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The discovery of blood in a case opens up a mini investigation within the investigation. This is because an investigator must initially determine if a crime has been committed. It's important to determine if a crime has been committed because the presence of blood does not necessarily mean that there ever was a crime. This determination has to be made in a case where a person is reported missing since it will help investigators. The blood found can then be tested and see if it belongs to the victim; if the blood does belong to the victim there is a possibility that a crime has been committed and that the case could change. Blood evidence also comes in to play in criminal cases. Blood found on the blade of a knife could mean that a crime was committed and someone was stabbed- but it could also mean that the victim sliced their own finger. Even though there may be a crime where someone has been stabbed, it has to be determined that a crime was committed with that particular knife. The red substance that has been found is tested. Initially the blood is tested to determine if it is blood, and then if it is human blood. Once the substance has been tested and it's been determined that it is blood and it is human blood, it can be determined if the blood came from the victim or the suspect. Blood evidence isn't just collected off of weapons, but can also be collected off of the floor or other surfaces in a crime scene. This blood is also tested to determine if the blood came from the victim or the suspect.

Besides testing, investigators use blood stain patterns to help determine if a crime was committed. There are different types of blood stain patterns that an investigator looks for, these patterns are as follows:

- Drip Stains/Patterns - blood stain patterns that are created due to the force of gravity acting on liquid blood.

- Blood Dripping into Blood

- Splashed (Spilled) Blood

- Projected Blood (with a syringe)

- Transfer Stains/Patterns -A transfer bloodstain pattern is created when a wet, bloody surface contacts a surface that is not bloody. With this type of pattern, part or the entire original surface may be recognizable, a full or a partial shoe print, for example.

- Spatter Patterns- Blood spatter patterns are created when an exposed blood source is subjected to an action or force greater than gravity (internally or externally)

- Castoff- A blood stain pattern that is created when blood is released or thrown from a bloody object in motion.

- Impact -A blood stain pattern resulting from an object striking liquid blood

- Projected-A blood stain pattern that is produced by blood being released under pressure-for example, arterial spurting.

Investigators also look for the following blood stain patterns:

- Shadowing/ Ghosting- When there is an empty space or "void" in the spatter. This indicates that there was an object in the way.

- Swipes and Wipes- Swipes occur when blood on a surface is smeared. Wipes occur when a bloody object brushes against a surface.

- Expiratory Blood - Blood that is coughed or breathed out. This is indicated by a misty pattern that resembles high velocity spatter results.

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Blood Evidence: Basics and Patterns - Crime Museum

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The discovery of blood in a case opens up a mini investigation within the investigation. This is because an investigator must initially determine if a crime has been committed. It's important to determine if a crime has been committed because the presence of blood does not necessarily mean that there ever was a crime.

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davonn summerford

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ashton glass

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davonn summerford

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lorenzo davis

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Blood is a fluid type of connective tissue. It is a complex tissue which is composed of a liquid part, plasma, and cellular components. Blood is one of the most important physical and biological evidence which can be found in the crime scene in the form of blood pool, droplets, stains etc. It is a major evidence found in cases like rape, sexual assault, murder, homicide etc.

It is known as:

Fluid of life: Transports oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body and carbon dioxide from the rest of the body to the lungs.

Fluid of growth: Transports nutrients from the digestive system and hormones from the endocrine gland to all of the body's tissues.

Fluid of health: Protects the body against diseases and transports waste products and undesirable substances to excretory organs like the kidneys.

PROPERTIES OF BLOOD

Colour: Blood is usually red in colour. Arterial blood contains more oxygen and hence it appears scarlet red (Oxygenated blood), but venous blood is purple red due to the presence of more carbon dioxide (Deoxygenated blood).

Volume: A typical adult's blood volume is 5 litres. The volume of blood in a newborn infant is 450 ml. It increases as the child grows and reaches a maximum of 5 L at puberty. It is somewhat less in females, around 4.5 L. In a normal young healthy adult weighing around 70 kg, it accounts for roughly 8% of body weight.

pH and Reaction: pH is 7.4 in normal conditions and it is slightly alkaline.

Specific gravity: Total blood-1.052 to 1.061, Blood cells-1.092 to 1.101, Plasma-1.022 to 1.026.

Viscosity: Blood is 5 times more viscous than water due to the presence of red blood cells and plasma.

COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
Blood contains 2 parts- Blood cells and a liquid portion (plasma).

The blood cells are of three main types:

>> Red blood cells (RBC or Erythrocytes): RBC's are formed in the bone marrow. RBCs usually have a count of 4.5-5.4 million cells per mL. Hemoglobin-containing red blood corpuscles are important for transporting oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the body. Each human red cell has a diameter of around 7.5 m and a thickness of about 2 m. Agglutinogens are antigens that are found in human red blood cells.

>> White blood cells (WBC or Leukocytes): A healthy adult's WBC count is around 4000-10,000 white blood cells per millilitre. White blood corpuscles contain antibodies that fight foreign bodies, which cause infections and disturbs the immune system. Granulocytes, also known as polymorphonuclear leukocytes, are abundantly found. Many granulocytes include neutrophilic granules (neutrophils), a small number have acid dye-staining granules (eosinophils), and a few contain basic dye-staining granules (basophils). Lymphocytes, which have big round nuclei and little cytoplasm, and monocytes, which have abundant cytoplasm and kidney-shaped nuclei, are the other two types of WBC's. Because DNA can be extracted from these nucleated leukocytes, it is usually used for blood genetic marker analysis.

>> Platelets (Thrombocytes): These are small, granulated bodies which are present in blood. Human blood contains around 300000 platelets per mL, each with a diameter of 2-4m.Thrombocytes are involved in blood clotting.

The liquid portion of blood is known as plasma. It is the yellowish fluid portion of blood which contains electrolytes, minerals, nutrients, vitamins and proteins. It contains 91% of water and 8% to 9% of solids.

Serum is a clear straw-colored fluid that seeps from a blood clot. Blood clots when it is shed or collected in a container. The fibrinogen is converted to fibrin in this process, and the blood cells are caught in the fibrin, producing a blood clot. Serum seeps out of the blood clot after around 45 minutes. Serum is separated from the blood by the process of centrifugation for the purpose of investigation. The only difference between plasma and serum is the absence of fibrinogen in serum as it gets converted to fibrin during clotting.
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD

Nutritive substances produced from digested food, such as glucose, amino acids, lipids, and vitamins, are absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and transported by blood to different parts of the body for growth and energy generation.

Blood removes waste materials generated in tissues during various metabolic activities and transports them to excretory organs such as the kidney, skin, and liver for excretion.

The blood is responsible for transporting respiratory gases (Oxygen and Carbon dioxide) gases. It transports oxygen from the alveoli to various tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to the alveoli.

Regulation of water balance in the body.

Hormones secreted by ductless (endocrine) glands are discharged into the bloodstream directly. These hormones are transported to their target organs/tissues by the blood. Enzymes are also transported by blood.

Plasma proteins and hemoglobin act as buffers and help in the regulation of acid-base balance.

Blood balances between the heat loss and heat gain in the body by thermoregulatory mechanism.

Blood plays a crucial function in the body's defence mechanism. This function is carried out by white blood cells. By phagocytosis, neutrophils and monocytes consume bacteria. Lymphocytes have a role in immune development. Eosinophils are responsible for foreign protein detoxification, breakdown, and elimination.

EXAMINATION OF BLOOD
Blood examination is conducted in three different steps, which include:

Physical examination

Presumptive test or Preliminary test

Confirmatory test

Detection of species of origin-Animal/Human blood

1.) Physical examination: Blood stains appears reddish brown in natural light and if examined under UV light (230-269 nm), blood produces fluorescence.

2.) Presumptive screening test: These are preliminary tests which are done to confirm the presence of class characteristics of a biological fluid. Preliminary tests do not confirm the presence of blood as these tests react with many different biological fluids as well.

>Phenolphthalein test/ Kastel Meyer test: In a highly alkaline solution, Zn powder reduces phenolphthalein. If the reduced phenolphthalein is oxidised by oxygen released by peroxides on hydrogen per oxide (H2O2), a pink or purple colour is produced, indicating a blood stain.

>Tetra methyl Benzidine (TMB) Test: A drop of TMB solution and Hydrogen peroxide is added to the stain suspected to be blood. An immediate appearance of a blue-green colour indicated the presence of blood.

>Luminol test: Light is produced when Luminol solution interacts with blood. Both luminol (C8H7N3O2) and hydrogen peroxide are present in the luminol solution (H2O2). When hydrogen peroxide interacts with iron in the blood, oxygen is produced and this produces fluorescence.

>Leucomalachite Green test: Leucomalachite green solution is added to the suspected stain. Appearance of a green colour indicates the presence of blood.

3.) Confirmatory test: These tests confirms the presence of blood stain. It is a conclusive test for blood.

>Takayama test: This test is also known as Haemochromogen test. The assay uses a pyridine and glucose reagent to evaluate a sample. The reagent (pyridine and glucose) interacts with the heme group in blood to form hemochromogen crystals in the presence of blood. Pink needle shaped crystals of Haemochromogen (Pyridineferroprotoporphyrin) will be formed which confirms the presence of blood.

>Teichmann's test: This test is also known as Haematin crystal acid test. The test is based on the formation of brown-colored rhombic crystals from the interaction of the heme portion of blood with NaCl and glacial acetic acid. The development of hematin chloride (ferriprotoporphyrin chloride) crystals is indicated by these prismatic-rhombic-shaped brown crystals. These rhomboid shaped crystals confirms the presence of blood.

4.) Species of origin detection: After confirming that the biological evidence is blood, it is now important to determine whether the blood is of human or animal origin. If it is not of human origin, species particular proteins in bloodstains or other bodily tissues can be recognised with the help of species specific antibodies to determine which species it belongs to. The species-specific proteins from the bloodstain or tissue are removed in a 5% ammonia solution or normal saline (8.5 g sodium chloride in one litre distilled water).

There are different methods to determine the species of origin, which include:

>>Precipitin Ring Test/Precipitin Tube Test- Place six precipitin tubes vertically in a precipitin tube stand and mark them (the number depends on the number of anti-sera used). Fill the tubes with a drop of the bloodstain / tissue extract. One drop of antiserum for the species of origin (anti-Human serum, anti-Fowl serum, anti-Dog serum, anti-Cow serum etc.) should be carefully dropped around the tube's walls.

>>Double Diffusion Method / Ouchterlony Double Diffusion- In this approach, both the reactants, antigen and antibody, diffuse towards one other in an agar gel plate, and precipitin is produced when an antigen interacts with its particular antibody in the correct quantities. Fill the centre well with tissue extract and the periphery wells with various anti sera to determine the origin of the species. Cover the Petri dish and store the gel in a damp chamber overnight. Check for the presence of precipitin bands on the gel.

>>Crossover Electrophoresis - The stain extract (antigen) is put in the cathodic well of a buffered gel, while the anti serum is inserted in the anodic well. Electro endosmosis causes globulin antibodies to move catholically when an electric current is administered. The remaining serum proteins move in anodal directions.
DETERMINING AGE OF BLOOD STAIN
The colour and nature of a blood stain can be used to estimate the age of the stain -Fresh blood stain seems to be bright red in colour, wet, and sticky. The stain acquires a reddish brown colour after 24 hours. The stain darkens to a dark brown and then black after 24 hours.
DETECTION OF BLOOD GROUP
After identifying the blood's origin, the prosecution will also look for the blood groups. For the distinction of human blood, current serological methods have split blood into three component classes: A, B, and O. The antigenic systems ABO, MN, and Rh have been proven to be useful in criminal investigations.
TEST FOR DETERMINATION OF BLOOD GROUP
The test used to determine blood group is known as ABO Typing or Agglutination test.

Antibodies against type A and B blood are added into your blood sample. The sample is next examined to discover if the blood cells adhere to one another. If blood cells clump together, it implies one of the antibodies in the blood has responded.
PROCEDURE:

Anti-A is on one end of a slide, while Anti-B is on the other. To the end marked Anti-A, a drop of Anti-A test serum is applied, and to the end marked Anti-B, a drop of Anti-B serum is added.

One drop of blood is put to each end of the slide and thoroughly mixed.

The results are directly from the slide. If agglutination occurred with the Anti-A test serum, the subject is blood group A; if agglutination occurred with the Anti-B test serum, the subject is blood group B; if agglutination occurred with both test serums, the subject is blood group AB; and if there was no agglutination in either case, the subject is blood group O.
COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF BLOOD
At a crime scene, there are two forms of blood that can be collected: liquid and dried blood. Liquid blood evidence is usually gathered from blood pools, although it can also be collected using a gauze pad or a sterile cotton towel from clothes. Liquid blood can also be collected in vacutainer with a purple top (Contains EDTA).

After collecting the sample, it must be refrigerated or frozen and transported to the laboratory as soon as feasible. To begin, the sample must be completely dried at room temperature. It is critical to deliver the sample to the laboratory as soon as possible, as the sample may be rendered worthless after 48 hours. If the sample is going to be shipped, it should be thoroughly air dried beforehand. When dried blood is discovered on a tiny object, the entire thing can be packed and tagged before being submitted to the lab. When dried blood is discovered on a transportable object, an investigator should cover the stained area with paper and tape it to the object to prevent contamination. If the stained object is not transportable, an investigator might acquire the sample in a variety of methods. Cutting away the discoloured region of the big item is one method. If the part is taken off, package the sample as indicated above, but include a control sample in a separate package. The lifted stain is then to be packed and labelled and transported to the laboratory.
FORENSIC SIGNIFICANCE OF BLOOD

1. Blood is one of the most important biological evidence found at almost every crime scenes involving a physical violence.

2. It can link a victim to a suspect and a suspect to the crime scene.

3. Helps in narrowing down the accused.

4. Blood traces can help in determining the identity of individual by the process of DNA typing from blood.

5. Bloodstain patterns can reveal the position and direction of movement during a crime. It can also reveal whether the crime was a murder or suicide to a certain extent.

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forensic serology complete notes for net jrf

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BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE-BLOOD - Forensic's blog

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Blood is a fluid type of connective tissue. It is a complex tissue which is composed of a liquid part, plasma, and cellular components. Blood is one of the most important physical and biological evidence which can be found in the crime scene in the form of blood pool, droplets, stains etc.

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https://www.crimemuseum.org/crime-library/forensic-investigation/blood-evidence-collection-and-preservation/

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The collection and preservation of blood stain evidence is important because this evidence can be used to type blood or run DNA analysis.

There are two different types of blood that can be collected at a crime scene: liquid and dried blood. Liquid blood evidence is generally collected from blood pools but can be collected off of clothing as well, using a gauze pad or a sterile cotton cloth. Once the sample is collected it must be refrigerated or frozen and brought to the laboratory as quickly as possible. The sample must first be dried thoroughly at room temperature. It is important to get the sample to the laboratory as quickly as possible because after 48 hours the sample might be useless. If the sample has to be mailed it should be completely air dried before packaging. If the sample isn't completely dry when it needs to be packaged, the sample should be rolled in paper and labeled and then put into either a brown paper bag or a box. The paper bag or box is then sealed and labeled again. It is important to only place one item per container to avoid contamination and samples should not be placed in plastic containers. Samples shouldn't be in plastic containers because if the sample is still damp the moisture from the sample can cause microorganisms that can destroy the evidence. Also, due to this fact, samples should not be in any container for more than two hours.

Dried bloodstains can be found on small objects, larger objects and on clothing. When dried blood is found on a small object the entire object can be sent to the lab after it's been properly packaged and labeled. When dried blood is found on a larger object that is transportable, an investigator should cover the stained area with paper and tape the paper to the object to avoid contamination. If the object that is stained is not transportable there are different ways that an investigator can collect the sample. One option is to cut out the stained area of the large object. If the portion is cut out the sample is packaged the same way as described above but a control sample should also be provided in a separate package. Another option is to use fingerprint tape and lift the sample as well as the surrounding control area. If this method is used it is important for investigators to not touch the sticky side of the tape with bare hands and the investigator should run an eraser or some type of blunt object over the placed tape to ensure that contact is made with the dried stain. The lifted stain is then be packaged and labeled, then delivered to the laboratory. Another way to collect a sample off of an object is to use a clean sharp object to scrape flakes of the stain into a paper packet. The last two methods of collection of a dried bloodstain on a large object require the use of distilled water to dampen the stain before rolling a thread in the stain or absorbing the stain with a cotton square. These two methods are not recommended due to the risk of contamination. When dried blood is found on clothing the entire article of clothing should be packaged and labeled and delivered to the lab.

It is important for the investigator to remember to keep each sample separated so that there is no contamination between samples.

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Blood Evidence: Collection and Preservation - Crime Museum

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The collection and preservation of blood stain evidence is important because this evidence can be used to type blood or run DNA analysis. There are two different types of blood that can be collected at a crime scene: liquid and dried blood.

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https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/feb/10/ukcrime.sandralaville

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Case hinged on mist of blood found on clothes

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Fresh scientific evidence about the blood spots found on Sion Jenkins’ clothing was crucial to securing his freedom.

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There are 3 methods of collecting and analyzing blood. The most common method is venipuncture, which involves the withdrawing of blood from a vein in the arm. This method can cause discomfort, so some people prefer to collect blood via finger poke or heel stick draw. These types of collection methods are often used for infants and young children who may not cooperate with venipuncture because of their level.

Blood Sample Collection Methods, What You Should Know

Collecting blood samples is a fundamental part of any medical procedure. It may seem simple, but there are a few tricks to the trade. This guide will walk you through the process step-by-step, with the goal of making it as easy as possible for you to understand the blood collection method and procedures before you visit a laboratory.

Collecting blood samples is crucial to the understanding, prevention, and treatment of disease. However, from the patient's perspective, it can also be painful, unnerving, frightening, and inconvenient.

How you draw blood depends on the condition being tested for, but most commonly involves inserting a needle into a vein. Usually, laboratory technicians draw samples in their lab or at your home (if that service is availed by you), convenient for them (if not always for patients).

Different Methods of Blood Sample Collection

3 popular methods of blood collection are;

1. Arterial sampling

2. Venipuncture sampling

3. Fingerstick sampling

Blood Collection Methods

1. Arterial Sampling - This form of blood collection most commonly takes place within a hospital environment. It is used in the identification of metabolic, respiratory, and mixed acid-base disorders, where CO2 levels require understanding or monitoring. While safe, the procedure can be painful for the patient. There are also several potential contradictions that can affect the site of the collection, such as an abnormally changed Allen test or local infection. There is also an increased risk of bleeding complications in patients with coagulopathy.

2. Venipuncture Sampling - Venipuncture is the most common way to collect blood from adult patients. The collection takes place from a superficial vein in the upper limb the median cubital vein; this vein is close to the skin and doesn't have many large nerves positioned close by. This reduces pain and discomfort for the patient.
Venipuncture can take place in a general medical practitioner's office and is often carried out by a trained phlebotomist or nurse. However, its commonality does not equate with it being the best way to collect a blood sample. Many patients find it inconvenient and worrisome. There are also risks related to the storage, transportation, and potential loss or contamination of the blood samples once they are collected. These same concerns also affect the suitability of arterial sampling.

3. Finger-stick Sampling - Finger stick or finger prick sampling involves taking a tiny amount of blood from the patient, usually from the end of a finger. It is over quickly and requires very little in the way of preparation; therefore, reducing concern and anxiety in patients, particularly in children and nervous adults.

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Blood Sample Collection Techniques

Patient welfare at the point of the collection is not the only reason this method should be considered the best way to collect a blood sample. The long-term benefits to the patient include the loss of less blood and the ability to carry out testing at home, as a phlebotomist is not required for the procedure.

Arterial and venipuncture sampling are still very common and still have their places in medicine, clinical research, and patient care. However, with advances in technology and a greater understanding of blood sampling, finger-stick collection is gaining ground.

Companies like Neoteryx continue to advance blood collection and sampling, with expert tracking using a bar code system, making any loss of samples less likely. Technological advances also mean reduced contamination risks and reduced costs. From preclinical research to clinical trials to remote patient monitoring, the future of micro-sampling is here.

Blood Sample Collection Procedure

The first step in acquiring a quality lab test result for any patient is the specimen collection procedure. The venipuncture procedure is complex, requiring both knowledge and skill to perform. Several essential steps are required for every successful collection procedure:

Venipuncture Sampling Procedure

1. A phlebotomist must have a professional, courteous, and understanding manner in all contact with all patients.

2. The first step to the collection is to positively identify the patient by two forms of identification; ask the patient to state and spell his/her name and give you his/her birth date. Check these against the requisition (paper or electronic).

3. Check the requisition form for requested tests, other patient information, and any special draw requirements. Gather the tubes and supplies that you will need for the draw.

4. Position the patient in a chair, or sitting or lying on a bed.

5. Wash your hands.

6. Select a suitable site for venipuncture by placing the tourniquet 3 to 4 inches above the selected puncture site on the patient. See below for venipuncture site selection "notes."

7. Do not put the tourniquet on too tightly or leave it on the patient longer than 1 minute.

8. Next, put on non-latex gloves, and palpate for a vein.

9. When a vein is selected, cleanse the area in a circular motion, beginning at the site and working outward. Allow the area to air dry. After the area is cleansed, it should not be touched or palpated again. If you find it necessary to reevaluate the site by palpation, the area needs to be re-cleansed before the venipuncture is performed.

10. Ask the patient to make a fist; avoid "pumping the fist." Grasp the patient's arm firmly using your thumb to draw the skin taut and anchor the vein. Swiftly insert the needle through the skin into the lumen of the vein. The needle should form a 15-30-degree angle with the arm surface. Avoid excess probing.

11. When the last tube is filling, remove the tourniquet.

12. Remove the needle from the patient's arm using a swift backward motion.

13. Place the gauze immediately on the puncture site. Apply and hold adequate pressure to avoid the formation of a hematoma. After holding pressure for 1-2 minutes, tape a fresh piece of gauze or Band-Aid to the puncture site.

14. Dispose of contaminated materials/supplies in designated containers.

The larger median cubital and cephalic veins are the usual choices, but the basilica vein on the dorsum of the arm or dorsal hand veins is also acceptable. Foot veins are the last resort because of the higher probability of complications.

You May Also Interested To Learn About: Shoulder Pain And Treatments

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All material copyright healthcare nt sickcare. Terms and conditions and Privacy Policy of use. The contents are for informational purposes only. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health providers with questions you may have regarding a medical condition. Source: various online articles and our own offline experiences inspired this article. The content is meant for public awareness and regular posts to the clientele of healthcare nt sickcare.

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The 3 Standard Blood Sample Collection Methods

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There are 3 methods of collecting and analyzing blood. The most common method is venipuncture, which involves the withdrawing of blood from a vein in the arm. This method can cause discomfort, so some people prefer to collect blood via finger poke or heel stick draw.

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lorenzo davis

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Davonn Summerford

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lorenzo davis

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One infamous case that comes to the minds of many people when thinking about blood spatter analysis involves a line that has since become a pop culture catchphrase, thanks to Meryl Streep in "A Cry in the Dark" and Julia Louis-Dreyfus on "Seinfeld": " The dingo ate my baby."

In August 1980, the Chamberlain family camped near Uluru (formerly known as Ayers Rock) in the Red Centre desert of Australia's Northern Territory. One night, Lindy Chamberlain put two of her children, 4-year-old Reagan and 9-week-old Azaria, to bed in their tent. When she returned, the story goes, she cried, "The dingo's got my baby!" [source: Latson].

According to Lindy, when she got to the tent she saw a dingo with a bundle in its mouth. She wasn't close enough to see what it was, but when she checked on the children she saw that her daughter Azaria was missing [source: Haberman]. As the cry went out, she and her husband, Michael, along with other campers, began searching for the child. A nearby camper, Sally Lowe, went into the tent to check on the still-sleeping Reagan. Seeing a pool of wet blood on the floor of the tent, she thought that Azaria was probably already dead [source: Linder].

When a tourist found the baby's jumpsuit, it was only slightly torn and bloody, but mostly intact. Though an initial investigation backed up Lindy's claim of a wild dog attacking her daughter, it was not long before the parents themselves stood accused [source: Haberman].

The baby had been wearing other clothes that weren't found at the time.

Throughout the case, the local police improperly handled blood spatter and other evidence. Forensics investigators found "blood stains" in the family car and concluded that Lindy had taken Azaria there to cut her throat. Later analysis revealed that the stains came from a spilled drink and a sound-deadening compound that came with the car. One expert identified a "bloody handprint" on Azaria's jumpsuit that later analysis revealed to be red desert sand.

However, in 1982, expert testimony - and public opinion - proved enough to convict Lindy Chamberlain of murder and her husband of being an accessory to murder. The baby's knit jacket, found four years later in 1986 near a dingo lair, helped exonerate the Chamberlains after Lindy had served three years of a life sentence, but several years of trials and hearings were yet to come [source: Latson]. In 2012, 32 years after the event, a coroner finally pronounced that a dingo was responsible for Azaria's death [sources: Haberman, Latson].

The Chamberlain case shows what can happen when people involved in handling and analyzing blood evidence lack proper training, or when investigators allow public opinion or preconceived notions to influence their analysis.

Originally Published: Apr 24, 2008

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More Great Links

Sources

Akin, Louis. "Directional Analysis of Blood Spatter at Crime and Accident Scenes for the Private Investigator." The Forensic Examiner. Summer 2005. http://www.akininc.com/PDFs/Directional%20Analysis%20for%20PI's%20condensed.pdf

Brodbeck, Silke. "Introduction to Bloodstain Pattern Analysis." SIAK-Journal - Journal for Police Science and Practice. Vol. 2. Pages 51-57. 2012. (Oct. 14, 2015) http://www.bmi.gv.at/cms/bmi_siak/4/2/1/ie2012/files/brodbeck_ie_2012.pdf

Cotton, Fred B. "Justice Applications of Computer Animation." SEARCH Technical Bulletin. Iss. 2. 1994. (Oct. 16, 2015) http://www.search.org/files/pdf/tbanimat.pdf

Dutelle, Aric W. "An Introduction to Crime Scene Investigation." Jones & Bartlett Publishers. Jan. 28, 2011.

Eckert, William G. and Stuart H. James. "Interpretation of Bloodstain Evidence at Crime Scenes." CRC Press. 1999.

Evans, Collin. "Murder 2: The Second Casebook of Forensic Detection." John Wiley & Sons. 2004.

Forensic Science Simplified. "A Simplified Guide to Bloodstain Pattern Analysis." (Nov. 30, 2021)

Forensic Science Simplified. "A Simplified Guide to Bloodstain Pattern Analysis." (Nov. 30, 2021)http://www.forensicsciencesimplified.org/blood/how.html

Genge, N.E. "The Forensic Casebook: The Science of Crime Scene Investigation." Ballantine Books. 2002.

Haberman, Clyde. "Vindication at Last for a Woman Scorned by Australia's News Outlets." The New York Times. Nov. 16, 2014. (Oct. 14, 2015) http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/17/us/vindication-at-last-for-a-woman-scorned-by-australias-news-media.html?_r=0

Hueske, Edward E. "Practical Analysis and Reconstruction of Shooting Incidents." CRC Press. Nov. 29, 2005.

International Association for Identification. https://www.theiai.org/

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International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts. (Nov. 30, 2021)https://iabpa.org

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James, Stuart H., et al. "Forensic Science: An Introduction to Scientific and Investigative Techniques, Fourth Edition." Taylor & Francis. Jan. 13, 2014.

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Latson, Jennifer. "Why that 'Dingo's Got My Baby' Line isn't Funny." Time. Oct. 29, 2014. (Oct. 14, 2015) http://time.com/3537456/dingo-got-my-baby/

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Lindy Chamberlain. (Nov. 30, 2021)

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, 2014. (Oct. 12, 2015)

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One infamous case that comes to the minds of many people when thinking about blood spatter analysis involves a line that has since become a pop culture catchphrase, thanks to Meryl Streep in "A Cry in the Dark" and Julia Louis-Dreyfus on "Seinfeld": " The dingo ate my baby."

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Qian Zhang, 1, a Nan Ding, 1, b Lu Zhang, 1, 2, c Xuetong Zhao, 1, 2, d Yadong Yang, 1, 2, e Hongzhu Qu, 1, f and Xiangdong Fang 1,⁎,g

Abstract

With the advances of genome-wide sequencing technologies and bioinformatics approaches, a large number of datasets of normal and malignant erythropoiesis have been generated and made public to researchers around the world. Collection and integration of these datasets greatly facilitate basic research and clinical diagnosis and treatment of blood disorders. Here we provide a brief introduction of the most popular omics data resources of normal and malignant hematopoiesis, including some integrated web tools, to help users get better equipped to perform common analyses. We hope this review will promote the awareness and facilitate the usage of public database resources in the hematology research.

Keywords: Hematology, Hematological diseases, Omics data resources, Database, Bioinformatics

Introduction

Blood is incredibly important in providing oxygen, protecting from infection, and healing after injury. Disorders of blood system lead to different kinds of hematological diseases in millions of people every year globally. Blood cells consist of three types of cells, namely erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs), leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets), all of which are differentiated and developed from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Erythropoiesis normally produces functional RBCs [1], whereas erroneous erythropoiesis would lead to anemia, leukemia, and other blood diseases [2].

Recent advances in next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies have provided outstanding platforms in blood research. In particular, single-cell sequencing technology makes it feasible to trace the HSC specification, cell fate decision, and differentiation into various cell types at single-cell resolution [3], [4]. In addition, high-throughput sequencing also allows genome-wide analysis of transcription factor binding and histone modifications by chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) [5], identification of open regions of chromatin by DNase-Seq [5], as well as transcriptomic expression profiles by RNA-Seq [5]. Deeper understanding of the hematological processes of mammals has been driven by the development of these technologies [6]. Large organizations, such as the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), and projects collaborated by international research groups, for example the Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE), and a variety of individual laboratories have produced and released many genome-wide datasets to public [7]. Thanks to the increasingly deeper interpretation of the human genome and the development of bioinformatics databases, we have now appreciated the human erythropoiesis more. Here we collect the most popular omics data resources of normal and malignant hematopoiesis ( Table 1 ). These data components and some integrated web tools for common analyses are introduced in this review.

Table 1

Name

Weblink

Main features

Cell type

Data type

Refs.

ErythronDB
http://www.cbil.upenn.edu/ErythronDB
Providing expression profile of murine primitive and definitive erythroid cells, and supporting gene searching with annotation, differential expression, transcriptional regulation, etc.

Murine primitive and definitive erythroid cells

Gene expression data
[13]

BloodChIP
http://www.med.unsw.edu.au/CRCWeb.nsf/page/BloodChIP
Exploring and visualizing TF sites in human CD34⁺ and other normal and leukemic cells based on TF ChIP-seq data

Human CD34⁺ and leukemic cells

Gene expression data, histone ChIP-seq data, DNase-seq data, and digital genomic footprinting data
[17]

DBA mutation database
http://www.dbagenes.unito.it
Integrating information on DBA mutation genes and changes of DNA, RNA, protein, and the frequency of the mutation

Blood cells of DBA

General information on variants of all DBA-related genes

[23], [24]

European LeukemiaNet

Leukemia is a cancer of white blood cells with high incidence among all ages. To centralize the fragmented information of European leukemia, the European LeukemiaNet (ELN) was founded by the 6th Framework Program of the European Community in 2004 [8]. The website with friendly user interface delivers information about ongoing clinical trials to physicians and patients, as well as further information regarding leukemia research, such as via publishing study protocols. Meanwhile, ELN shares knowledge about study design and monitoring, as well as data management and analysis, and pushes forward the discussion on leukemia within Europe ( http://www.leukemia-net.org/content/home/index_eng.html). As many as 17 work packages work separately on information integration about research, diagnosis, and treatment of leukemia. Furthermore, ELN also provides information for patients and physicians to better understand the leukemia, the diagnostic methods, and different therapies available.

Red Cell Membrane Disorder Mutations Database

Red cell membrane inherited disorders involves either altered membrane structural organization or altered membrane transport function [9]. The Red Cell Membrane Disorder Mutations Database ( http://research.nhgri.nih.gov/RBCmembrane/) contains the mutations associated with three major inherited blood disorders, namely hereditary spherocytosis, elliptocytosis, and pyropoikilocytosis, all of which are caused by the disorder of red cell membrane structural organization. The welcome page introduces the gene mutations associated with the three diseases, as well as the term linkages to the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database for related genes. This database provides detailed information of gene mutations occurring in one or more diseases in its submenu. In other submenus, users can also obtain additional detailed information about clinical research program and genetic counseling from the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), the United States. In addition, the submenus also provide the linkage to the University of California Santa Cruz (UCSC) database for some mutation genes. At the bottom of the menu, researchers can find the contact information if they have additions, updates, or descriptions of new mutations.

dbRBC

The dbRBC database is one of the NCBI database resources that provides an integrated and freely-accessible platform for DNA sequencing data and clinical data associated with the human RBCs ( http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/gv/rbc/main.fcgi?cmd=init). It integrates the data from the Blood Group Antigen Gene Mutation Database (BGMUT) that records variations in genes encoding antigens for human blood groups from the NCBI [10]. Users could obtain the data from the download menu that directly links to the page of file transfer protocol. dbRBC homepage also offers the linkage to the parallel resources, such as dbMHC for data related to the human major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and dbLRC for resource available for human leukocyte receptor complex (LRC). These 3 public resources make up the database cluster for routine clinical applications [11], such as the ABO genotyping technology. Some additional practical tools are also provided, such as the Alignment Viewer and Primer Resource.

CODEX

CODEX ( http://codex.stemcells.cam.ac.uk/) is a database of mouse and human NGS experiments. The aim of CODEX is to provide an open-resource of NGS experiments processed by uniform procedures. In this database, metadata of human and mouse samples from hematological experiments are collected and sequencing data are uniformly processed and vetted [12]. CODEX also provides access to processed and curated NGS experiments, including ChIP-seq, RNA-seq, and DNase-seq. The main data sources of CODEX are NGS repositories, for instance, the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and ArrayExpress. Besides, CODEX also provides a private site hosting non-published data. Furthermore, processed datasets can be analyzed online or downloaded. CODEX now covers data on 133 hematopoietic cells and embryonic stem cells, and 269 factors associated with these cells.

The Erythron Database

The Erythron Database (ErythronDB; http://www.cbil.upenn.edu/ErythronDB) was built to facilitate access to erythroid expression data and the analysis results in murine primitive and definitive erythroid cells [13]. ErythronDB allows users to identify differentially-expressed genes and custom-made downstream analysis in the strategy module. Users are also permitted to save and share strategies with other registered users. The database integrates global gene expression profile data of primitive, fetal liver definitive, and adult bone marrow definitive erythroid using Affymetrix array for each maturation stage. ErythronDB supports complex investigations on expression parameters, as well as the Gene Ontology (GO) and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) annotations. To ensure abundant knowledge on mouse genes, ErythronDB displays links to external databases, including the Mouse Genome Informatics (MGI).

Hembase

Hembase ( http://hembase.niddk.nih.gov) provides genome-based access to human genes transcribed during erythropoiesis. By sequencing several thousand expressed sequence tags (ESTs) of human erythroid cells, including progenitor cells, precursor cells, and mature RBCs, the Hembase integrated these data to provide users a friendly browser and the genome portal. To date, the database contained 15,752 entries of ESTs and 380 genes associated with erythropoiesis [1]. Hembase provides cytogenetic band position as well as a unique name as concise annotations for each search entry. Users can search by gene name, keywords, or cytogenetic location. All the sequencing information in Hembase can be used without registration, and all ESTs can be downloaded from the NCBI UniGene Library Browser [14].

BloodSpot

BloodSpot ( http://www.bloodspot.eu) is a database including gene expression profiles of healthy and malignant hematopoiesis in humans or mice, which had been generated by oligonucleotide microarray chips and RNA sequencing [15]. This platform is an improvement and expansion of HemaExplorer and encompasses more than 5000 samples in total [16]. For each query gene or gene signature, BloodSpot provides three concomitant levels of visualization-gene expression, survival plot, and hierarchical tree of samples. Besides, BloodSpot also contains other built-in tools such as exploring the top correlated genes and calculating the student t-test significance between pairs of populations in the default expression plot. Another feature of BloodSpot is BloodPool, an assembled and integrated database collecting the results of multiple studies with more than 2000 samples focusing on acute myeloid leukemia (AML).

BloodChIP

The BloodChIP database ( http://www.med.unsw.edu.au/CRCWeb.nsf/page/BloodChIP) provides a user-friendly exploration and visualization of transcription factor (TF) binding sites in human CD34⁺ and leukemia cells produced by TF ChIP-Seq platform [17]. Users can enter the keywords about specific gene(s) or genomic region(s) to retrieve TF binding profiles. Users can also search all the target genes for a combination of selected TFs or for any selected TFs in specific cell type(s). Currently, BloodChIP covers data on four cell types, i.e., CD34⁺ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs), megakaryocytes, SKNO-1, and K562. To maximize the utility of these data, this database has been integrated with many public data for insights into the transcriptional regulation of query genes, such as gene expression data, histone ChIP-seq data, and DNase-seq data from the Human Epigenome Atlas and ENCODE database [7], [18].

Leukemia Gene Atlas

Leukemia Gene Atlas (LGA) database is a public platform integrating diverse genomic data published in the leukemia field [19]. The LGA supports comprehensive research, analysis, and browse functions for more than 5800 leukemia and hematopoiesis samples sequenced by multiple platforms, such as microarray, DNA methylation, SNP, and other high-throughput sequencing manners. The database contains information on studies from various aspects, such as prediction of molecular subtypes of leukemia, human hematopoiesis, and TF binding sites imported from the GEO. LGA also has established quality control procedure to filter out qualified data imported from other datasets. Results of each study include differentially-expressed genes, GO annotations, copy number alterations, and an extract of the Catalogue of Somatic Mutations in Cancer (COSMIC) database. The LGA database is freely accessible at http://www.leukemia-gene-atlas.org/LGAtlas/.

Diamond-Blackfan anemia mutation database

Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA) is a hereditary bone marrow failure syndrome characterized by the marked heterogeneity of clinical symptom, such as anemia, developmental abnormalities, and an increased risk of malignancy [20], [21], [22]. The DBA mutation database was built aimed to help researchers and physicians to better understand the mutations found in patients. This database is based on the Leiden Open Variation Database (LOVD) system ( http://www.dbagenes.unito.it). The database comprises of 27 published mutations in RPS11 gene, the main contributor to DBA. Each mutation is described in detail with both tables and graphs, including gene information, sequence information, and graphic displays from UCSC [23], [24]. The database provides information on changes in DNA, RNA, and protein, as well as the frequency of the mutations via a convenient search interface. Users are welcome to submit mutations after they register as a submitter.

Concluding remarks

Abnormal development of blood cells has been widely studied in the past several decades. Due to the recent technological advances, a large amount of data for erythrocyte differentiation has been generated, producing valuable resources for understanding pathogenesis. This review offers a brief introduction of multiple databases in the fields of hematopoiesis and blood diseases ( Figure 1 ), all of which are freely available without any registration. The majority of databases, namely Red Cell Membrane Disorder Mutations Database, dbRBC, CODEX, ErythronDB, Hembase, BloodSpot, and BloodChIP focus on the normal erythrocyte development in humans and model organisms to provide transcriptomic and genomic data. On the other hand, ELN and LGA are databases in the field of leukemia with clinical resources, whereas DBA mutation database is specifically designed for DBA. Obviously, despite our efforts on hematopoiesis studies, the sample sizes covered in the databases reviewed in this article are still limited and there is also lack of databases for other blood diseases. Fortunately, benefiting from big data programs across the globe, people are getting aware of the importance of biological data to public health, which makes it easier for researchers to obtain data generated from a large number of patients or donors. With the accumulation of knowledge and research progress, we are expecting to see a number of databases combined with clinical data available for biologists and clinicians in near future.

Competing interests

The authors declared that there are no competing interests.

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2016YFC0901700), the National High-tech R&D Program of China (863 Program, Grant Nos. 2015AA020101 and 2015AA020108), the National "12th Five-Year Plan" for Science & Technology Support of China (Grant No. 2013BAI01B09), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 31471115 and 81670109) awarded to XF.

Footnotes

Peer review under responsibility of Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and Genetics Society of China.

Articles from Genomics, Proteomics & Bioinformatics are provided here courtesy of Elsevier

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Biological Databases for Hematology Research

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Qian Zhang, 1, a Nan Ding, 1, b Lu Zhang, 1, 2, c Xuetong Zhao, 1, 2, d Yadong Yang, 1, 2, e Hongzhu Qu, 1, f and Xiangdong Fang 1, ⁎, g With the advances of genome-wide sequencing technologies and bioinformatics approaches, a large number of datasets of normal and malignant erythropoiesis have been generated and made public to researchers around the world.

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1. What are blood bags
These are the disposable biomedical transparent flexible poly vinyl chloride(PVC) containers, designed to collect, process and store the whole blood and blood components.

2. What are the parts of blood bag system
The blood bag system consists of blood donor bag, donor tube( consists of needle with needle cover), puncturable and nonsealable transfusion pot and clamp.

3. Mention the different types of blood bags
Single bag: Used for whole blood collection
Double bag: Used to separate packed cells and Plasma
Triple bag: Used to separate packed cells, plasma and platelets
Quadruple bag: Used to separate packed cells, plasma, platelets and cryoprecipitate

4. What is the most commonly used anticoagulant in blood bags?
CPDA: Citrate Phosphate Dextrose Adenine

5. What are the uses of the ingredients in the blood bag
Citrate- acts as anticoagulant by chelating calcium.
Dextrose- needed for metabolism of stored red blood cells.
Phosphate- lower acidity and have a higher concentration of 2,3 DPG and red cell phosphate
Adenine- improves the viability of red blood cells.

6. How many days does the whole blood or packed cells can be stored?
It can be stored up to 35 days under 2-60C if it is collected in CPDA.

7. What is SAGM?
Saline-adenine-glucose-mannitol: It is an additive added to blood bag which increases the shelf life of RBC from 35 to 42 days

8. What is the capacity of blood bags?
Available in 350 and 450 ml capacity

9. How are the blood bags stored
After collection, the blood units should be stored standing upright in baskets or lying flat on shelf. The bags should never be packed tightly nor should be stored near the freezer compartment/ in the door of the refridgerator.

10. What is the shelf life of platelets?
It can be stored up to 5 days under room temperature(220C) with continuous agitation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
1. What are blood bags These are the disposable biomedical transparent flexible poly vinyl chloride(PVC) containers, designed to collect, process and store the whole blood and blood components. 2. What are the parts of blood bag system The blood bag system consists of blood donor bag, donor tube( consists of needle with needle cover), puncturable and nonsealable transfusion pot and clamp.