and nonstandardized inspection procedures, have been identified by the EMB ( 2014). The EMB faces their own challenges in reporting structure as staff in the provincial and community offices are categorized as reassigned personnel reporting to the DENR regional offices and not directly to the EMB hierarchy as prescribed by the EMB mandate. Additionally, these EMB personnel are in the DENR Regional offices and depend on their resources. This crease results in the delay of submissions of reports, determination of accountable personnel, and mandate enforcement.

Another prevailing enforcement issue is that most local government officials are unaware of their responsibilities with regards to the enforcement of the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act and other pertinent policies. Most of the responsibilities and obligations LGU require significant technical capability aside from financial investments. However, training conducted by the DENR and internal training conducted by the LGU do not reflect this. While a good strategy to address this challenge is for the DENR to facilitate compliance of LGUs through capacity building activities, workshops, and penalties exacted on LGU officials that violate or fail to meet their mandated responsibilities, DENR budgets do not currently allocate for training or monitoring of LGUs. EMB annual budgets for training, monitoring and inspection are annually exceeded and do not receive a steady revenue source. This creates a challenge of allocating enough budget for the DENR to be able to provide a comprehensive program for capacity building to prepare LGUs for the enforcement of certain provisions of the law.

Another enforcement problem is the lack of cohesive, standardized procedures in various EMB field offices. Instead, field agents often establish and practice their own procedural strategy when conducting inspection and monitoring tasks. Although several attempts have been made to produce unofficial field guides, manuals, and checklists for the standard conduct of inspection, these items were unsuccessful. First, they were considered impractical to actual field situations, and second, they failed to garner support because they were not backed by official administrative orders reinforcing their implementation.

Demand to address certain limitations of current and existing laws, standards for water quality and effluents, and enforcement is apparent. While policies are presumably adequate, agencies face limitations on enforcement that may only be ameliorated by institutional influence.

Groundwater Quality Assessment

The country's groundwater resources provide most of the water needs for households, agricultural activities, commercial, industrial processes, and others. Therefore, preventing groundwater contamination and remediating contaminated groundwater are important considerations that warrant testing and other associated expenses.

In assessing the country's groundwater quality, the Philippine National Standard for Drinking Water (PNSDW) is referenced. This standard includes relevant parameters indicating the level and degree of pollutants such as fecal coliform and nitrates. Other common parameters (e.g., salinity, chloride content) are used to indicate the level of seawater intrusion.

Fecal Coliform

The PNSWD prescribes that drinking water should contain less than 1.1 Most Probable Number per 100 mL (MPN/100 mL) using the method of Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique (EMB 2014). The EMB conducted a program in 2008 to consolidate the results of analyses on tap water samples for Total and Fecal Coliforms submitted by different regional laboratories across the country. Under this program, 59 shallow wells were monitored in selected areas of the country and 6 were found to be potable, 23 failed to meet the fecal coliform standard, and the remaining 30 sites require further testing (EMB 2014). Sites found not potable in Mindanao are in Zamboanga City and Davao City (Greenpeace 2007).

Salinity or Chloride Content

Excessive withdrawal of groundwater causes the natural groundwater gradient to reverse and allow seawater to contaminate and intrude the aquifers in coastal areas (Pinder 1981). Seawater intrusion can affect the potability of drinking water and the quality of water in irrigation wells leaving some areas unfit for continued agricultural activities (EMB 2014).

No current study assessing the degree of seawater intrusion in the groundwater resources of Mindanao Island to date. However, some studies were conducted in the areas of Luzon (Insigne and Kim 2010) and Visayas (Scholze et al. 2002).

Pollution Hotspots

The Philippine Government maintains the quality of water bodies according to intended and beneficial use (DENR 1990). In 2003, pollution hotspots of surface water were assessed by the World Bank and evaluated by province using DO and BOD criteria while groundwater sources tested TDS and coliform. Water quality status of surface waters was categorized and rated as Satisfactory (S), Marginal (M), and Unsatisfactory (U) while groundwater quality status was rated either Satisfactory (S) or Unsatisfactory (U) (Table 12.6 ).

Table 12.6

Parameter

Satisfactory

Marginal

Unsatisfactory

DO (mg/L) a

>5

5

<5

BOD (mg/L) b

<5

5

>5

TDS c

Less than 10% of wells tested did not meet standard

N/A

10% or more of wells tested did not meet standard

Coliform

No wells found positive for coliform (0%)

N/A

Wells found positive for coliform (>0%)

Results of the 3-year monitoring project conducted by the World Bank reported on the Water Quality Scorecard for Surface Waters from Regions 9-11 and 13 are satisfactory with marginal ratings for the Mercedes River (Region 9), Manicahan River (Region 9) and Agusan River (Region 13) (World Bank 2003, p.36). Several surface water bodies on the island were rated as unsatisfactory including the Saaz River (Region 9) and the Padada, Tuganay, and Agusan Rivers in Region 11 (World Bank 2003, p.36). There were no available data for Region 12 and ARMM .

There were further gaps in analysis. No groundwater data were available for Regions 12, 13, and ARMM for both TDS and coliform while for Region 9 and 11, no coliform data were available (World Bank 2003). Zamboanga del Sur (Region 9) and Misamis Oriental (Region 10) groundwater sources were rated unsatisfactory for TDS while Misamis Oriental (Region 10) was rated unsatisfactory for coliform (World Bank 2003, p.37).

Point and Nonpoint Sources

Water pollution can be classified in terms of its source-(1) point source pollution, and (2) nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution refers to any pollution with an identifiable pollution source with a specific and known discharge point. On the other hand, nonpoint source pollution refers to pollution with no known or identifiable source (World Bank 2003).

Point source pollution can be categorized into three main sources-domestic wastewater discharges, agricultural wastewater discharges, and industrial wastewater discharges. Pollution load is calculated using BOD as the measuring parameter indicating pollution contribution from point sources is 24% from Industrial discharges, 31% from Domestic or Municipal discharges, and 45% from Agricultural discharges (EMB 2014, p.24) The calculations for domestic, agricultural, and industrial BOD can be seen in the documents published by World Bank ( 2003), EMB ( 2014), Economopoulos ( 1993).

Domestic discharges contain the most organic waste with suspended solids and coliforms from common household and kitchen activities (World Bank 2003). The problem is attributed to the lack of appropriate domestic sewage treatment system allowing allows 90% of inadequately treated domestic sewage discharged into surface waters (Greenpeace 2007, p.19). Major areas that generate BOD are Metro Manila and Region 4A (18% and 15%, respectively) while only small levels of BOD are generated in Mindanao regions (World Bank 2003, p.7). In Mindanao, regions 10, 11, and 12 went above the 50 thousand megaton mark for BOD load while areas within regions of 9, 13 and ARMM were below 50 thousand megaton marks (World Bank 2003).

In terms of agricultural BOD , Regions 4 and 1 contributed the most BOD in the country (13% and 12%, respectively). In Mindanao, region 10 is ranked fourth in BOD attributed to active animal and vegetable farming in this region, while Region 13 and ARMM (1.2% and 3.0%, respectively) had the least agricultural BOD contribution (World Bank 2003, p.21). Notable is that Region 13 also has the least agricultural BOD contribution for the whole country.

Industrial BOD contribution depends on the volume and characteristics of industrial effluents which vary by industry type. Water-intensive industries discharge huge amounts of waste water (Canencia and Walag 2016; World Bank 2003). Most of the water-intensive industries are in Luzon in the National Capital Region, Regions 3 and 4, thus having the most BOD contribution (42.5%, 9.0%, and 14.1%, respectively) while other regions, such as 11 (6.6%), 9 (3.3%), 10 (2.2%), and 8 (1.1%), have relatively smaller contributions. Finally, ARMM reports 0% BOD contribution due the absence of or an insignificant number of large industries (World Bank 2003, p.21).

Nonpoint source pollution depends generally on the land use thus it is calculated and estimated based on the different land uses. Several technologies are now available to help monitor, control, and mitigate the effects of point source pollutions but there remains difficulty in these activities for nonpoint sources (Greenpeace 2007). The difficulty in monitoring is evident in the lack of information and scarcity of monitoring on the contribution of solid waste, a major source of nonpoint pollutants (World Bank 2003).

Health and Environmental Impact

Human population and the surrounding environment are at risk when bodies of water like rivers, streams, and lakes are polluted with wastewater or spillage. These source bodies of water, in turn, contaminate nearby groundwater making humans susceptible to environmentally-related illness and disease resulting in mortality and morbidity (Cabral 2010; Grimes et al. 2015). Specifically, inadequate sanitation and hygiene brought about by lack of clean, safe, and comfortable facilities could promote the risk of acquiring diarrhea (Pfadenhauer and Rehfuess 2015) "which is second to pneumonia as the leading cause of morbidity in the Philippines" (DOH 2012, p.63) in diseases related to the environment. Several studies discussed in this section have firmly established the relationship between polluted water supply and disease in the Philippines (WEPA n.d., para 7):

Untreated wastewater... makes water unfit for drinking and recreational use, threatens biodiversity, and deteriorates overall quality of life. Known diseases caused by poor water include gastro-enteritis, diarrhea, typhoid, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis, and more recently, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).

Water bodies in urban areas are the most susceptible to contamination due to the direct and indirect pollution caused by unprecedented development. However, rural surface waters are endangered due to farming, animal production, and other food sector industries that release organic pollutants into the water system. Consequently, the environmental impact of improper sewerage leading to unsanitary water causes a variety of debilitating health effects on living creatures-land-dwelling animals, aquatic life and humans.

Water Supply Contamination and Diseases in Humans

Excessive levels of fecal coliform organism and E. coli indicative of surface water contamination was detected in a recent study of Cagayan de Oro River upstream. The contamination was attributed to improper disposal of animal wastes, human wastes which are discarded directly to the river, and poor sewerage in nearby communities (Lubos et al. 2013; Lubos and Japos 2010).

Several studies confirm the need for increasing attention to watershed management and sanitation. The Labo and Clarin Rivers are considered important to the different communities in Misamis Occidental, where both tested positive for coliforms; the site along the agroforest and agricultural areas had the highest total coliform (Labajo-Villantes and Nuneza 2014) confirming the need for increasing attention to watershed management. Several problematic physicochemical and bacteriological qualities were also reported in several rivers-the Aligodon, Misamis Oriental, Daveo River, and Talomo (Ido 2016; Laud et al. 2016).

Morbidity from outbreaks of diarrhea continue to be a major health problem stemming from groundwater contamination of wells on farmland in villages in North Cotabato (Pelone 2014a) and the application of herbicides on cornfields that are washed down to river systems (Bacongco 2014). One death and 32 instances of mortality was consequent to contamination through leakage of distribution pipes in Zamboanga City (Pelone 2014b) where 14/19 residents there later tested positive for norovirus (Radyo Natin 2016).

Fish Kills and Red Tide Occurrences

Low DO levels in water, abrupt and abnormal shifting water temperature, and deteriorating water quality are common environmental conditions that kill aquatic life (EMB 2014). Several fish kills were documented and recorded throughout the island including the 1 km long algal bloom of Cochlodinium sp. in the coastal area Jasaan, Misamis Oriental in 2003 (Jabatan 2004). The bloom occurs because of high surface temperature, favorable transport, radiation available for photosynthesis, and enrichment for organic nutrients (Kim et al. 2016; Lee and Choi 2009; Tomas and Smaydab 2008).

Several fish kills were reported in the island to have been caused by oxygen depletion due to overcrowding and harmful algal blooms Lake Sebu and Lake Seloton in South Cotabato and Iligan bay (Fernandez 2017; Vicente et al. 2002). Consequently, government representatives of Maguindanao took precautionary measures to ensure the balance of environment and marine life in the Lake Buluan by regulating the number of fish pens (Sarmiento 2017).

The health of humans and marine species are both continuously threatened by occurrences of Red Tide. Mindanao's affinity for red tides, shown on the data from the Incidences of Red Tide in Coastal Areas in 2016, has been credited to northeast monsoon-driven upwellings (EMB 2014). Balite Bay in Mati, Davao Oriental was exposed to red tide from January to March 2016, posing significant threats to aquatic life until finally deemed toxin free in early March (Bureau of Fish and Aquatic Resources 2016).

Improper Sewerage and Sanitation

In the Philippines, 76.8% of families have sanitary toilet facilities but only less than 10% are connected to piped sewerage system while the rest rely on septic tanks, pit latrines, or open defecation (EMB 2014, p.28). Both the existence of unsuitable sewerage systems or absence thereof greatly impacts the quality of different bodies of water because this type of contamination may give rise to various water-borne diseases caused by various microorganisms (EMB 2014).

While incidents of diarrhea have been deadly several other viral infections can result from unsanitary water. Instances of hepatitis in Surigao del Sur (Crisostomo and Serrano 2006) and leptospirosis in Davao City (Zapanta et al. 2014) were all attributed to poor sanitation and improperly maintained sewage system. Rural areas are typically affected where water systems, such as traditional wells and rivers, contain fecal matter that contaminates the source (Bain et al. 2014).

Mine Tailing Spillages and Siltation

Several activities and sources of mercury and heavy metals that pollute water bodies can be attributed to mercury mining, gold mining, chemical industry, metal smelting, coal combustion, and metropolitan and agricultural runoffs (Li et al. 2009). Several mining industries are in the eastern and western sections of Mindanao where reports of spillages, heavy metal pollution, and siltation of nearby bodies of water have taken place (Appleton et al. 1999; Cortes-Maramba et al. 2006).

The gold mining industry has a strong presence in Eastern Mindanao near the Agusan River where the gold-rush town of Diwalwal has a foothold. Initial analysis revealed that the Diwalwal drainage, evident downstream of the river system, was characterized by extremely high levels of mercury in solution and sediments downstream (Appleton et al. 1999) exceeding multiple international guidelines.

Different kinds of organisms were also recorded as having been contaminated with mercury from different main tailings. Contaminations were also found in rice, fish and mussels from Naboc River (Appleton et al. 2006; Drasch et al. 2001) and in three species of fish in Davao del Norte (Akagi et al. 2000). Population and biodiversity of damselflies and dragonflies in Surigao del Sur (Quisil et al. 2014) and oyster production in Zamboanga Sibugay Province (Lim and Flores 2017) have also been drastically affected by mine tailing ponds.

Efforts to Address Water Quality

Water quality is a physical and chemical problem. Several projects have been conducted both by the government and nongovernment agencies to address recurring and perennial challenges regarding the protection and conservation of water resources. Programs on the enhancement of water quality in the Philippines are spearheaded by the DENR with the support of various nongovernment organizations, financing institutions, and development partners (EMB 2014).

Environmental Management Bureau Projects and Programs

The DENR is mandated, through the EMB, to be the national authority responsible for the prevention and control of pollution and assessment of environmental impact. Aside from the enforcement and compliance activities of EMB in 12.3, the EMB also take part in projects and activities to enhance and rehabilitate water quality throughout the country.

Designation of Water Quality Management Area

The Water Quality Management Area ( WQMA) is established by the NWRB together with DENR to assign water quality management areas using appropriate physiographic units to protect water bodies and its tributaries ( EMB n.d.b). The WQMA follows a two-step process by first initiating an assessment followed by the development of an agency Action Plan crafted to improve the quality of a certain body of water. Mindanao has ten bodies of water were designated as WQMAs in 2016.

Financing Institutions and Development Partners

Financing institutions and development partners aid various projects aiming to promote, conserve, rehabilitate, and manage water quality. While the World Bank, Development Bank of the Philippines, JICA , and USAID all contributed to various national projects to protect, conserve, manage and rehabilitate the water bodies in the Philippines, we emphasize support for projects on Mindanao Island.

Land Bank of the Philippines

The Land Bank of the Philippines, together with the DENR , implemented the " Adopt-a-Watershed Project" restoring 14 hectare (ha) total area of denuded forestlands in six pilot areas nationwide (EMB 2014). (1 ha is equal to 10,000 m ².) Two major watersheds in Mindanao were covered in Phase 1(2006-2011) of this project, Lasang River in Davao Del Norte and Silway River in South Cotabato. In Phase 2 (2012-2015) of this project, 10 ha total watershed was covered in Mindanao, these are Paquibato, Davao City and Olympog in General Santos City. In the last Phase (2015-2018), and additional 14 ha of Mindanao watersheds found in Zamboanga Sibugay, Lanao del Sur, Davao del Norte, and South Cotabato will undergo restoration (Land Bank of the Philippines 2014).

Asian Development Bank

The Asian Development Bank ( ADB) provided technical assistance to Cebu and Davao cities to improve access to water supply and sanitation services. The Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Project (2011-2014) aimed to increase continuous water supply in Cebu and Davao City by 2022 from 50 to 80% of the population while the coverage for clean and hygienic sanitation was targeted to improve from 10 to 50%. Furthermore, marine biodiversity ecosystems in the provinces of Cagayan de Oro and Davao Oriental were also allocated funds by ADB to enhance coastal services and reduce poverty among fisher folks (EMB 2014).

Research and Development Initiatives

Various research and development initiatives and programs conducted by DENR and Department of Science and Technology (DOST ) have been reported to address water quality problems nationwide. DENR conducted leachate characterization study from various solid waste disposal facilities from 2005 to 2007 assessing the impacts of leachate on groundwater and studies on toxicity testing to assess the harmful effects of substances like cyanide, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, and nitrates with fish and invertebrate test organisms. The collected data from the tests were used in the formulation of parameters for environmental quality assessment and monitoring (EMB 2014).

The DOST also conducted various research and development initiatives geared towards prevention and control of water pollution under a five-year plan from 2011 to 2016 entitled, "Science & Technology Water Environment Roadmap." Various programs and projects are investigating and implementing water technologies. They include water treatment technological improvement and innovation, wastewater treatment and remediation technologies, and space technology applications on water resources such as Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR ) technology and photonics for aquatic resource assessment (EMB 2014).

Recommendations to Improve Quality, Control, and Management

The environmental impact and negative health consequences elicited from water scarcity and pollution aid in refining the existing legal framework and policies on quality control, regulation on water usage, and water management. Major recommendations include policy amendments to the Philippine Water Code and Clean Air Act and various methods to further enhance local community involvement in government organized activities.

Policy Amendments

Major policy recommendations include the development of an institutional framework under the purview of the Philippine Water Code and amending the Clean Air Act to eliminate the use of concentration-based standards through the introduction of a two-tiered permit system. Suggestions include providing clarification of the roles and responsibilities of the various enacted national and local government units.

Centralized Regulation

A central regulatory body mandated within the main Philippine Water Code would provide an essential reporting structure that legally defines the framework for extraction, allocation, and management of the country's water resources. The transition to central control recognizes the presumably adequate existing law but may afford the necessary opportunity to successfully address the constant challenge of policy enforcement resulting from government institutions having overlapping functions and responsibilities (Rola et al. 2015). Thus, an institutional framework where all water users understand their roles and responsibilities should be enacted under the Philippine Water Code. The NWRB , currently enforcing the Water Code of the Philippines, is a prime candidate for transition. The existing organizational chart of NWRB allows conferring of water right but much of the proportion of water right is freely held by other public institutions like DENR (watershed management), LWUA (domestic water supply), and National Irrigation Administration (NIA) (irrigation water supply) as shown in Fig. 12.1 .

This proposal reinforces the technical capacity and administrative function of NWRB by restructuring agency responsibilities to become the country's water resources management authority. Hence, a single, independent, and autonomous regulatory board will ensure the protection of water consumers, enshrine accountability and transparency throughout the water resource management of the country, and implement an honest and dynamic tariff policy. Further, these steps would streamline all projects and activities geared towards water quality improvement, sustainable allocation, and distribution among all users. The proposed central agency would carry the name National Water Resources Management Office (Fig. 12.2 ) having the mandate to manage and protect the country's water resources.

Local Community Involvement in Government Organized Activities

The civil society in the Philippines is very strong and vocal particularly in respect to the environment. National and local nongovernment organizations (NGOs) are very keen in monitoring proposed projects or activities that may pose serious deleterious effects to the environment. For this reason, tapping local community involvement and public participation in various government projects and activities is beneficial to the government, environment, and population. Recommendations encompass a series of local community involvement in government organized activities spanning the important aspect of citizen engagement in environmental impact assessments prior to development and community-managed services, among others.

Public participation in environmental impact assessment (EIA ) activities is very significant not only in the process of consultations but also in the process of issuance and renewal of Environmental Compliance Certificates (ECC) (EMB 2007). Certain provision in the EIA requires the creation of a multisectoral monitoring team especially for major development projects. This provision allows public participations to ensure compliance with environmental standards by companies and industries as stipulated in the ECC.

EcoWatch Program is a private sector initiative listing and publicizing major polluters. DENR has adopted this initiative and encourages public participation in monitoring major polluters ( EMB n.d.c). This system creates negative publicity for the involved firms since they are "color-coded" according to their compliance with environmental regulations. EcoWarch also allows public recognition and praise to firms and companies categorized as green, silver, and gold.

The Kapitbisig Laban sa Kahirapan-Comprehensive and Integrated Delivery of Social Project (KALAHI-CIDSS) is a World Bank project working with different impoverished communities in the Philippines. The project utilizes a community-driven development approach by enabling villagers to make their own decisions in identifying, developing, implementing, and monitoring development initiatives based on their current need (World Bank 2014). Public participation was very significant due to clearly established guidelines on participation, accountability, and transparency. Furthermore, an impact study revealed that the income of the household beneficiaries who participated in the project rose significantly by 12% as measured in terms of consumption (World Bank 2014, para 4).

There are numerous waterless municipalities around the country and about 213 are found in Mindanao (Llanto 2013). SALINTUBIG Project was conceived in 2011 by the DILG, DOH, and National Anti-Poverty Commission (NAPC). Their common objective is to provide water supply systems to the 455 waterless municipalities, barangays, health centers, and resettlement sites in the Philippines. To reach their goals community members and LGU personnel were given technical training in terms of planning, implementation, and operation of water supply facilities. This program emphasizes the capacity building mechanisms and the provision of technical assistance to LGUs in the pursuit of sustainable and efficient water supply services in the country (National Anti-Poverty Commission n.d.).

Cagayan de Oro City through the Cagayan de Oro Water District (COWD ) sought the private sector to implement a design-build-operate contract for their septic facility. Through this setup, the private proponent will design and construct the treatment facility, purchase and operate desludging trucks, and implement a program for desludging septic tanks around the city. The local government on the other hand will approve a comprehensive citywide septic management ordinance, develop and targeted promotional campaign (USAID 2010).

The Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation (PCWS ) assists in the creation of institutions providing technical assistance for the effective community management of water supply and sanitation systems. The formation of the Provincial Water and Sanitation Center in Agusan del Sur facilitated the capacity building of the municipal-level project implementers, providing sustainable support to community water and sanitation associations (Asian Development Bank 2006).

Lack of access to clean, potable water and improved sanitation is still a longstanding issue in most rural areas in the Philippines. Climate Resilience in Water Stressed Communities (CREST ) is a project funded by USAID, local governments and communities in the Philippines to bring potable water to these areas and conflict-affected regions of Mindanao (USAID 2016). This project utilized a community-based, participatory approach to bring safe and potable drinking water through innovative water and water sanitation technologies resilient in the face of climate change.

Finally, the Estero Program is a collaborative effort among estero community members, local government units, private company donors, and DENR through EMB, to clean up waterways that empty into rivers and other bodies of water ( EMB n.d.a). This is an effort to mobilize members of the community to actively engage in clean up, planning and implementation of continued plans to keep the estero clean in continuous projects. Immediate of their initial efforts that were observed by residents and other locals include less flooding due to unimpeded water flow and reduction of water-borne diseases.

Summary

Clean water is essential to improving the quality of public health. Therefore, maintenance and improvement of the quality of water is important to achieving this objective. In the Philippines, several legal frameworks and policies have been established with the mandate of quality control, regulation of water use, and water supply management. National government agencies, taskforces, and committees have been established in response to the implementation of laws and departmental administrative orders. These government agencies through various consultative meetings and research developed ambient water and wastewater emission standards for the protection of water bodies in the country. Although these legal framework and policies are in place, several obstacles are still presently challenging the realization of providing clean and potable water for all Filipinos. These challenges are apparent in the fragmented establishment of legal policies cascading into weak reinforcement that, in turn, is ineffective in preventing pollutants from contaminating fresh and groundwater sources that impacts public health. Efforts must be made to address problems on water quality and pollution, shortage and scarcity of water, and the health and environmental impacts. This could begin in the development of a unified inter-agency and multisectoral taskforce on the management of water bodies. The system of rewards and incentives to improve environmental compliance of firms and industries must be further strengthened. Although several government agencies are mandated with the task of improving the water quality, this requires a multisectoral approach which necessitates the involvement of local government units and communities.

Initiatives by different civic societies and community associations are crucial in the improvement of the water quality throughout the island. Attention should also be given in the capacity building of local communities especially in their involvement on monitoring the compliance of different firms and industries. A good amount of investment must also be made in locally developed and produced sanitation and sewerage systems to introduce public accountability among every citizen. A community association must also be encouraged to manage water distribution and management of wastewater treatment facilities. These efforts to involve and engage local communities would address the challenge on the financial and personnel constraint of both the EMB and DENR . Together with the National Government, the rights and powers stipulated by legislative policies, support from various international and local Nongovernment Organizations, and active and responsible participation from local community members, the dream of providing clean, safe, and accessible water resources is possible. The rich resources of the Philippines must not be taken for granted and action must be taken before it's too late. The community, an untapped resource, must be involved in the various efforts to conserve and preserve the very foundation of life-water. Therefore, now is the time to revise and translate national laws and policies through the involvement of community to better the environmental condition of the Philippines.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to acknowledge the United Nations, World Health Organization, and the World Bank for access to their outstanding resources. The authors accept responsibility for all analysis and interpretation.

Glossary

Biological oxygen demand (BOD )

Amount of oxygen dissolved in water required for the survival of microorganisms.

Coliforms

Bacteria commonly found in soil, water, and in the guts of animals, which indicate that the water supply may be vulnerable to contamination.

Dissolved oxygen (DO)

Amount of diatomic oxygen dissolved in water.

Domestic

Refers to the utilization of water for drinking, washing, cooking, bathing, and other household chores and needs.

Effluent

Wastewater discharged from a sewage treatment facility or an industrial plant.

Industrial

Utilization of water for the needs of factories, industrial plants, and mines.

Irrigation

Controlled application of water for agricultural uses through man-made systems to supply water requirements not satisfied by precipitation.

Municipal

Utilization of water for supplying the water needs of the community.

Potable water

Water that is safe for consumption or food preparation with no risk to health.

Seawater Intrusion

The natural phenomenon where freshwater is contaminated with seawater because of overdraft-extracting too much water that leads to an unsafe imbalance in water quality.

Sewerage

Collective term used for drains, canals, manholes, pumping stations, and screening chambers for disposal of sewage and surface water.

Volatile Organic Compounds ( VOCs)

Synthetic chemical compounds dissolved in water which can be vaporized at low temperatures.

Wastewater

Water that has been used for various purposes in homes, industries, businesses that is not meant for reuse unless it is treated for contaminants.

Water Quality Management Area

Certain water bodies and its tributaries identified by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR ) to be prioritized for protection and conservation.

Water Right

The right granted by the government to appropriate and use water.

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Articles from Translating National Policy to Improve Environmental Conditions Impacting Public Health Through Community Planning are provided here courtesy of Nature Publishing Group

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Water Quality: Mindanao Island of the Philippines

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Philippines is an archipelagic country dominated by water and inland water sources. Water quality has been the subject of attention for the country and specifically, Mindanao Island, because of the role this natural resource plays in agriculture. ...

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URL:https://bangsamoro.gov.ph/news/latest-news/access-to-clean-water-in-rural-areas-in-upi-maguindanao-made-possible-by-ilo-japan-govt-barmm/

TITLE: Access to clean water in rural areas in Upi, Maguindanao made possible by ILO, Japan Govt, BARMM

AUTHOR: Bangsamoro Information Office

DATE: June 24, 2021

KEY POINTS: The article discusses the progress on the ILO project that provides rural areas in BARMM with water, as 500 households and ~1.2k students being given access to water.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
COTABATO CITY - International Labor Organization (ILO) and Japan Government, in collaboration with the Bangsamoro Government's Ministry of Labor and Employment (MOLE), continues to install Level II Water System in rural areas across the region.

On Monday, June 21, the parties handed over the Level II Water System to Looy Integrated Technical and Vocational High School (LITVHS) at Barangay Looy in South Upi, Maguindanao. A tree planting activity was also conducted in the area on the same day.

Masahiro Nakata, representative of Embassy of Japan in the Philippines, confirmed that Japan and the ILO has lined up a total of eleven (11) water systems for the Bangsamoro region. These are part of the Japan-Bangasamoro Initiative for Reconstruction and Development (JBIRD) program.

"Through JBIRD we aim to provide an enabling environment for the Bangsamoro communities and help them benefit from the dividends of peace," Nakata said.

"We envision Mindanao particularly the Bangsamoro Region as a bedrock of peace development and stability," he added.

Nakata also mentioned that work opportunities were made available during the construction phase of the project, involving indigenous men and women of Barangay Looy.

ILO Philippines Director Khalid Hassan said that the organization ensured that the fundamental principles and rights at working conditions, livelihood of the indigenous people are promoted as an integral part of inclusive and sustainable development.

"We have brought water close to almost 500 households from a water source estimated to be 7 kilometers away in a total of a 9-kilometer piping system has been constructed," Hassan said.

"We are also happy to know that 1,169 students in two schools will now have safe and clean water for drinking and washing anytime of the day," he added.

Through the years, 54% of the BARMM population do not have access to clean water. In the case of Barangay Looy, the residents need to wake up early to fetch water from a well, and the students of LITVHS are required to bring four (4) gallons of water to school everyday.

MOLE Minister Romeo Sema, chairman of the project's Advisory and Review Committee, made sure that the 250 laborers of the project, 75 of which are women, were well treated and compensated.

"The project aims to generate productive work and employment sa pamamagitan ng pag construct ng safe and reliable water systems sa mga mahihirap at marginalized na komunidad," Sema said.

Sema believes that the access to clean water and decent livelihood could improve the level of lifestyle of the indigenous peoples, noting that the Teduray composes the 80% population of Barangay Looy.

"Pwede itong (water system) mag bukas ng mga oportunidad para sa livelihood, safety and health at mas disenteng pamumuhay," Sema added.

The ILO, Japan Gov't, and MOLE have already handed over same water systems in the barangays of Timanan, Rifao and Renti in South Upi, Maguindanao and in Wao, Lanao del Sur. Similar projects will also be constructed in the provinces of Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi. (Bangsamoro Information Office)

25,746 total views, 8 views today

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Access to clean water in rural areas in Upi, Maguindanao made possible by ILO, Japan Govt, BARMM

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
COTABATO CITY - International Labor Organization (ILO) and Japan Government, in collaboration with the Bangsamoro Government's Ministry of Labor and Employment (MOLE), continues to install Level II Water System in rural areas across the region. On Monday, June 21, the parties handed over the Level II Water System to Looy Integrated Technical and Vocational High School (LITVHS) at Barangay Looy in South Upi, Maguindanao.

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14.) NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION OR ACADEMIC INSTITUTION ARTICLE

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14.) NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION OR ACADEMIC INSTITUTION ARTICLE

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URL:

https://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2017/08/building-resilience-peace-water-security-strategic-interests-mindanao-philippines/#:~:text=Large%20segments%20of%20Mindanao's%20population,especially%20in%20areas%20experiencing%20conflict

AUTHOR: Roger-Mark De Souza, Chelsea Spangler

DATE PUBLISHED: August 1, 2017

KEY INFO: The article discusses how water, one of the issues the Philippines face, is an important factor in maintaining social order, and through it, peace, especially in Mindanao.

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The Philippines faces a breadth of social and environmental challenges that threaten its economic and political stability. A long history of violent conflict stemming from ethnic, religious, and political tensions is further complicated by changing weather patterns that cause severe drought and damaging storms. Millions of people in Mindanao have been displaced by violence and extreme weather events, and their migration from rural areas leaves room for the expansion of terrorist groups that threaten regional stability. The United States currently has strong trade and cultural ties to the Philippines, and U.S. Pacific Command operates military facilities on the islands. This chapter examines the stakes for U.S. interests in Mindanao, and recommends a security approach that combines defense, diplomacy, and development efforts to promote improved governance, social stability, and climate resilience.

Ecological Challenges

Climate change is generating warmer coastal waters, rising sea levels, and stronger storms

The Philippines was listed as the country most affected by climate change in the 2015 Global Climate Risk Index. Mindanao's southern islands are currently experiencing extreme drought and rising temperatures due to climate change and heightened El Niño-Southern Oscillation effects. In April 2016, a severe drought in Cotabato Province drove thousands of farmers to urban centers to demand food assistance. An ongoing three-year drought is also leading to water rationing in Zamboanga City. In some areas, agricultural land has been rendered unusable. These trends are projected to continue: By 2050, average rainfall is expected to decrease by 11%.

Climate change is also generating warmer coastal waters, rising sea levels, and stronger storms in the Philippines. Since 2006, the Philippines has experienced five of the 10 strongest storms in its history.

In addition, Mindanao faces tradeoffs between maintaining marshlands and accessing the oil and gas deposits beneath them. A proposed dam near the Liguasan Marsh would drain 543,600 acres of marsh to enable drilling, but could also flood thousands of acres of farmland.

Other water resources are threatened by decades of illegal gold mining, which has contaminated freshwater sources in T'boli municipality with poisonous mercury and cyanide. Similarly, silt produced by unregulated industrial practices is restricting water flows into Mindanao's largest lake, Lake Lanao, limiting electricity generation.

Societal Challenges

Large segments of Mindanao's population have inadequate access to fresh water due to a combination of factors: degraded water quality stemming from a lack of regulation; depleted water sources due to overuse; and insufficient infrastructure as a result of poor governance, especially in areas experiencing conflict. Disputes over water rights arise where governing institutions are lacking, and feuding parties sometimes intentionally deprive opponents of water access as a tactic.

It is estimated that since 2000, 4 million people have migrated to displacement camps due to violent conflict

It is estimated that since 2000, 4 million people have migrated to displacement camps in Mindanao due to violent conflict in their home regions. In 2013, Typhoon Yolanda and other climate change impacts forced another 4 million people to relocate to Mindanao. Providing water and sanitation for so many displaced people is a challenge that the government has struggled to meet. The mass migration also contributed to a food crisis of such magnitude that in 2000 the Internal Displacement-Monitoring Centre reported that 30%-40% of preschool children on the islands were malnourished.

Over 48% of Mindanao's jobs are in the agriculture sector, which is increasingly threatened by climate impacts. Insufficient water supply and storm recovery mechanisms, along with degradation of watersheds, render agricultural livelihoods untenable, and displace farmers.

Inequitable land tenure and access to natural resources is also an underlying cause of violent conflict in Mindanao. While much of the widespread violence has its roots in a long history of ethnic, religious, and political tensions, it was ultimately land tenure disputes that helped drive part of the Philippines' Muslim population to pursue political separation from the Filipino state.

Implications for the U.S.

The United States and the Philippines have strong trade and cultural ties; around 150,000 Americans live in the Philippines, and around 4 million Filipinos and Filipino-Americans live in the United States.

Mindanao is of geostrategic importance to the United States. It is close to the South China Sea and its potentially oil- and gas-rich Spratly Islands, the ownership of which is hotly contested by various states, including China.

The United States operates military facilities in the Philippines, which the U.S. Pacific Command suggests are critical for maritime security, counterterrorism, and humanitarian and disaster relief operations. These operations are facilitated by the 2014 Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement, and are an important part of U.S.-Philippine cooperation to counter terrorist groups, including Jemaah Islamiyah and Abu Sayyaf, which are helping to establish a territorial foothold for the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) in the Philippines.

The newly elected Duterte government is critical of the defense cooperation agreement, asserting that it pits U.S. interests against those of the Philippines. In late 2016, the new president repeatedly called for the removal of U.S. troops from the Philippines, a move that would severely curtail U.S. ability to carry out counterterrorism operations.

Reports indicate that ISIS training camps are being established in Mindanao

Several extremist groups in Mindanao are designated as "foreign terrorist organizations" by the United States, and some of these have carried out attacks on Western targets. Reports indicate that ISIS training camps are being established in Mindanao, and the large-scale displacement of rural populations has created space for such terror operations to prosper. There is a risk that extremist groups will carry out tactics already used in Iraq and Syria, such as taking control of water resources, driving agricultural workers from their land, and destroying infrastructure.

Recommendations

In order to promote stability in the Philippines and protect its interests, the United States should consider the following actions:

Support water-related programs that promote peace-building and climate resilience, including assistance with monitoring and allocating water resources equitably; military protection of dams to prevent terrorist groups from seizing vital water resources; ensuring viability of the agriculture sector; and facilitating the quick resettlement of people displaced by storms or violence.
Chelsea Spangler is a water and security program associate with the World Wildlife Fund-US. Photo Credit: People living in a camp for those displaced by the conflict in Mindanao receive water by truck because the existing pumps have been contaminated by saline water, January 2017, courtesy of European Commission Directorate-General for European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations

1. Build trust between governments, local actors, and international aid groups, and build institutional capacity for collaborative governance. An essential step toward such trust will be for local governments to provide basic social services, including water and sanitation, for all social groups.

2. Encourage water management programs that link defense, diplomacy, and development efforts. For example, all donor interventions in Mindanao should include conflict management and mitigation, and should aim to improve local governance.

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Building Resilience for Peace: Water, Security, and Strategic Interests in Mindanao, Philippines

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This article is a summary of the chapter by Roger-Mark De Souza, the director of population, environmental security, and resilience for the Wilson Center, in the new book, Water, Security and [...]

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URL: https://m.facebook.com/nrcpresearchpod/videos/nrcp-mindanao-policy-forum-assessment-of-the-impacts-of-climate-change-and-water/803759270599018/

TITLE: NRCP Mindanao Policy Forum - Assessment of the Impacts of Climate Change and Water Resources Use and Management on the Hydrology of Lake Lanao Watersheds: Averting the Looming Water Crisis in Lanao Del Norte

AUTHOR: DOST National Research Council of the Philippines

DATE PUBLISHED: May 12, 2022

KEY INFO: The podcast explores the effects of climate change on the availability of water and rain in Lanao del Norte.

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URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=roNrSR9Veik

TITLE: Mindanao: Clean Water Keeping Children, Families Healthy - ADB

AUTHOR: Asian Development Bank

DATE PUBLISHED: Feb. 12, 2010
KEY INFO: Asia Development Bank has funded a program to supply rural areas in Mindanao with water through the Mindanao Basic Urban Services Sector project.

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Mindanao: Clean Water Keeping Children, Families Healthy - ADB

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URL: https://eccp.glueup.com/event/wcf-2021-addressing-water-challenges-and-opportunities-in-mindanao-44777/

TITLE: Addressing Water Challenges and Opportunities in Mindanao Region

AUTHOR: ECCP (European Chamber of Commerce of the Philippines)

DATE PUBLISHED: October 27, 2021

KEY CONTENT: The webinar addressed the state of water in Mindanao. It also provides updates on initiatives in addressing concerns relating to water concerns in the region, as well as providing participants with the available opportunities to explore in the regions.

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URL: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322414691_Water_Quality_Mindanao_Island_of_the_Philippines

TITLE: Translating National Policy to Improve Environmental Conditions Impacting Public Health Through Community Planning

AUTHORS: Angelo Mark P. Walag, Olivia Canencia, Beth Ann Fiedler

DATE PUBLISHED: May 2018

KEY INFO: The researchers used ethnographic methodologies alongside with mapping techniques to examine the experiences of rural villagers in three different case study sites that were identified as water scarce/waterless in the Province of Agusan del Sur.

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URL: https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/79212201/ed8e8103a89a29b4c2b8bbb8d5780f9271fe-libre.pdf?1642737546=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DUsing_the_Soil_and_Water_Assessment_Tool.pdf&Expires=1709305692&Signature=VvYZ0k-dP-z3zuZjPDAV1zk8O6Qdcj3msvyQugxlowXhGHRaGh-27wvobqQosHTTpGmrC6gzkk3VPn9tO4ZHNazE8LisQ3oyzIi9qQorQru-3I~P5tlxRrKn0pm91nav1ZAo1-~RdKS8EFFZ6w-wboXzTI2NwajTVXXVGmq0TvSL~kMgZaDwJHkL457OCaFVIXDCdNYVEsphUqs10uV4gucFYH4VwNfkv9g8QxRPeKRPb1R5e7e7eCbS5-0SYaFyx3yk7pdKOKtOUy0~WOvKDUNeDfCgYTIrhd~19DKYKGMg0E5AHe47rAyVwb9dscPN~oqZAp15z9mQbXj7A770pw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA

TITLE: Using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) to Assess Material Transfer in the Layawan Watershed, Mindanao, Philippines and Its Implications on Payment for Ecosystem Services

AUTHORS: Leo Kris M. Palao, Moises M. Dorado , Kharmina Paola A. Anit, Rodel D. Lasco

DATE PUBLISHED: May 27, 2013

KEY INFO: The research paper discusses the effectiveness of using a variety of methods, mainly the Soil and Water Assessment Tool, to quantify sediment yield and sediment concentration in Layawan Watershed.

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URL: https://www.philstar.com/pilipino-star-ngayon/opinyon/2024/01/28/2329131/editoryal-walang-malinis-na-tubig-toilet

TITLE: EDITORYAL — Walang malinis na tubig at toilet

AUTHOR: Pilipino Star Ngayon

DATE PUBLISHED: Jan. 28, 2024

KEY INFO: The lack of clean drinking water is the cause of illness. Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) official found that 40 million Filipinos do not have clean drinking water. Additionally, there are also no proper toilets or toilet access.