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Lipids

-a class of a large biological molecule

-the most important lipids are fats, steroids and phospholipids

-fats are insoluble in water because water is polar and lipids are not

Structure

-insoluble in water

-mostly consists of hydrocarbon regions

Fats

-constructed using glycerol and fatty acids

-glycerol consists of a 3 carbon alcohol chain with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon

-fatty acids has a carbonyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton

-a triglyceride is formed when 3 fatty acids are combined with a glycerol through an ester linkage

-Fatty acids can vary in length due to the different number of carbons used making the chain and the number of double bonds consisted in a chain
Functions

-are typically used for energy storage and organ insulation
-it can also be used for signaling and act as structural membranes for cells (phospholipids)

-Cholesterol is a type of steroids and can be found in animal membranes

-too much cholesterol is not good for the human body and can lead to cardiovascular diseases

Unsaturated fats

-unsaturated fatty acids -contains double bonds

-are loosely packed and is usually liquid in room temperature

-can be found in olives, nuts , etc.

-is a healthier option compared to saturated fats

Monounsaturated fats

-unsaturated fats that only contain one double bond

Polyunsaturated fats

-unsaturated fats that contain more than one double bond

-plant and seeds are usually unsaturated fats

Saturated fats

-Do not contain a double bond

-have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms bonded to it

-solid at room temperature

-most saturated fats are animal fats

-unsaturated fats can be converted to saturated fats through the process of hydrogenation (adding hydrogen )

-trans fat causes the risk of cardiovascular disease to become higher compared to saturated fats

Phospholipid

-when two fatty acids and a phosphate group is attached to glycerol

-the tails of a phospholipid are hydrophobic, meaning they are afraid of water and tend to avoid it

-the head of the phospholipid is hydrophilic, meaning that it loves water.

-bilayers are formed when phospholipids are added to water

-in this layer, the head points out towards the water and the tails shift in, trying to avoid the water

-this forms a boundary between the cell and it’s external environment

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-The simplest carbohydrate

-Cannot be hydrolyzed into a simpler sugar

Structure

-Consists of formulas that are multiples of “CH₂O”

-e.x Glucose , fructose , galactose (C6H12O6),

-Classified by the number of carbons in the carbon chain and the position of the carbonyl group

-If the chain contains a ketone group, the monosaccharide would be known as ketose

-if the chain contains an aldehyde group, the monosaccharide would be known as an aldose

- the number of each carbon chain of a monosaccharide usually ranges from 3=7 carbons , but most contain 5-6 carbons

-Are usually colourless, water soluble and crystalline solids

Function

-Monosaccharides are the fuels cells and can be used as raw materials to build molecules

-The building blocks of carbohydrates

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-Carbohydrate macromolecules

Structure

-a large molecule composed of many small monosaccharides

-the function of the polysaccharides are determined by its sugar makeup and the position of it’s glycosidic linkages (linear/ highly compact )

Function

-Polysaccharides take on storage and stuctural roles

-ex.compact polymers like  starch is used for storage in plants

-e.x linear polymers like cellulose /chitin are used for structural support in plants

Storage polysaccharides

-a polysaccharide used for storage in plants

-plants store extra starch in the form of granules within chloroplasts

-Glycogen is used for storage in animals and is stored in the liver/ muscles

-when there is a demand for sugar, hydrolysis occurs and glycogen releases glucose

Structural polysaccharides

-Cellulose is a polysaccharides used in the structural build up of plants

-cellulose is a polymer of glucose but the glycosidic linkages differ

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-Also known as double sugar

-Forms when a dehydration process joins two monosaccharides

Structure

-A sugar that is formed when two monosaccharides are linked together by a glycosidic link (covalent bond)

-e.x When two glucose molecules join together to form maltose / when glucose and fructose join together to form sucrose (sucrose, lactose and maltose)

-They are crystalline and water soluble

Function

-disaccharides are used to transport monosaccharides between cells

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-stands for deoxyribonucleic acid

-is in every nucleus of each cell

-contains many genes

-found in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
-sugar is a dioxyribose

Structure

-formed in a double helix structure, where two polynucleotides spiral around an imaginary axis

-runs in an opposite 5’---> 3’ directions from each other, this is referred to as antiparallel

-Complementary base pairing where Adenine only forms hydrogen bonds with thymine. Guanine only forms hydrogen bonds with cytosine (AT/ GC)

-this makes it possible for two identical DNA molecules to  be formed

-it would be DNA if it contains thymine and it would RNA if it contains uracil

Function

-Carries genetic information

-may be used to solve crimes

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-known as ribonucleic acid

Structure

-single stranded bipolymer , unlike DNA
-sugar is a ribose

-consists of ribose nucleotides (nitrogenous bases attached to ribose sugars) attached to phosphodiester bonds

-contains uracil (U)l instead of thymine

Functions

-cellular protein synthesis

-messenger RNA (mRNA) carries code from DNA of the nucleus to sites of protein synthesis

-transfer RNA (tRNA) carries amino acids to ribosomes

-ribosomal RNA (rRNA) forms part of the protein synthesizing organelles known as ribosomes -carries genetic code in come viruses

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Components of nucleic acids

-polymers known as polynucleotides

-made up of many monomers known as nucleotides

Structure

-made up of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar and one or more phosphate groups

-the nucleotide without a phosphate group is known as nucleoside (nitrogenous base +sugar)

-Pyrimides; have a 6 membered ring (cytosine, thymine and uracil)

-Purines ; have a 6 membered ring infused to a 5 membered ring (adenine and guanine )

-nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate group

-are linked together by a phosphodiester linkage (two phosphate groups )

-backbone of sugar phosphate units would be made

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-accounts for 50% of the mass of a dry cell

-some proteins (enzymes) speed up reactions

-can be used for other things like, defense, transport, structure and cellular communication

Structure

-made up of a long chain of amino acids

-proteins can be made up from up to 20 different types of amino acids

Enzymatic proteins

-specifically speeds up the rate of some reactions

-e.x digestive enzymes speed up the reaction of the breakdown of food in our bodies

Defensive proteins

-protects the body against diseases

-antibodies help fight and destroy bacteria/ viruses

Storage Proteins

-stores amino acids

-e.x casein is a major source of amino acids for baby mammals

Transport Proteins

-transport substances

-e.x hemoglobin transports oxygen around the body

Hormonal Proteins

-responsible for coordination of an organism's activities

-e.x insulin signals for other tissues to take up sugar

Receptor Proteins

-how cells respond to chemical stimuli

e.x-receptors in the nervous system can detect signalling molecules released from other cells

Contractile and motor proteins

-movement

-e.x responsible for the undulations of the cilia and flagella

-e.x actin and myosin are responsible for the contractions of muscles

Structural proteins

-support

-e,x  keratin is the protein that forms hair , horns , feathers , etc

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Enzymes

-proteins that act as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions

-enzymes can be reused repeatedly

Polypeptides

-unbranched polymers built from amino acids

-proteins are made up of one or more polypeptides

-polymer of amino acids

-range in length

-unique sequence of amino acids , ending with a carboxyl end and an amino end

Amino acids

-organic molecules with amino and carboxyl groups

-differ in properties because of the difference in R groups (side chains)

-Linked by peptide bonds (covalent)

Structure / Function

-consists of one or more polypeptides, intricately twisted , folded and coiled into a unique shape

-spice filling , ribbon model and wire frame model

-sequence of amino acids determine the structure of the protein

-structure determines how it works

-function is based on its ability to bind and react to certain molecules

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polypeptides and the structure of protein

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polypeptides and the structure of protein

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Primary structure

-unique sequence of amino acids

-the simplest level of the protein structure

-is a chain of amino acids and is determined by DNA

Secondary Structure

-like the primary structure, but instead it contains coils and folds

-this is caused by the interaction of atoms in the backbone

-e.x alpha helix (coiled)and beta pleated sheet(folded)

-(held in shape by hydrogen bonds

-the hydrogen bonds are the ones that cause it’s coiled/ folded shape

Tertiary Structure

-structure is due to the interactions between the R groups and not the interactions between atoms on the backbone

-those many interactions include van der waals, hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds

-Disulfide bridges (covalent bonds) reinforce the tertiary structure

Quaternary structure

-is formed when two or more polypeptides form a macromolecule

-hydrogen bonding and London dispersion forces hold the subunits of the quaternary structure together

-hemoglobin is an example of a quaternary structure that is made up of 4 polypeptides

Determining protein structure

-changes to the pH, temperature or other environmental factors can denature a protein

-denatured proteins are inactive