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Key writers/ thinkers/ references/ quotes

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Key writers/ thinkers/ references/ quotes

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Focus groups are not really new. Within the social sciences, Bogardus’s (1926) description of group interviews is among the earliest published work.
Focus groups first started as a research method in the 1940s at Columbia University while conducting market research concerning radio soap operas.(Bloor, Michael; Frankland, Jane; Thomas, Michelle; Robson, Kate (2001).)

Psychologist and marketing expert Ernest Dichter coined the term "focus group" itself before his death in 1991. (Ames, Lynne (1998). )

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A focus group is a small, but demographically similar group of people and whose reactions are studied especially in market research or political analysis in guided or open discussions about a new product or something else to determine the reactions that can be expected from a larger population.

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Communication studies

Education

political science

public health

specific product, issue, or topic

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Library and information science

Social sciences

Marketing

Usability engineering

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1-qualitative research

Qualitative research relies on data obtained by the researcher from first-hand observation, interviews, questionnaires, focus groups, participant-observation, recordings made in natural settings, documents, and artifacts. The data are generally nonnumerical.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_research

2-groupthink

Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupthink

3-social desirability bias

social-desirability bias is a type of response bias that is the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others. This bias interferes with the interpretation of average tendencies as well as individual differences.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social-desirability_bias

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1-Collect data through interactive and directed discussions

2-Questions are asked in an interactive group setting where participants are free to talk with other group members.

3-Focus groups use group interaction to explore and clarify the beliefs, opinions and views of the focus group members.

4-During this process, the researcher either takes notes or records the vital points he or she is getting from the group.

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Free listings – participants produce a list of all elements of a domain

Rating – participants have a list of items which must be rated on a scale, typically using numbers or adjectives

Ranking – participants can either receive a list of items to rank according to a specified dimension or participants can combine items in pairs to compare elements in the pairs

Pile sorting – participants sort cards representing elements of a domain into piles according to their similarities and differences

Picture sort – Participants are distributed selected pictures from magazines or photographs to sort through, finding matches of a definite characteristic or that best represent a certain category

Magic tools and fantasy – the moderator can literally or symbolically pass around a "magical" tool to each participant as he or she shares a fantasy, dream, or idea

Storytelling – participants create a narrative around the topic of interest to make others think about a solution to a problem, gauge reactions to a situation, and observe attitudes towards the topic under study

Role-playing – participants demonstrate through action how they would behave or act in a situation, how they would solve a problem, or deal with a difficulty

Sentence completion – participants are given printed out partial sentences on a topic to complete and share within a group

Collage – a moderator assigns a theme and then distributes print materials to participants (who are divided into small groups), so they can use these materials, drawings, and their own words to create a relevant collage.

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Two-way focus group - one focus group watches another focus group and discusses the observed interactions and conclusion

Dual moderator focus group - one moderator ensures the session progresses smoothly, while another ensures that all the topics are covered

Dueling moderator focus group (fencing-moderator) - two moderators deliberately take opposite sides on the issue under discussion

Respondent moderator focus group - one and only one of the respondents is asked to act as the moderator temporarily

Client participant focus groups - one or more client representatives participate in the discussion, either covertly or overtly

Mini focus groups - groups are composed of four or five members rather than 6 to 12

Teleconference focus groups - telephone network is used

Creativity groups

Band obsessive group

Online focus groups - computers connected via the internet are used

Phone/ web focus groups - live group conducted over the phone and online with 6 to 8 participants.

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Advantages

1-   Do not discriminate against people who cannot read or write

2-   Can encourage participation from those who are reluctant to be interviewed on their own (such as those intimidated by the formality and isolation of a one to one interview)

3-    Can encourage contributions from people who feel they have nothing to say or who are deemed "unresponsive patients" (but engage in the discussion generated by other group members)
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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2550365/?page=2

disadvantages

1-The results obtained are influenced by the researcher or his or her reading of the group's discussion, raising questions of validity. Other common (and related) criticism involve groupthink and social desirability bias.

2-Another issue is with the setting itself. If the focus groups are held in a laboratory setting with a moderator who is a professor and the recording instrument is obtrusive, the participants may either hold back on their responses and/or try to answer the moderator's questions with answers the participants feel that the moderator wants to hear.

3- Another issue with the focus group setting is the lack of anonymity. With all of the other participants, there can not be any guarantee of confidentiality.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_group (problems and criticism)

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Testing advertising copy or marketing promotions

Positioning products or services

Testing new concepts

Testing usability of a product

Focus groups also can be used to generate ideas in a group

By getting feedback in advance from people representative of those you hope to target with a survey, you can better word your questions and design clearer explanations of your concepts.
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Edmunds, H. (2000) The Focus Group Research Handbook .New York City: McGraw-Hill Education.

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1-When you need a numerical response to questions like “what percentage…?” or “how many…?”

Focus groups do not provide quantitative results.

2-When you need to explore issues that are very personal or sensitive in nature.

People are not really comfortable discussing personal topics in a group situation.

3-When you want to set prices for your products or your services.

Again, these results are not quantitative in nature hence it is not advisable to make final pricing decisions based on small group responses.

4-When you cannot afford a survey.

Focus groups are not a replacement for a survey. If what you really need are statistically valid results, consider a shorter survey or slightly reduced sample size, but do not rely on qualitative to give you the detail you require.

5-When you want to validate internal decisions that cannot (or will not) be changed based on the results of the focus groups.

If you will not be able to incorporate the results of the focus groups into product development, advertising design, etc., then there is no sense in conducting the groups in the first place.
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Edmunds, H. (2000) The Focus Group Research Handbook .New York City: McGraw-Hill Education.

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Three Key Issues:

1-  Consent同意

Consent is a central ethical concern in research using human participants. Its specific importance in focus group research is suggested by Green and Hart’s view of this method as one in which participants have a particular vulnerability, as they ‘are not only persuaded by skilled facilitators to disclose intimate views, but also to do this in front of peers’ (Green and Hart 1999: p. 31).

2-  Confidentiality and Anonymity保密和匿名

Confidentiality and anonymity are potentially problematic because of the researcher’s limited control over what participants may subsequently communicate outside the group.

Confidentiality and anonymity are often treated more or less synonymously. There are, however, important distinctions that can be drawn between these two concepts, and the related notion of privacy.

Confidentiality relates to what is done with information once it is in the researcher’s possession, and specifically the extent to which it is disclosed to others. Anonymity, in contrast, is concerned with the attribution of information.

3-   Risk of Harm伤害风险

Although in some respects focus groups offer a supportive environment to participants, the group context may also create a sense of public vulnerability:

In individual interviews, respondents are protected by the relative intimacy and privacy of the interview situation. In a focus group session, in contrast, respondents are under pressure to perform (and possibly to conform) under the scrutiny of fellow participants. (Ransome 2013: p. 41)

This form of vulnerability may expose participants to various forms of harm. Thus, social or psychological harm may arise through a breach of confidentiality and/or anonymity. Information that is disclosed may lead to embarrassment, shame, stigmatization, discrimination, disruption of existing social relationships, or adverse employment consequences, and in some cases, participants may face legal action as a result of information that is made public (Warwick 1982).

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In a focus group, you bring together 6–9 users to discuss issues and concerns. The group typically lasts about 2 hours and is run by a moderator who maintains the group's focus.

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Focus group involve blending techniques from group process theory and qualitative research(Dilorio, Hockenberry, Maiback, & Rivero,1994; Morgan & Krueger, 1993; Then, 2000). Focus groups are considered to be a qualitative research method(Kress & Shonffner, 2007; Then, 1996). The terms focus group and group interview have often been used interchangeably throughout the literature. The purpose of this research column is to provide an overview of the focus group method of research. The authors also discuss process and analysis techniques that should be considered.

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The method of group interviews was Girst described by Bogardus(1926) and was predominantly used for social mediaand market research. The first focus groups were created by Associate Director and Sociologist, Robert Merton (Merton, 1987), This work was developed at the Bureau of Applied Social Research in the U.S. However, the term focus group research" was initially used by Dr. Ernest Dichter, who was a psychologist and marketing expert. Dichter is considered to be the Father ofMotivational Research" (Boyle, 1961). Currently, focus groups continue to be used by companies to gather consumer opinions regarding products and to understand consumer buying habits, attitudes and perceptions (Dilorio et al, 1994; Greenbaum, 1988; Then, 1996). Over the past 20years, focus groups have been used in health care research as a stand-alone method or within other methods such as ethnography (Mkandawire-Valhmu & Stevens, 2010; Vaughn, 2012), grounded theory (Bateman, Allen, Samani, Kidd, & Davies, 2013), and phenomenology (Bradbury-Jones, Sambrook, & Irvine, 2009).

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Focus groups can be a powerful tool in system development, but they should not be the only source of information about user behavior. In interactive systems development, the proper role of focus groups is not to assess interaction styles or design usability, but to discover what users want from the system.

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Effect：

To effectively collect user behavior information.

Purpose:

To find out what users really want.

Note:

This should not be the only way to judge.

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Advantages
Table 1: Advantages offocus groups
. Opportunity to have direct intensive contact with Individuais 
. Ability to collect rich, in-depth data
. Ability of the moderator to encourage interaction with other participants
. Allows for individuals to give opinions or change opinions following discussion with other participants
. Relaxed group setting 
. Individuai opinions valued
. Do not discriminate against people who cannot read or write
. individuals feel listened to
. Less intense environment
. Dynamic process
· Group promotes security and a "safe" environment
. Discussion is more spontaneous and honest
. Group dynamics and peer influences can be observed during the discussion
. Behaviours and beliefs can be vaiidated and clarified during the discussion
Relatively cost effective
.(Doody et al, 2013a; Greenbaum, 1988; Kitzinger, 1995; Morgan& Krueger, 1998; Vaughn et al, 1996)

Disadvantages
Table2: Disadvantages of focus groups
. Some groups may be lethargic and dull
. Stressful or sensitive issues may limit group disclosure
. Reluctance to express their opinions if other group members not trusted
. Dominant or aggressive individuals may influence the group dynamics
. Lack of control may lead to discussion of irrelevant issues
. Poor organization can waste valuable time and energy
. Difficulty of assembly due to location and time constraints
. Data are also more difficult to analyze than individual interviews
. Comments from the group must be interpreted within the social
and environmental context in which they were given
(Krueger, 1994; Liamputtong, 2011; Then, 1996)

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Focus group research is used in a variety of areas such as market research, social research, counselling, policy development, needs assessments and health care (Krueger & Casey, 2000). Within health care systems it has been used in avariety of settings including home care, hospitals, educational facilities, rural areas and with a variety of populations including HIV, youth, cardiac, spinal cord injury, cardiac, sensitive topics, chronic disease, distance nursing education, attitudes regarding assessment, student nurses, and registered nurses (DesRosier & Zellers, 1989; Dilorio et al, 1994; Kingry, Tiedje & Friedman, 1990; Lankshear, 1993; MacIntosh, 1993; Ndumele, Ableman, ussel, Gurrola, & Hicks, 2011; Nyamathi & Shuler, 1990; Ripat & Woodgate, 2012).

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Ethical standards and procedures should be followed in all research and focus group research is no exception. Informed consent should be obtained from all participants and parental/legal guardianship consent should be sought for under-age individuals. Even following parental consent, the under-age participants should also be asked for consent. "Being told" what to do by parents puts adolescents, in particular, on guard, while asking permission from them even when you have parental permission empowers them (Then, 2000). 
At the beginning of any focus group interaction a discussion around confidentiality is essential. Participants need to know that they can say what they believe and feel without repercussions from bosses, teachers or anyone else. Acknowledging the confidentiality of what is said during the discussion is not only between the moderator and the group, but among the group members themselves, This open sharing approach will often alleviate fears and apprehensions that individuals have regarding what they might want to state
(Greenbaum, 1988; Krueger & Casey, 2009; Smith, 1995).

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Focus group discussion consists of four major steps (Morgan et al., 1998).：
· Research design
· Data collection
· analysis and
· reporting of results

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Dilorio, C., Hockenberry-Eaton, M, Maiback, E., & Rivero, T, (1994). Focus groups: An interview method for nursing research. Journal of Neurascience Nursing, 26, 17S- -180.

Bogardus,E.S. (1926). The group interview. Journal ofApplied Sociolog,10, 372 -281.

Merton, R,K, (1987). The focused interview and focus groups: Continuities and discontinuities, Public Opinion Quarterly, S1, SSO- -S56.

Boyle, R.H, (1961,July24).Not-so mad doctor and his living lab. Retrieved from http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/valt/article/magazine/MAG107280S/

Mkandawire-Valhmu,L., & Stevens, P.E (2010). The critical value of focus group discussions in research with women Iiving with HIV in Malawi. Qualitattve Health Research 20, 684 -696.

Bateman,Allen, M, Samani,D, Kidd,J., & Davies, D, (2013). Virtual patient design: Exploring what works and why. A grounded theory study,Medical Bducation, 47, S95 -606.

DesRosier, MB, & Zellers, KC. (1989). Focus groups: A program planning technique, Journal ofNursing Administration, 19(3), 20 -25.

Then, K.L. (2000). Cardiovascular risk factors in adolescents: An exploratory descriptive study (Doctoral dissertation). University of Alberta,Edmonton, AB, Canada.

Greenbanm, TL, (1988). The practical handbook and guide to focus group research. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

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A focus group is a qualitative research method in which a trained moderator conducts a collective interview of typically six to eight participants from similar backgrounds, similar demographic characteristics, or both. Focus groups create open lines of communication across individuals and rely on the dynamic interaction between participants to yield data that would be impossible to gather via other approaches, such as one-on-one interviewing. When done well, focus groups offer powerful insights into people's feelings and thoughts and thus a more detailed, nuanced, and richer understanding of their perspectives on ideas, products, and policies.

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Skip to main content Edited by: Published: 2008 A focus group is a qualitative research method in which a trained moderator conducts a collective interview of typically six to eight participants from similar backgrounds, similar demographic characteristics, or both.

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Single focus group
The key feature of a single focus group is the interactive discussion of a topic by a collection of all participants and a team of facilitators as one group in one place.

Two‐way focus group
This format involves using two groups where one group actively discusses a topic, whereas the other observes the first group (Morgan, 1996; Morgan et al., 1998). Usually, this type of focus group is conducted behind a one‐way glass. The observing group and the moderator can observe and note the interactions and discussion of the first group without being seen.
Dual moderator focus group
Involves two moderators working together, each performing a different role within the same focus group (Krueger & Casey, 2000). The division of roles ensures a smooth progression of the session and ensures that all topics are covered.

Duelling moderator focus group
This involves two moderators who purposefully take opposing sides on an issue or topic under investigation (Krueger & Casey, 2000). Proponents believe that the introduction of contrary views to the discussion by the moderators is critical to achieving more in‐depth disclosure of data and information (Kamberelis & Dimitriadis, 2005).

Respondent moderator focus group
In this type of focus group discussion, researchers recruit some of the participants to take up a temporary role of moderators (Kamberelis & Dimitriadis, 2005). Having one of the participants lead the discussion is thought to impact on the dynamics of the group by influencing participants’ answers, thereby increasing the chances of varied and more honest responses.

Mini focus group
Researchers are usually faced with a situation where there is a small potential pool of participants and are difficult to reach, yet the research design requires that the topic must be discussed in a group. Under these circumstances, researchers can only convene a small group of between two and five participants (Kamberelis & Dimitriadis, 2005). Such groups are usually made up of individuals with high level of expertise (Hague, 2002).

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‘A discussion group is a group of individuals, typically who share a similar interest, who gather either formally or informally to discuss ideas, solve problems, or make comments. ’
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discussion_group

It ofter happen in the forums where people exchange messages or files that are publicly accessible. Another name of discussion groups ‘newsgroups’ is also used on Usenet, one of the oldest computer networks. In a group with specific topics, members are free to post text and binary files, and a moderator is not necessary.

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Bloor, M., Frankland, J., Thomas, M., & Robson, K.(2001). Focus groups in social research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Greenbaum, T. L.(1998). The handbook for focus group research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. A.(2000). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Morgan, D. L.(1988). Focus groups as qualitative research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

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The discussion group was first mentioned as a news group in USENET in the early 80’s. Jim Ellis and Tom Truscott, as two computer scientists, created this idea of “setting a system of rules to produce ’articles’”. The news group allows users to create ‘articles’ and to respond to others’ via their parallel news group, which fundamentally generates the form of discussion group that we’re familiar with on current social media.

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'Common methods of conversing including meeting in person, conducting conference calls, using text messaging, or using a website such as an Internet forum. People respond, add comments, and make posts on such forums, as well as on established mailing lists, in news groups, or in IRC channels. Other group members could choose to respond by posting text or image.'

Google Groups

Google Groups has become one of the major online discussion groups, with a wide range of worldwide frequent users.
Features include:

the ability for anyone to create new groups and join existing groups.

the ability to search for groups that focus on specific subject matter, as well as advanced search features that allow the search results to be filtered by date, language, and post author, among others.

three levels of group participation: public, announcements only, and restricted.

Facebook groups

Facebook groups simplify processes and protect the privacy of users when they interact with people. Users can create a group and delegate admins. Group admins are able to make a range of adjustments to the group page, such as changing its cover photo, moderating posts and comments, and pinning posts so that the permanently appear at the top of the group page. Admins can also create group events, news updates and manage group members. By default, groups are public, and anyone can join them at the discretion of that group's admins. However, groups may be marked as private — a user may only join such a group if an existing member sends them an invitation. A single user is capable of joining a maximum of 6000 groups.

WhatsApp groups

WhatsApp is a mobile messaging app with group discussion features. Users can create group chats to facilitate group discussions. By default, all group members are admins of that group, but this may be changed at the discretion of any existing admin. Admins have the ability to rename the group, add and remove members, and delete messages that have been sent to the group.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discussion_group

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Advantage

-Comparing to focus group, discussion group might have a larger scale in the number of members thank the Internet.

-Via searching machine and other online tools like google translator, members can communicate more effectively and informative.

-In a discussion group, participants are more likely to be informed, which means the conversation might be easier to get progress.

Disadvantage

-Due to the homology of the topics or interests, it’s unlikely to get many different perspectives in a discussion group.

-Ethical problems might occur frequently.

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Academic
-‘Small group of professionals or students formally or informally negotiate about an academic topic within certain fields. This implementation could be seen as an investigation or research based on various academic levels.’
-Discussion groups efficiently give feedback on research at an academic level.

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Atteberry, Jonathan (2009). "How Google Groups Works". How Stuffs Works.

Steenkamp, Marika; Hyde-Clarke, Nathalie (2014). "The use of Facebook for political commentary in South Africa". Telematics and Informatics. 31 (1): 91–97.

Nikou, Shahrokh; Bouwman, Harry; de Reuver, Mark (2012). "The potential of converged mobile telecommunication services: a conjoint analysis". Info. 14 (5): 21–35.

Cross, M. and Shinder, D., 2008. Scene Of The Cybercrime. 2nd ed. Burlington, MA: Syngress Pub., pp.Pages 381-418.