# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Miley Cyrus - Wrecking Ball (Official Video)

# data[].attributes.body
Hot Girls Wanted on Netflix highlights how accessible pornography is to anybody with internet access, as well as the popularity of "teen" pornography

# data[].attributes.body
Journal article discussing the advent of pro-sex feminism, and the surrounding arguments for and against porn in the sphere of women's empowerment.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Leeds University Library / All Locations

# data[].attributes.headline
Daily mail article on backlash to Marks and Spencer introducing hijabs for school age children

# data[].attributes.subject
Daily mail article on backlash to Marks and Spencer introducing hijabs for school age children

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
M&S is accused of 'oppressing' girls as young as four after selling £6 HIJABS as school uniforms - as Muslim LBC presenter 'shames' clothes chain for 'facilitating medievalism'

The retail store sparked a row online after including hijabs - head coverings worn by some Muslim women - in its school uniform section

Some customers said they would not shop there until the hijabs are removed

M&S has been accused of profiting from the sexualisation of young women

Responding on Twitter, the company said that schools had requested the hijab

Marks & Spencer customers are threatening to boycott the store for stocking hijabs in its school uniform section.

The company's social media pages have been flooded with angry messages regarding the hijabs, which are on sale for £6 in their 'School Essentials' section.

Dozens of disgruntled customers say they will not use the store until the black headscarf is removed from stock.

Lorraine Smith wrote: 'Disgusting. How could you profit from something that promotes degradation to woman and children? It's obscene!

'For a company struggling with profits, bad move.

'I and many others will boycott until it is removed. Unbelievable.'

Melissa Turnbull, from Renfrewshire in Scotland, posted on the store's Facebook page: 'Why are you selling burkas for primary aged girls? Have you lost the plot?

'Covering four-year-old is part of a disgusting sexualisation of children perpetrated by the cult of Islam and has no place in the UK.

'I won't be shopping in your stores until you stop this.'

Cassy Simmons-Thornton, from London, added: 'Can you please explain why you are selling a hijab for young children and helping the oppression of women from a young age?

'A lot of people will now boycott your stores.'

Julie Raven, from Brighton, commented: 'Why are you selling hijabs for infant-school-aged girls?

'Are you implying that their bodies are immodest and may inflame men? You need to take a good look at yourselves.'

Addressing the complaints on their Twitter page on Thursday, Marks & Spencer wrote: 'We provide bespoke uniforms for 250 schools across the country.

'They tell us which items they need as part of their school uniform list, and for a number of schools this year, they requested the option of the hijab.'

The LBC Radio presenter and founder of the Quilliam Foundation Maajid Nawaz said that M&S has reverted to 'medievalism' by including a child-size hijab in the school-wear category.

.@marksandspencer facilitates medievalism by selling children's hijabs in the school-wear category. It's their right to choose profit over values. But it's our right to shame them for doing so. Little girls are told it is "immodest" to show their hair. And blessed be the fruit pic.twitter.com/I5d7csTsiL
- Maajid - (Mājid) [maːʤɪd] ماجد (@MaajidNawaz) October 10, 2018

Nawaz wrote: 'It's their right to choose profit over values. But it's our right to shame them for doing so.

'Little girls are told it is "immodest" to show their hair. And blessed be the fruit.

'To be clear, these are stocked for little girls as young as 3 years old.

'Hijab is still imposed (only on women) by law in Iran and Saudi Arabia, and many other countries. This is gender apartheid. Marks and Spencer are free to sell confederate flag tee-shirts too, but I bet they never will.'

'Blessed be the fruit' is a reference to the greeting used by the female characters in Margaret Atwood's dystopian novel The Handmaid's Tale, in which women are kept as slaves useful only for bearing children and forbidden to use their own names.

Nawaz, who is himself Muslim, continued: 'Hijab is still imposed (only on women) by law in Iran and Saudi Arabia, and many other countries. This is gender apartheid'

He has previously called the hijab a 'monstrosity' and the 'uniform of medieval patriarchal tyranny'.

The practice of veiling some part of the head or face has a history in European, Asian, and African societies and appears in varied forms in Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

The hijab is a garment worn by Muslim women when they not in the company of their immediate family and usually covers the hair, neck and the top part of the chest.

It is seen as a symbol of modesty by people who wear them.

Most Islamic scholars agree that the hijab is only obligatory for females once they reach puberty.

Hijabs are different from other Islamic veils like the burka and niqab, which both cover the face.

The niqab covers the whole face leaving a gap for the eyes, while the burka leaves only a mesh screen to see through.

Former foreign secretary Boris Johnson caused a separate online debate in August when, in an article defending Muslim women's right to wear the burka, he said that they resemble 'letter boxes' and 'bank robbers'.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
M&S accused of 'oppressing' girls for selling hijabs as school-wear

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The retail store sparked a row online after including hijabs - head coverings worn by some Muslim women - in its school uniform section Some customers said they would not shop there until the hijabs are removed M&S has been accused of profiting from the sexualisation of young women Responding on Twitter, the company said that schools had requested the hijab Marks & Spencer customers are threatening to boycott the store for stocking hijabs in its school uniform section.

# data[].attributes.body
Trailer for a netflix documentary about two US women who were the victims of rape, and subsequently cyber-bullying.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Audrie & Daisy | Official Trailer [HD] | Netflix

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Two different girls sexually assaulted on two different nights, in two different towns. Audrie & Daisy takes a hard look at the issues faced by America's teenagers who are coming of age in the new world of social media bullying, spun wildly out of control.

# data[].attributes.headline
Buzzfeed list of 'confusing sexy halloween costumes'

# data[].attributes.subject
Buzzfeed list of 'confusing sexy halloween costumes'

# data[].attributes.body
Exemplifies how halloween has an associated expectation of a 'sexy' outfit, to the point that seemingly 'unsexy' costumes have been made more revealing. Also note, only women seem to be included in this list.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
17 Of The Most Confusing "Sexy" Yandy Halloween Costumes

# data[].attributes.body
There are some pretty shocking images in this blog that show how in some cases women are far more sexualised than men in the modelling world.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Look at this picture. It's basically the same product but they chose to market it differently. And for what reason? Sex sells. We've been told that time and time again [thanks Sigmund Freud]. And honestly, with the kind of content being produced from television to the print media, as a society we've become pretty immune to it. However, as I peruse through international fashion magazines one thing struck me [and I wonder why I had never occurred to me before]. Doesn't it seem peculiar that an industry trying to get you to buy expensive clothes and accessories, chooses to market them via semi or fully nude models? What's on sale here? The product or the female body?

The industry seems to have always been comfortable with nudity. If Tyra Banks' America's Next Top Model is anything to go by, models must be ready to do casting calls in their knickers and at least one naked photo-shoot, either alone or with others, in their career. Of course that was big with the 90s and 2000s flock but surely the Instagirls don't have to pose this way? But a quick search reveals most of them already have nude campaigns or covers. Some call it art, others will refer to it as objectification / hyper sexualisation.

Objectification: What is it?

Put simply, objectification is treating or viewing people as objects. However NOMAS, the National Organization for Men Against Sexism, has a somewhat more in-depth clarification:

"Objectification [is] portrayals of women in ways and contexts which suggest that women are objects to be looked at, ogled, touched, or used; anonymous things or commodities to be purchased, perhaps taken; and once tired of, discarded, often to be replaced by a newer, younger edition; certainly not treated as full human beings with equal rights and needs."

The media's narrative of women tends to place their value on their sexual appeal that should be for the man's gaze which not only adds to the perception of female beauty and the impossible pursuit of perfection. Whether it's the whole body or just parts of it, this kind of objectification results in stripping women of dignity and ends up playing a role in the mistreatment of women usually for sexual gratification. And that's not all, dehumanization of women also kicks up the level of violence against women. How fashion brands thought themes of gang rape, sexual assault, stalking, or gender based violence to mention a few would be the best catalyst to sell a dress/perfume/ earrings defeats my understanding.

The portrayal of black models
As mentioned in previous articles, despite the growth the fashion industry has made in diversity, other races apart from Caucasians are still grossly underrepresented. And when the black model is featured, historically it hasn't been quite as rosy. From the onset, they have faced having to be compared to wild, exotic animals. An ode to colonialist views of black people as uncivilised if you will. One infamous shoot captured British model Naomi Campbell photographed in the backdrop of the great East African savannah wilderness, in animal-inspired clothing, with wild animals for Harper's Bazaar. Taken by none other than controversial photographer, Jean-Paul Goude.

If you were a fan of Grace Jones, Jean-Paul Goude was the guy extolled for his 'visionary' art of his muse and then-girlfriend in a cage. With raw meat. Under a sign that says don't feed the wild animals. Well, he did say he had jungle fever. He then put out a book in 1981 by the same title "Jungle Fever" with the infamous picture as its cover art. Photographer and former Photo Director for Playboy Enterprises Inc., Matt Doyle then went on to recreate that shoot with American model, actress, and fashion designer, Amber Levonchuck better known as Amber Rose for Complex magazine's September 2009 issue.

Years have passed between the two shoots but the message remains the same. Black women are wild, sexual beasts that just can't seem to shed their animalistic spots. Oh, and remember that 'breaking the internet' image of Kim Kardashian for the Paper Magazine? Goude shot that image too with the original image being a black woman as the subject. Talk about a photographer that's ready to exploit and hyper sexualise a woman's body. But the issues with the shoot go far deeper than the nudity. They touch on an underlying racist undertone that definitely brings Saartjie Baartman (one of the most famous of the Khoikhoi women of South Africa who, due to her large buttocks ( steatopygia), was exhibited as a freak show attraction in 19th-century Europe) to mind. Kim's hair and jewellery were styled to stereotyped images of African Americans during slavery era. And her blank stare when facing the camera has been argued to be a common tool to depict the female hyper sexuality of the black community.

Several sexual references towards black models historically lie in the slavery mentality where the black woman's body was owned for the master's sexual gratification or for slave breeding. According to the study 'Stereotypes: Negative Racial Stereotypes and Their Effect on Attitudes Toward African-Americans', slave owners perpetuated the stereotype that black women had insatiable sexual appetites and were promiscuous hence they were branded with the identity of 'Jezebel'. These jezebel stereotypes were reinforced in an international fashion magazine, Numéro, which ran an editorial spread in 2009 called 'Best Friends' where black model R'el Dade appeared topless in every frame next to clothed white model Melodie Dagault. R'el was staged in what appeared to be a subordinate role where she rarely makes eye contact with the camera and is the sexual object. Then there those who just go the whole nine yards in objectification of parts of the body. Terry Richardson (one could argue in the same league as Goude) photographed in really (I mean REALLY) NSFW images that featured model Vanessa Veasley in Supreme's collection.

If it's not making a reference to their "animal instincts" or "racial stereotypes" the shoots emphasize their 'other-ness". Often depicted as different from the other races whether being in bold print, 1920s Harlem Renaissance or being more exposed than the other models. A 2007 Moschino ad series segregated models by ethnicity but only featured nudity in the black models section. Or Italian Vogue's 17 page editorial spread that showed 12 black models. That was commendable and even the models noted that their bookings went up. However they once again relied on print and bold materials, chunky 'ethnic' jewellery, animal inspired fabrics and 1920s references. It almost feels like the magazines or fashion houses release campaigns, editorial shoots or runways stunts to cross of their annual diversity obligations off their list. Black models shouldn't be treated as a 'trend'. Isn't fashion about finding novelty? It really is time to shift the narrative and feature women of colour in interesting, aesthetic situations that are original and contemporary.
Black Male model objectification
It must be noted that men too are objectified by the current media machine. However some of the depictions of black men are similar to the constructs of slavery. Take for example the February/March 2011 cover of Russh Magazine. It featured Belgian model, Delfine Bafort, surrounded by a group of doting black men, who all appear to be lusting after her. While she's full clothed, they're very naked.
The portrayal of black women in the fashion industry plays a part in their acceptance globally and their level of self-esteem; from the models to the black women viewing the imagery. Commodifying black women and women in general occurs when fashion refuses to recognise models as complete human beings. While the industry may have toned down with the wild safari shoots, it still reveals its dark underbelly by the continued representation of black females as sexual spectacles to be gawked at. If it is really about art and creativity surely the industry can do better? And actually show the clothes and accessories you're selling for once.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Hyper Sexualisation in the Fashion Industry - The Designers Studio

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Look at this picture. It's basically the same product but they chose to market it differently. And for what reason? Sex sells. We've been told that time and time again [thanks Sigmund Freud]. And honestly, with the kind of content being produced from television to the print media, as a society we've become pretty immune to it.

# data[].attributes.body
Recently, ,more and more child actors are being over-sexualised in the media, especially when it comes to shows like Stranger Things. People are becoming more and more worried about this.

# data[].attributes.body
Note the differences between the male and female.

# data[].attributes.body
This was interesting as it talked about the issues with women in video games, but also gave some examples of how times might be changing.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
It's no secret: sex sells. But there's a difference between creating appealing, marketable characters and oversexualising them to the point of gratuitousness.

The problem is, the line between them is increasingly hard to define. Online debates around characters in Overwatch, Street Fighter, Metal Gear Solid and more show conflicting views of what does and doesn't need to be censored.

In this climate, designing a heroine for your game might seem a risky business, so how do you ensure you avoid offending your audience?

First, says Rhianna Pratchett ( pictured) - the writer behind the Tomb Raider reboot - we need to establish the difference between 'sexualised and 'sexy'.

"Sexualisation is not inherently a bad thing," she says. "Context is the key. For me, 'sexy' is based on the character, while 'sexualised' is about the audience.

"Sexy is more than just looks - it's about attitude, personality and a certain amount of owned power. Sexy transcends gender, age and sexual orientation. Meanwhile, sexualisation tends to about be about the perceived desires of an audience. And characters can be both. Take Bayonetta, for example: she is definitely sexualised, but at the same time owns her sexuality. It's very much part of who she is, she is in control and that's sexy as hell."

TV host, writer and producer Liana Kerzner adds: "I'd love devs to start rethinking what it means to be a sexy woman. In the real world, people find women sexy for being intelligent, competent and tough - a dress that defies physics isn't a requirement."

THE WAY YOU LOOK

Much of the debate comes down to visual design - and a lack of realism.

"Observe the proportions of real women and strive to create female characters who represent a more normative look that would resonate with the majority of women," advises IGDA executive director Kate Edwards ( pictured).

"Recent games such as Mirror's Edge and the Tomb Raider reboot have done a better job of creating female characters who look more natural, and their appearance and lack of extreme proportions don't detract from the gameplay or story in any way."

This also applies to your characters' wardrobes - specifically the practicality of what they are wearing.

"You can tell a lot of male designers don't know the first thing about how women's clothing works, because they put all this practical detail into their male characters' armour, then create female wardrobes that are stupid," says Kerzner.

"Take Cammy from Street Fighter. Her costume is strong, cute and sexy all at once - but any woman who has done gymnastics or martial arts will tell you a bodysuit with no legs ends up riding up your butt."

Animation is another oft-criticised aspect of female characters, with many arguing that walking with an exaggerated hip swing is overly sexualised. A recent episode of Anita Sarkeesian's Tropes vs Women In Video Games series was almost entirely dedicated to the difference between male and female animations.

Sexualisation is not inherently a bad thing. Context is the key. For me, 'sexy' is based on the character, while 'sexualised' is about the audience.

Rhianna Pratchett
"Realistic bodies should move like bodies," says Kerzner. "Natural breasts move very differently than implants, and a lot of boobs in video games move - or don't move - like they were installed by a surgeon. When you make a female character look like she's had implants put in, that's a character trait. It's something that should be decided more consciously than it currently is."

Kerzner ( pictured) adds that even voice acting needs to be considered if you're trying to portray a realistic female character: "Real women get angry, yell, swear, and throw things. Take the limiter off. Female characters are shackled because developers are too worried about them being 'likeable'.

"I've done voicework, and I'm always astounded that the directors tend to select the most vanilla take I give them. Accents, interesting inflections, and anything that would add character to the character tend to be passed over for dialogue delivery that's inoffensive above all else. I've gotten really good at what I call the 'Disney Princess voice', because it's the only thing that's current considered safe. As a performer, though, it's really damned boring."

Pratchett says the secret to creating a balanced character is to consider every aspect of them carefully, and question the choices you are making.

"Don't over emphasise the sexuality or gender of a character, either through their art, animation or narrative," she suggests. "And, in the words of Mr. Timberlake, bring sexy back. Build a character's sexuality into who they are, not who you want them to be for. Ask yourself: who is this character, how do they act, dress, talk, and why? Don't just stuff them into a skimpy outfit and think 'job done' - unless your game is basically about stuffing characters into skimpy outfits, of course.

"If you're trying to hit a wider demographic - and the audience for games is more diverse than it ever has been before - why wouldn't you just pay more attention to your characters? Make them more than just their gender, sexuality or looks. Appeal to your audience through the myriad of human emotions and responses. Not just what makes them hot. And if your game is about making players hot - because VR porn games are coming, right? - then own it."

TALKING ABOUT TRACER

A recent example of the debate around sexualised game characters centred on Blizzard's latest release Overwatch.

Originally the Tracer character was shown in the pose you can see here, but the studio changed it after complaints that this was not in keeping with her character. We asked our experts for their thoughts.

Rhianna Pratchett says: "Although I didn't personally find Tracer's pose a big deal, I did think it was interesting that many people - including the developers themselves - seemed to feel that the sexualised pose just didn't fit with her character.

"However, very little fuss was made about a character like Widowmaker, who is more traditionally sexualised, because it had been built into her character and was part of who she was. Context matters."

Liana Kerzner believes there are far worse examples out there: "I didn't even think she was that sexualised - she just had a wedgie. The Overwatch character designs, across the board, are astoundingly good, and they're all sexy in their own way. Tracer is a character who I think has a crazy sexy voice. And yet someone determined that it's wrong for her to ever be conventionally sexy, because... 'think of the children'.

REAL WOMEN

Kerzner observes that there's a distinct difference in how many male and female characters are presented. Men, she says, often tend to be relatable, while women are 'perfected'.

"This double standard needs to change," she says. "If you choose realism, any romanticised element will seem out of place. But devs constantly design realistic men and romantic women in the same game.

"Real female cops, firefighters, army veterans and MMA fighters have a steel to their appearance that we don't see in the current crop of 'likeable' heroines. There are exceptions: Anna Grimsdottir in Splinter Cell, for instance. She looks like she's had late nights, stress and too much coffee. She's still glamorous and sexy, but she doesn't still have the skin tone of a sixteen-year-old. Similarly, Jayma in Far Cry Primal is covered in scars from animal attacks because she's a hunter."

We've been indoctrinated with the idea that games are inherently made for a 'presumed male audience', and while that's true for some games, it's not across the board.

Liana Kerzner
Female characters are often cited as overly sexualised, but our experts argue this happens to men as well - yet people aren't talking about it.

"We see many male characters that are unnatural in appearance, with perfectly chiseled bodies and rippling muscles," Edwards says. "The difference is that many of these male characters are viewed as powerful and strong, whereas the appearance of most female characters skews more towards sex appeal."

Kerzner agrees, adding: "Catwoman from the Arkham games has been criticised for the way she walks, having a sexy voice and so on. But what about the hyper-masculine Batman?

"He is depicted with the physique of a bodybuilder even though his combat style is martial arts. His heavy boots would negatively impact his ability to climb buildings.

"Why was Catwoman singled out for criticism? Because we criticise a woman for being overtly sexy in ways we don't criticise men."

THE DEBATE CONTINUES

While fresh examples crop up all the time, this is not a new discussion - nor is it confined to our own industry. As Pratchett observes: "All entertainment fields, particularly comics, are discussing this topic in some form or another."

But it is something the games industry should be more conscious of - especially given the gender 'balance' of our global workforce. A 2015 IGDA survey discovered that 79 per cent of developers are male.

"This means we're more likely to see representations that are appeal to the male eye," says Edwards. "This is slowly changing as more devs realise that oversexualised character design is becoming passé and unnecessary for serving the intent of most games.

We see many male characters that are unnatural in appearance, with perfectly chiseled bodies and rippling muscles. The difference is these are viewed as powerful and strong, whereas the appearance of most female characters skews more towards sex appeal.

Kate Edwards, IGDA
"Ultimately, the artistic freedom of game developers needs to be upheld, but developers need to be mindful of their creative choices, especially if their intent is to maximise their game's appeal across all demographics."

Kerzner concludes: "We've been indoctrinated with the idea that games are inherently made for a 'presumed male audience', and while that's true for some games, it's not across the board. Look at the early marketing for the Atari 2600 and the NES: the target audience is families.

"The problem is TV marketing, which is subject to rigid filtering by target audience, and gaming content for women is seen as 'too niche'. Gaming is stuck between a rock and a hard place: its marketing doesn't match its products. The industry's growth with women is being restricted by unnatural barriers, and when people get trapped in unnaturally close quarters, they fight. That's what's happening now."

NOTE FROM THE EDITOR: WE NEED TO TALK
Turn the page and you'll find an analysis of the debated sexualisation of characters in games - a recurring topic in this industry. At first read, it probably looks like I have purposefully targeted female opinions. But this simply isn't the case. Gathering comment for this feature was surprisingly tough. I contacted not just individual men and women but entire studios - particularly those doing a commendable job of portraying strong female characters. And yet very few were willing to weigh in on the debate, even with the offer of anonymity. The reasons for this vary: lack of an available spokesperson, or tight deadlines ahead of E3. Perhaps, but it was impossible to escape the feeling that people just didn't want to be associated with such a discussion. In an era when the internet can be highly toxic to anyone who dares to have an opinion, this is perhaps understandable, but arguably not acceptable. If we want to advance this medium and explore its potential for storytelling, we need to not only address these topics in games - we also need to talk about them. How else can we understand consumer expectations and changing attitudes to key issues that affect our audience if we as an industry are afraid of expressing our own thoughts on them? Develop is always ready to talk. My email's here: jbatchelor@nbmedia.com.
This article was originally published in the June 2016 issue of Develop.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Let's talk about sexualisation in video games

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
It's no secret: sex sells. But there's a difference between creating appealing, marketable characters and oversexualising them to the point of gratuitousness. The problem is, the line between them is increasingly hard to define. Online debates around characters in Overwatch, Street Fighter, Metal Gear Solid and more show conflicting views of what does and doesn't need to be censored.

# data[].attributes.body
A compilation of adverts to show how men are increasingly becoming sexualised.

# data[].attributes.body
More recently some companies have aimed to tackle this by creating toys / games aimed at broadening horizons of young girls. Barbie have now introduced a range of dolls working in various occupations. (e.g. Astronauts, Scientists, Chefs, Teachers)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Barbie Career Dolls: President, Doctor, Teacher & More | Mattel Shop

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Discover the best selection of Barbie Career Dolls at Mattel Shop. Shop for the Barbie President, Doctor, Teacher, Veterinarian, Scientist and more today!

# data[].attributes.headline
Milkshakes, lady lumps and growing up to want boobies: how the sexualisation of culture limits girls' horizons

# data[].attributes.subject
Milkshakes, lady lumps and growing up to want boobies: how the sexualisation of culture limits girls' horizons

# data[].attributes.body
A journal article which emphasises how the sexualisation of culture may impact girls' future. Discusses how the current culture sells a narrowly defined 'girl power' which celebrates sex-object culture and can limit creativity and identity exploration. Also takes focus on how song lyrics can influence sexual behaviour among young people.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Leeds University Library / All Locations

# data[].attributes.body
Exploring the trope of the 'dominatrix' in film and how it is resisted in Mad Max: Fury Road

# data[].attributes.body
Found it interesting how they showed the native compared to the other woman in the film

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Sexualisation and the Bailey review | Holly Dustin and Jane Fae

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Head to head: Holly Dustin and Jane Fae debate the issue of children's sexualisation and the government's call for action

# data[].attributes.headline
Sexualization of Prepubescent Girls in Dance Competitions: innocent fun or 'sexploitation'?

# data[].attributes.subject
Sexualization of Prepubescent Girls in Dance Competitions: innocent fun or 'sexploitation'?

# data[].attributes.body
A journal article exploring the debates surrounding the 'sexy' dance routines commonly found in US dance competitions. Contrasts the views of parents, practitioners and the dancers.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Leeds University Library / All Locations

# data[].attributes.body
Twitter campaign based on children charity PlanUK's research on street harassment. Links to Everyday Sexism examples.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
An early blog post by me on sexualization and gender stereotyping: topics dealt with in more depth in this paper, and The Psychology of Sex.
On 6 th June 2011 the UK government published ' Letting Children be Children', an 'independent review of the commercialisation and sexualisation of childhood' put together by Reg Bailey, the Chief Executive of the Christian charity, the Mother's Union. The review aimed to bring together previous reports on this topic (notably: Buckingham et al., 2009; Papadopolous, 2010 and Byron, 2008 and 2010) to come up with a set of recommendations. These recommendations include, for example, making sure that magazine covers with sexualised images are not easily seen by children, bringing in an age rating for music videos, and making it easier for parents to block internet material.

The review definitely falls down on the 'anti' side of sexualisation debates (see my previous blog here for more about the different positions on this subject). It is not possible in such a brief post to point to all that is problematic about the Bailey review. For example, it does not define what it means by sexualisation (despite acknowledging that it is highly subjective), it prioritises 'common sense' over long-term research findings, and it is quite misleading in its use of statistics (if 40% of parents have seen something 'inappropriate' that means that the majority have not, and why recommend changes in relation to the watershed if 72% of parents feel that the current regulation of television is about right?)

Here I want to focus on something which jumped out at me from the review: namely the different treatment of parental concerns about the sexualisation of clothes aimed at children, and about the gender stereotyping in such products.

The review states that 'sexualised and gender-stereotyped clothing, products and services for children are the biggest areas of concern for parents'. Parents were concerned about sexualisation, particularly in relation to clothes sold to children which were felt to be inappropriate for their age (like 'bras (padded or not), bikinis, short skirts, high-heeled shoes, garments with suggestive slogans, or the use of fabrics and designs that have connotations of adult sexuality' such as lace and animal prints). Parents were also concerned about gender-stereotyped clothes (division into pink or blue clothing, ultra-feminine clothes for girls and army or sports clothes for boys, and make-up and accessories just aimed at girls).

What is very telling is the response which the review makes to these two issues. The concern about the sexualisation of clothes results in on of the key recommendations of the review: that retailers should come up with a code of good practice regarding retailing to children which they all adhere to, which - Bailey suggests - should involve avoiding selling 'scaled down' sexualised adult clothing and clothing with sexual slogans. One of the main themes at the start of the review argues that retail needs to be 'explicitly and systematically family friendly, from design and buying through to display and marketing.'

However, in relation to gender stereotyping, the review concludes that there is 'no strong evidence that gender stereotyping in marketing or products influences children's behaviour'. It argues 'that the relationship between gender and consumer culture is more complex' and that the marketing of pink products for girls could have a positive impact (e.g. getting them interested in science if it was marketed in pink packaging and related to beauty/pampering). The review states that gender preferences are strongly biologically driven and part of 'normal, healthy development of gender identity'. There are no recommendations made regarding gender stereotyping of products, rather it is accepted that this will continue as long as there is consumer demand.

I think that this example reveals serious problems which run through this review. First, given that the review claims to prioritise the 'common sense' of parents over research, why does it take parent's 'common sense' about sexualisation seriously, whilst dismissing their 'common sense' about gender stereotyping?

Secondly, when I look at the research in these areas, I would conclude that there is - if anything - clearer evidence for the negative impact of gender stereotyping than there is for the negative impact of sexualisation. Cordelia Fine's recent book, Delusions of Gender, for example, summarises a wealth of evidence that gender stereotyping (suggesting that one gender is less good a particularly activity, for example, or that they are more likely to be interested in a certain field) impacts on our cognitive abilities, confidence and many other aspects, and that neurological differences between the genders often result from exposure to such stereotypes. Beyond that, there can be little question that the narrow definitions of femininity and masculinity expressed in stereotyped clothes and other products make life a misery for the many children who do not neatly fit in these boxes, who often suffer from bullying and alienation. On the other hand, much of the research on sexualisation of children has failed to find many of the kind of products which Bailey's review refers to, and there is no clear evidence yet that such products have a negative impact. In fact recent studies of suggest responsible and thoughtful sexual behaviour amongst young people. Particularly there is a dearth of evidence so far on how young people themselves make sense of these products.

This suggests, to me, that the Bailey review is more concerned with bolstering current cultural norms than it is with either what the evidence has to say, or even what parents and young people think themselves. The current norms are that sexual behaviour amongst young people is inherently problematic (hence the desire to clamp down on anything that might encourage it), and that people should adhere to rigid gender roles (hence the lack of any problem with gender stereotyped products). I think that we need to think critically about both of these conclusions.

Find out more:

You can find my academic article on these ideas here.

There's more about all aspects of sexualization in The Sexualization Report.

The Bailey review itself can be found here

Clips of Bailey summarising the review can be found here and here

The Radio 4 report on the topic is towards the end of this news segment

A very helpful overview here

There are other articles on these issues here, here, here and here

For more on these topics in general see the Onscenity Network website which includes a collection of blog posts on sexualisation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Sexualization and Gender stereotyping? One response to the Bailey review - Rewriting The Rules

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
An early blog post by me on sexualization and gender stereotyping: topics dealt with in more depth in this paper, and The Psychology of Sex . On 6 th June 2011 the UK government published ' Letting Children be Children', an 'independent review of the commercialisation and sexualisation of childhood' put together by Reg Bailey, the Chief Executive of the Christian charity, the Mother's Union.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Sexism and Sexualization of Disney Characters

Young girls are becoming more and more prone to having sex before the age of 12, cutting, depression, and eating disorders now than ever before. Why are young ladies made to feel like all they have to offer is their looks or sexuality? What has changed that now preadolescent females are wearing shirts with "flirt" on them, buying dolls that wear fishnet stockings, and are so interested in getting boyfriends? The answer lies in our media. Everyone can see the effects of women who have their legs open to the camera, in suggestive poses and outfits, and sometimes the absences of outfits. What if I told you that the same images like sexy women, and culture that makes women think their worth only seen through men and sexuality, is in Disney princess films? The same films I, and many other girls have grown up with.

The very first Disney princess is Snow White, which came out in 1935. Snow white is about an evil queen who tries to kill Snow White, leaving her lost and stranded with 7 "little men" and befriends them. The evil queen returns with a poison apple that only can be reversed with the kiss of true love's kiss. Her handsome prince finds her, kisses her, and takes her away to his castle where they live happily ever after, only after the queen dies.

Let's take another look at this timeless tale though. Starting with the queen. Very rarely do we see a women in charge of her kingdom, alone. The queen is at the highest position of power, yet she is never given a name in the movie. This shows that a women ruler is not even good enough to be named. Also the women is completely obsessed with the way she looks. She developed some kind of dark magic mirror that tells her who is the most beautiful in the land, because she shouldn't be attending to royal matters of her country right? But only focused on her appearance and making sure no one is as beautiful as her. When the queen finds out Snow White is fairer than her, by the mirrors opinion, she becomes infuriated and sends someone to kill Snow White. What is this teaching our little girls? You are only as good as your looks. It doesn't matter if you single handedly climbed into the most powerful political position, if you aren't the most beautiful than you can kiss all that goodbye. Maybe it also gave a hint as what men of this time thought it would be like for a women to be in a powerful position. She would be so consumed in her own physical appearance and unable to get anything done. As for Snow White she has no talent besides her beauty and in the end that's the only thing she needed to save her. The fact that this movie came out in the 1930's shows a very domestic princess. She cooks and cleans for the 7 dwarfs and slaves away all day for them. That is the position women had during this time period.

In Disney's Cinderella, a young lady is locked away in a tower, only to come down to be abused and forced to clean by her own step family. Cinderella has no friends, or other family to confide in. This girl is in serious need to be taken from the home and given therapy for her mistreatment and horrible living conditions. But instead she is given a wish to become beautifully dressed for one night and attend a royal ball. The prince falls in love with her at once without even speaking a word to her, only dancing. Why do you need to talk to a women to fall in love with her? All you need is to look at her physical attractiveness to know she would be a good wife. Once Cinderella changes from her drab appearance into glittery, huge, feminine, ball gown, she is considered to have worth. Instead of some serious therapy, to press criminal charges and friends, Cinderella does the only thing rational to do... marries the prince as soon as she can. She marries him the next day, emotional baggage and all. This movies shows that as long as you're pretty you can get out of your horrible living conditions by a wealthy man.

Cinderella was in theaters in 1950's. Women were returning to home from their jobs because the men came home from the war. A lot of women wanted to keep their jobs but were fired because of their sex. Cinderella shows that working is horrible and you should just rely on a man to take care of you.

The next princes is Ariel. Ariel is a mermaid and what goes along with being a mermaid is a shell bra and curvy tail. Aerial is one of the first "sexy" princesses. Maybe because if the time period she was created in was the 1980's. The story of Ariel is that she is so desperate to find love she drastically changes her appearance for a boy she hasn't even spoken to. She does this with the help of a sea witch who tells her that in order get her wish to be human and remove her tail for legs she has to pay the Witch with her voice. When Ariel asks how she will be able to talk with the prince the sea which says "You'll have your looks, your pretty face.

And don't underestimate the importance of body language, ha! The men up there don't like a lot of blabber. They think a girl who gossips is a bore! Yes on land it's much preferred for ladies not to say a word, and after all dear, what is idle prattle for? Come on, they're not all that impressed with conversation, True gentlemen avoid it when they can, But they dote and swoon and fawn On a lady who's withdrawn, It's she who holds her tongue who gets a man" do I even have to explain how sexist this song is? When Ariel is changed into a human she appears on land completely naked submerged in the water and she wraps some kind of ship wreaked sail around her naked body. In the end she marries the prince at the ripe age of 16 abandoning her family and culture for "true love".

Jasmin is one of the most sexualized princesses. Her eyes are larger than proportionally accurate, her lips are big and her nose is tiny. Her top falls down her shoulders and her stomach is exposed, this is not historically accurate and it is simply to make her appealing and sexual. In the movie her only political worth is how marriageable she is and the only talents she has is her sexuality. Jafar, the villain, enslaves Jasmin and forces her to wear an even sexier outfit and feed him. She only gets away with the help of Aladdin only after she puts on an objectifying act, and turns very sexual towards Jafar.

Belle from beauty and the Beast is a young girl who is shunned from her community for reading. This shows young girls that only beauty is celebrated while wisdom and knowledge are looked down upon for ladies. There is a lot of objectifying from Gaston's groupies, their breast are larger, they have bleach blonde hair, and they all look the exact same. Belle is also seen to be the "perfect little wife", and nothing more. When she is captured by the Beast, kept locked in a jail cell, moved to a room and told "if she won't eat with the beast, she won't eat at all". She is verbally abused by the beast throughout the whole movie. Girls watching the movie will think that is okay to stay in a relationship with someone who treats you bad because one day they could change, or it doesn't matter how bad someone treats you as long as they have money.

Recently Disney has given a makeover to their princesses, which is found on their merchandise. All the princesses were given smoldering, sexy makeup, huge eyes, and big tousle hair. Even Cinderella's up do is messier and more tousled. The new princesses on the backpacks, pajamas, and notebooks are in extremely sexy poses and giving a provocative look.

Once Barbie sales declined and Disney Princesses sales sky-rocketed, everyone caught on to the royal trend. Even Dora the explorer, an adventurous and rugged young girl, stared in a movie showing that she was royalty and she too turned into a princess, PEGGY ORENSTEIN noticed. She also worries what Disney is teaching her daughter. Are these timeless classic Disney movies teaching her to be dependent on a man? She worries about what is being marketed to her. Princesses only care about clothes, jewelry, and princes. (What's Wrong With Cinderella)

So what is wrong with sexualizing women? Why should we care if the princesses are a little too sexy and taking a little more of the traditional route? Psychologist Laura R. Ramsey and Tiffany Hoyt found some new information about men who sexualize women. It dehumanizes women, if women are no longer seen as humans but just objects then violence increases against them. Men who objectify women's bodies are more likely to expect sex and think that it's the women's role to give sex to them. This increases sexual pressure through violence and manipulation. And men who objectify women are less likely to respect sexual boundaries. (Sinha, Smriti. "Scientists Have Determined What Really Happens When Men Objectify Women." Mic. N.p., 27 Aug. 2014. Web. 12 Nov. 2014.)

The sexualization of girls also affects their mental health. The American Psychological Association reported that over-sexualization of women has consequences for healthy development... it has been correlated with... eating disorders. Low-self-esteem and depression. Gurian, Anita. "The Sexualization of Girls and Mental Health Problems: Is There a Connection? | AboutOurKids.org." The Sexualization of Girls and Mental Health Problems: Is There a Connection? | AboutOurKids.org. NYU Child Study Center, n.d. Web. 12 Nov. 2014.

Our society is shaped by what we see in the media. Little girls are feeling like their worth lies in their appearance because of what they see happening around them. Young girls are being persuaded to not go after dreams and goals but to find true love and get married as soon as possible. If we can just decode the movies we watch and explain to the people watching that they don't have to follow down this road, they can be celebrated for the accomplishments and talents rather than their beauty. Because young girls see images of love, family and marriage it makes them emotionally impacted by these movies. But we all have the power to change this media and support movies that show complex female characters, going after bigger dreams and goals, because they are smart and strong enough to do so. (Muirk, Kenner. Introduction to Media Literacy. S.l.: Kendall Hunt, 1998. Web.)

Work cited

Muirk, Kenner. Introduction to Media Literacy. S.l.: Kendall Hunt, 1998. Web.

Gurian, Anita. "The Sexualization of Girls and Mental Health Problems: Is There a Connection? | AboutOurKids.org." The Sexualization of Girls and Mental Health Problems: Is There a Connection? | AboutOurKids.org. NYU Child Study Center, n.d. Web. 12 Nov. 2014.

Sinha, Smriti. "Scientists Have Determined What Really Happens When Men Objectify Women." Mic. N.p., 27 Aug. 2014. Web. 12 Nov. 2014.

Orenstein, Peggy. "What's Wrong With Cinderella?" The New York Times. The New York Times, 23 Dec. 2006. Web. 02 Dec. 2014.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Sexism and Sexualization of Disney Characters

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sexism and Sexualization of Disney Characters Young girls are becoming more and more prone to having sex before the age of 12, cutting, depression, and eating disorders now than ever before. Why are young ladies made to feel like all they have to offer is their looks or sexuality?

# data[].attributes.headline
Sexualisation and Video games, A good thing? 

# data[].attributes.subject
Sexualisation and Video games, A good thing? 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Women Are Over-sexualized in Games, and That's a Good Thing

# data[].attributes.headline
investigated how exposure to sexualizing primetime television programs, music television, men’s magazines, and pornographic websites was related to the internalization of appearance ideals, self-objectification and body surveillance among adolescent boys 

# data[].attributes.subject
investigated how exposure to sexualizing primetime television programs, music television, men’s magazines, and pornographic websites was related to the internalization of appearance ideals, self-objectification and body surveillance among adolescent boys 

# data[].attributes.headline
Sexualisation and the black female body 

# data[].attributes.subject
Sexualisation and the black female body 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Sexualisation is a concept not unfamiliar to a significant proportion of female readers of this magazine, and females in general. We experienced it during puberty, when our breasts ached and protruded awkwardly, when our hips began to be defined through our clothing, when boys equated our worthiness to our bra sizes. Unfortunately, some of us experienced sexualisation even before puberty, when even shielded with the veil of innocence, men repeatedly perceived us as objects of sexual desire.

I had my own experiences as an object of sexualisation during this dreaded rite of passage known as puberty. I had just relocated to Kenya from Toronto and the telling glares I received from men, often twice my age, caused a churning in my belly and an incomparable embarrassment. I was embarrassed of my body and its ability to garner such unnecessary attention. What was I doing wrong that made it okay for these men to ogle at my rear and whistle in my direction? This was my first encounter with sexualisation, and I was only 10 years old.

Throughout my consequent years in Kenya, I grew uncomfortable with my adolescent body and adopted every measure to conceal its edges and curves: over-sized sweaters, unflattering baggy jeans, you name it. After eight years of trying to hide my body from the gaze of unwelcomed parties, I had almost become immune to the stares and comments. They still caused the same inner repulsion, but I regrettably became used to it. Living in Canada when younger and never experiencing this kind of explicit sexualisation, I naively idolized the white man as the height of decency. My then rudimentary understanding of sexualisation made me believe that he would never hold me to the arch of my back and the bulge of my breasts. My growing hatred of the Kenyan black man culminated as a result of their blatant sexualisation of my being. Upon this, I struggled to understand their simultaneous colourism - where my dark shade was only good to be crudely admired and never pursued. I was dark enough to be heckled at on the streets, but too dark to be romantically pursued. Collectively, these factors further fuelled my impression that sexualisation was not a concept white men condoned.

Three months shy of my nineteenth birthday, I found myself in the Netherlands pursuing a Bachelor's Degree. I was based in conservative Maastricht, a small town in the south of the Netherlands, inhabited by very few other black girls. I therefore anticipated the stares and the whispers I received from the local population, as I was an anomaly. However, what I didn't anticipate was the hyper-sexualisation and fetishisation. Whereas sexualisation is unfortunately experienced by all women simply due to our womanhood, hyper-sexualisation goes beyond these confines of womanhood and is exclusively experienced by women whose womanhood as well as either their race or ethnic background are linked to validate men's objectification of them. Not only was I being sexualised, something I was unknowingly convinced I wouldn't encounter from white men, but the sexualisation was also rooted in my race.

Being told to go for Dutch guys because "they really like black girls", and strangers exclaiming "oh you're gonna get black pussy tonight?" at any non-black male I was accompanied by, having my skin referred to as chocolate or cocoa, and discovering that there was a competition taking place between a group of boys over who would sleep with a black girl first were all realities of hyper-sexualization I came face to face with in my first year of college in the Netherlands. I initially mistook the comparisons to Naomi Campbell and other iconic black female celebrities for compliments. However, with further scrutiny, these supposed acts of admiration all appeared a facade as these men were simply placing my value in my race and the connotations that came with my race. I was expected to be a certain way and therefore my offense at certain remarks was an overreaction and consequently redundant. I pinned down this mentality to Maastricht being a small and relatively homogenous town in the south of the Netherlands, disconnected from the realities of diversity and new to the myriad of diverse faces that had begun to settle there.

At the beginning of my third year of my degree, I relocated to Madrid, Spain to carry out my exchange programme. Madrid, a cosmopolitan, capital city brought with it hope that I'd have the privilege of invisibility, and that perhaps for once my blackness and my womanness wouldn't be so central in determining my person. I was completely mistaken. Within my first two weeks in one of Europe's most populated and well-known capitals, I had my ass groped, was referred to as "morena" and "negra" (directly translated as "black girl") by men wanting to assert their sexual interest in me, and was approached by males who presumed I was a sex worker. Never has my womanhood and race been so overtly sexualized like it was in Madrid. My misconceptions of Maastricht being a small town prone to such mentalities were proven to be wrong, as I encountered the same tribulations, if not worse, in a city with over 10 times the size in population. My misconceptions of the white man being the embodiment of respectability were wrong as not only did I face the same sexualisation - where my body became an object of desire - but my race was painfully interlinked, where said men felt entitled to their sexualisation of me simply based on preconceptions they harboured over how a black female is supposed to be.

We're perceived as promiscuous, willing and accepting of whatever form of sexual proposition that is thrown our way. As a result, our reactions and objections are already silenced before we even express them. The sexualisation of black women not only has its roots in modern media, but is also rooted in the historical depiction of us. Historically, black women are perceived as objects of sexual exploitation, dating back to days of slavery where the concept of rape was never applied to the black woman simply because she was assumed to have been a willing and promiscuous participant. White women were the representation of sexual morality, whereas their darker hued counterparts were perceived as unchaste in their supposed invitation of sexual objectification. These stereotypes have lasted and have seeped into modern media and societal domains. Black women are often presented as raunchy video girls, baby mamas bearing children with unknown and often multiple fathers, and sexually willing characters often inviting of sexual objectification. These depictions transcend the confines of the media, and penetrate and manifest themselves in everyday society.

Because of the historical weight of the depiction of black women and the persistent perpetuation by modern media, it's okay for a man to grab my ass in broad daylight, it's okay for a man to call me a whore and deem me a sex worker and it's okay for a man to approach me and whisper sexually crude remarks. Sexualisation and hyper-sexualisation are concepts many of us women of colour may never escape. So long as discussions are not generated and the media continues to maintain certain stereotypes, I may just live out the rest of my life perceived as the angry, sexual, unchaste black woman.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Hyper-sexualisation: the realities of my black, female body | gal-dem

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Sexualisation is a concept not unfamiliar to a significant proportion of female readers of this magazine, and females in general. We experienced it during puberty, when our breasts ached and protruded awkwardly, when our hips began to be defined through our clothing, when boys equated our worthiness to our bra sizes.

# data[].attributes.headline
Sexualisation of Pride and LGBTQ+ use of dating apps

# data[].attributes.subject
Sexualisation of Pride and LGBTQ+ use of dating apps

# data[].attributes.body
Criticism of sexualisation of LGBTQ+ pride and using dating apps

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Dating Apps & Over-Sexualized Pride Parades Are Damaging LGBTQ Community Says Queer Eye's Karamo

Karamo Brown, the culture guy from Netflix's Queer Eye, has some words for the LGBTQ community. During an interview with Gay Times Magazine, Brown, who's married with two kids, shared his opinions on dating apps, Pride parades, and the over-sexualization of today's youth.

"I think they're the worst. I think they're horrible. I do not own an app and never have. I think dating apps are keeping us apart. It's also over-sexualising the community," he said. "It's great for hooking up, but I can't tell you the last time I met a couple who said, 'I met on Grindr or Scruff, and I'm in a long-term relationship.' It just does not happen."

"We're in a culture now where, if I don't like you, I don't have to get to know you, I just have to swipe left. How horrible is that? I don't think my grandparents or parents would have met if they had these apps. So I say, get off the apps and go to the club. Meet people. It's much more fun. If you want to hook up and just get your nut off then go on apps."

He goes on to say that over-sexualization is one of the biggest challenge facing today's LGBT youth. "It's so sad. You think about Pride celebrations; I've never been able to bring my own children-except for maybe once or twice-or the youth I used to work with to Pride celebrations, because for them to be walking down the street to be learning what it is to be a proud member of this community, and then see dicks out...that's just not healthy for a 15-year-old."

"What image does that send out about what you have to do? It affects your body image, it affects your view of the world. I'm by no means-because I love a shirtless selfie-taking away from someone's right to do that. But as a community, we've forgotten that there's a generation behind us that are watching. That are mimicking what we do and what we say."

Brown begins comparing gay Pride festivals to African American celebrations. "I don't remember a Black Pride festival where people were naked. It's always about honouring our ancestors and being proud of the accomplishments they've made, and wearing African-inspired garbs. No-one's walking around naked. But for some reason, in the LGBTQ community, that's our moment to be free and the most naked we can be. I'm with it, because I'm an adult, but there's kids watching."

"I can no longer bring my kids who are 21 and 17 because I don't want them to think that this is what represents the community. I get embarrassed."

Brown believes those images feed into the stereotype that gay people are "sexual deviants."

"I can only equate it to the African American community where we'd be putting out images ourselves of violent crime movies. It doesn't mean that crime doesn't happen in every community, but that's perpetuating a stereotype that's already there. To a degree, we have images that show gay men, lesbians and trans people in a positive light, but I think the Pride celebration is something we could work on. Especially if we're talking about it in the context of youth, who are like, 'Oh this is what it's like to be part of the community.' It's not boo-boo. This is one day that you're letting your hair down. What it means to be part of this community is so much bigger, brighter, better and beautiful."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Dating Apps & Over-Sexualized Pride Parades Are Damaging LGBTQ Community Says 'Queer Eye's' Karamo

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Dating Apps & Over-Sexualized Pride Parades Are Damaging LGBTQ Community Says Queer Eye's Karamo Karamo Brown, the culture guy from Netflix's Queer Eye, has some words for the LGBTQ community. During an interview with Gay Times Magazine , Brown, who's married with two kids, shared his opinions on dating apps, Pride parades, and the over-sexualization of today's youth.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The idea that advertising, entertainment and news media are guilty of objectifying women is familiar enough to most of us. But recently the balance seems to have shifted, with concerns being expressed about the potential objectification of male actors in drama series such as Bodyguard and Poldark. So are liberated and independent women who decry the objectification of women, but are thrilled by shots of male bodies on TV, guilty of double standards?

Compared to the acres of taut flesh on display in coverage of, say, Olympic swimming, the odd glimpse of a firm set of abs or a muscled thigh in a BBC drama seems almost trivial. Yet context is everything. Most of us are comfortable with displays of nudity on the beach or around the hotel pool that would not be acceptable in the office, so acceptability cannot be measured by square inches of naked flesh.

If nudity is dramatically integral to a scene in some way - in a scene of tender, non-sexual intimacy as much as in a sex scene - then it can't be condemned as simply "gratuitous". Nor is a sexualised audience response necessarily inappropriate. Comedy, horror and sentiment all have a legitimate place in drama, and all of them provoke emotional and bodily responses. Why not eroticism also? If a dramatic presentation of a sexual relationship fails to ring true because the performances lack "chemistry" the drama will fail as drama. Where chemistry is present, it will naturally provoke an audience response and, in this case, blanket puritanical condemnation is misplaced.

But, of course, feminist concerns about objectification were never really a matter of blanket puritanical condemnation. So what are the concerns really all about?

Objectified women

Sexual objectification typically takes one of two forms. In the first, eroticised depictions of female bodies present women as mere resources - nothing more than "eye candy" for male sexual gratification. Such portrayals encourage more general exploitative attitudes towards women. By implicitly denying women's agency, they appear to legitimise coercive behaviour and in extreme cases sexual violence.

In the second, women's agency is not ignored but actively recruited for oppressive purposes. In this case, rather than reducing women to the status of mere resources, the objectifying content has the effect of scripting their behaviour - tacitly promoting norms and stereotypes of conduct geared to the sexual gratification of men. Women are invited to play along with the roles allotted to them, consenting to, and even enthusiastically embracing, treatment that is in reality exploitative. Objectification in this sense works by colonising women's identities. It is subtly ideological rather than brutally coercive.

Flipping the male gaze

So, what of the objectification of men, and the existence of an apparent double standard?

If we only think in terms of the first form of objectification, and the consumption of "eye candy", we are likely to conclude that the sexual objectification of men is a relatively trivial matter. Prevailing physical, political and economic power inequalities are such that in practice a man's agency is much less likely than a woman's to be overridden. Consequently, the objectification of men is much less likely to result in sexual violence. To this extent, a double standard might be thought tolerable.

However, in relation to the second form of objectification - where damaging norms and stereotypes are promoted and internalised - it's difficult to defend the double standard. There seems to be no good reason to think that men are any less suggestible and compliant than women are when it comes to "normalising" media representations. Young and impressionable men in particular may be as biddable and eager to play along as their female counterparts.

Consider the way men are presented on programmes such as ITV's Love Island. The producers of the programme stress that it does not pretend to hold a mirror up to life, but provides an idealised and in their own words "aspirational" portrayal. But when narcissism, individualism, materialism and manipulation are presented as aspirational, audiences are likely to find themselves emulating behaviour that is incompatible with healthy relationships and a fulfilling life.

Audience appetites

Objectifying media content is sometimes defended on the basis that it doesn't play an ideological role but only caters to the preexisting appetites of its audience. However, even in much more neutral contexts, such as fashion and car magazines, such arguments don't stand up. It is no doubt true that magazines are usually read by people who have a preexisting interest in their content. But most people will be familiar with the experience of picking up a magazine and finding they have suddenly developed a keen interest in which £200,000 supercar is really most desirable. If it didn't work that way, no one would loan £200,000 supercars to journalists.

Clearly, media representations do far more than cater to preexisting appetites. They actively shape what we aspire to, what we are prepared to consent to, and the ways we spend our time and money in pursuit of what we (consequently) want. Advertising, entertainment and news media play a significant ideological role in our lives. Power, as Foucault observed, is insidious and productive. It typically operates not by overt interdiction or coercion, but by creatively and "consensually" shaping our self-conceptions and (thereby) our views of what is normal and desirable.

So, we should be concerned about the sexual objectification of men. The real issue though is not women's responses to eroticised drama, nor the feelings of the male actors involved, nor (realistically) the possibility that such scenes might lead to a significant rise in sexual violence against men. The issue is that the ideological scripting of men's behaviour is coming to be as all-pervasive as the ideological scripting of women's behaviour.

At the same time as young men are being encouraged to be increasingly narcissistic and materialistic, they are experiencing unprecedented levels of perfectionism-driven social anxiety and mental illness. This is perhaps understandable, given that they are being bombarded with a vastly greater quantity and intensity of objectifying media content than previous generations ever had to contend with.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Why the sexual objectification of men isn't just a bit of fun

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Perfectionism-driven social anxiety means young men will also be susceptible to ideological scripting of behaviour on TV.

# data[].attributes.headline
Argument against age-verification on pornography websites

# data[].attributes.subject
Argument against age-verification on pornography websites

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Kris Taylor writing for The Spinoff
We've largely moved beyond moral panics about teens' consumption of books, television and movies, but worries about the effects of online pornography remain. But are we concerned about the wrong things?

Throughout history, the regulation of children's access to violent and sexualised media has been a startlingly consistent social concern. Over the course of the 20th century, research regularly focused on the harmful effects that newspapers, comic books, radio, film, and television might have on children. Noticeably, such research has tended not only to concentrate specifically on the impact of new forms of media on children, but also whether children can discern between fiction and reality, and whether new media can negatively affect their developing morality. Over and over, our focus on avoiding moral corruption meant we missed chances to engage with young people about how they make sense of their own developing sexualities.

Most recently, our collective attention has seemingly become fixed on how the internet impacts young people, predominantly via the manifold risks posed by both online gaming and pornography. The latest example is Department of Internal Affairs Minister Tracey Martin's suggestion that young people are being "bombarded" with easily accessible pornography. In response, she has voiced her support for a law here similar to the UK's proposed mandatory age verification for pornographic websites - a proposal that has met with significant opposition from those with concerns about internet freedoms and data harvesting.

In discussing such a system of age verification, it is crucial that we move beyond the media effects theories highlighted above. Research into the supposed harms of novels and radio broadcasting is now so outdated it seems quaint; studies of the possible risks to children posed by network television and films have now also fallen out of favour. But that doesn't mean these studies can't be instructive. Revisiting these obsolescent understandings of media usage is an invitation to move beyond simple explanations, to instead dig into the heart of the issue: what is it about children's exposure to 'adult' content that generates such a remarkable historical pattern of concern?

First, let's define our terms. What is pornography? Beyond 'I know it when I see it', a consideration of such a seemingly simple question generates further, much more difficult questions. What, for example, is the difference, in terms of harm to teenagers, between pornography and contemporary portrayals of sex and violence in 'mainstream' media? This can be a tricky distinction, as evidenced by the conversation around the Office of Film and Literature Classification's (OFLC) recent classification of the second season of popular Netflix series 13 Reasons Why, a show aimed at teenagers which contains graphic depictions of rape and suicide. Or consider a quote taken from research by the OFLC in which an older teenage boy describes being "disturbed" at being exposed to a Game of Thrones episode his mother was watching, leading him to avoid speaking to her for a week.

Then there's the relationship between sex and violence on screen. Regardless of what proportion of 'pornography' is considered violent, a critical question that is seldom asked is how popular is such content anyway? We often hear that pornography is becoming more violent, but research to prove this claim is surprisingly inadequate. Nonetheless, there's no denying that some pornography can be disturbing, and can be seen by young people if access remains unrestricted. But are young people seeking such content on purpose or are they being exposed to it accidentally? Are they being shown it by others intentionally? And how do all of these scenarios play out? Young men are often expected to seek out pornography as a normative part of their sexual maturation. The way a teenage boy makes sense of pornography as part of a bonding ritual with friends might be quite different to how he processes it on his own. It is curious that we often fail to grasp the glaring contradiction between protecting teenagers from pornography on one hand and nostalgically lauding it as an integral part of burgeoning sexuality on the other.

Finally, it is worth considering whether age verification would actually work - and I don't just mean the logistics of rolling out such a system. It's important to reiterate the central concern here: youth exposure to sex and violence in media. Does an age verification system even address the source of the problem? In other words, do teenagers even use PornHub? Consider the prevalence of ostensibly non-pornographic message boards like Reddit or Tumblr, on which pornography is regularly posted, or the preponderance of pornographic content accessible via Twitter. Consider the increasing prevalence of sexual content on live streaming platforms (like gaming platform Twitch), and the possibilities of user generated pornography, not to mention so-called 'revenge porn'. And of course there are always chatrooms, popups on torrent and gaming sites, camming sites, messaging services, the dark web, and on and on it goes forever.

In the face of all of these alternative avenues through which to access pornography, it might be tempting to give up. But to do so ignores the most crucial protective factor for young people: engaging with them, listening to their voices, and responding to their needs. Previous research by the OFLC says that "a consistent theme was that teens feel that they lack information and support in this area." Similarly, research in the United Kingdom (the vanguard for age restrictions on pornography) suggests that "most young people thought pornography was a poor model for consent or safe sex and wanted better sex education, covering the impact of pornography". Teenagers are critical consumers of new forms of media, and yet we continue to condescend to them.

That's why I share Chief Censor David Shanks' excitement about the research being undertaken by his office into teenagers' experience of online pornography. Such research not only listens to the voices of young people, but also works to address glaring gaps in both academic and public knowledge about pornography (if only we were as interested in adults' pornography viewing eh?). If we move beyond the old 'media effects' paradigm, we can start harnessing the energy generated by the current pornography debate to reflect on why the previous styles of media research are now largely redundant: they failed to meaningfully engage with how violent and sexual media operates within popular culture more broadly, and the diverse ways that pornography can be made sense of by its viewership.

Should we legislate for an age limit for pornography? I'd suggest we take a 'wait and see' approach. As yet, the lack of rigorous local research on teenagers' (or anyone's) pornography consumption habits - what those who consume it are actually viewing, how they are viewing it, and how they feel about their viewing - suggests caution. Otherwise, we risk rushing towards unwarranted interventions, while expounding the same antiquated concerns about new forms of media and their impact on teenagers.
Kris Taylor is a PhD candidate in psychology at the University of Auckland and guest writer for The Spinoff

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Do teens even use Pornhub? Answering questions about kids and sexuality

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kris Taylor writing for The Spinoff We've largely moved beyond moral panics about teens' consumption of books, television and movies, but worries about the effects of online pornography remain. But are we concerned about the wrong things? Throughout history, the regulation of children's access to violent and sexualised media has been a startlingly consistent social concern.

# data[].attributes.headline
Sexualised behaviour because of lack of SRE 

# data[].attributes.subject
Sexualised behaviour because of lack of SRE 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
There is a "slow creep" of sexualised language and behaviour among children as young as five in the classroom, teachers have told the Guardian.

Primary and secondary school teachers described the level of sex and relationship education (SRE) available to children as inadequate in response to a call out via the Guardian's online Teachers Network.

Their evidence, although anecdotal, gives a troubling glimpse into classrooms where teachers are trying but failing to tackle sexual bullying, harassment and other sexual violence experienced by pupils.

One primary school teacher, based in Merseyside, reported a series of disturbing incidents in the classroom, including pupils as young as 10 being sent explicit photos via social media and a sexual assault between two seven-year-old boys. A secondary school supply teacher, who has worked in London and Humberside, reported "several sexual assaults and a possible rape" over seven years of teaching.

Dozens of teachers contacted the Guardian in response to a call out about sexual violence in schools, shortly before the publication of the Commons select committee inquiry into the issue on Tuesday. The inquiry, begun after a study revealed that many incidents went unreported and others were "brushed off" by teachers, is expected to raise the issue of mandatory SRE, which, although widely supported, was rejected by the government last year.

The teachers who spoke to the Guardian echoed concerns raised by witnesses to the inquiry, who called for children as young as four to be taught about sexism and harassment in order to tackle a "ticking timebomb" of sexual bullying at school. All said they would like to see compulsory SRE, as well as specific guidance on how to prevent sexual bullying and violence.

One primary school teacher with 20 years' experience, who works in Merseyside, said she believed unrestricted access to the internet was partly responsible for the sexualisation of children.

Speaking on the condition of anonymity, in order to protect the children involved, she said: "As a primary teacher, I have been appalled by the rise in sexual language and behaviour in children as young as five. Unfiltered access to the internet and age inappropriate computer games is exposing more and more young children to things they are not able to cope with or understand. Many parents haven't got a clue what is happening."

The teacher, who works in an area with high levels of deprivation but has seen problems in schools in better off areas, said: "In the 60s and 70s, the TV was the babysitter in the corner but now it's the internet and the internet is a dangerous place. Children as young as five are being left on their own with access to the internet. They seeing things they should not be exposed to and it's not being balanced by parents telling them how to keep safe."

She has noticed a "slow creep" of inappropriately sexual language and behaviour, to the point where it has become "almost commonplace" she said.

"We've had children as young as 10 getting on to social media forums, where they can have conversations and then have been sent explicit photographs. We've had a sexual assault, involved two seven-year-old boys. One of them said he was copying something on TV. I've heard male children say 'let me touch your boobies' and you can see the horrified faces on some of the other children. There is a lot of use of the word 'gay' as a term of abuse. I've had a boy of five or six talk about dildos."

Age-appropriate SRE was vital, she said, and should start in primary school. "You can't put the genie back in the bottle but children need to be taught about what is and isn't OK."

Teachers said the pressure on them to deliver academic results meant that teaching social skills such as respect and healthy relationships took a back seat, with disturbing results in some schools.

One secondary school supply teacher, who has worked in Humberside and London, said: "During my seven years of teaching, there have been a number of serious sexual assaults, including a possible rape. As a matter of course, this information is not openly shared among staff and, therefore, possibly allowed to continue unchecked."

He expressed concern over the fall-out after a 14-year-old girl, who broke down in his class, alleged that she had been raped by a fellow classmate. On another occasion, a female pupil accused two boys of forcing her to perform a sex act in a science cupboard in an incident that the supply teacher said was as treated as "teenage high jinks". Neither incident appeared to be treated appropriately, he said.

"I found it preposterous that the girl who had made the accusation of rape had to leave the class. She ended up leaving the school to go to another school. It blew my mind. There should be policies in place to deal with sexual assault in order for the schools to properly deal with it."

According to a BBC investigation last September, based on freedom of information requests to police, 5,500 sexual offences were recorded in UK schools over a three-year period, including rapes. A 2014 survey by Girlguiding UK found that 59% of young women aged 13-21 had faced some form of sexual harassment at school or college in the past year.

A deputy head of a secondary school in Manchester told the Guardian that children needed extra guidance because of the rise in social media and the availability of online pornography.

The deputy head said: "We are living in a different world. In a school, its bell to bell, the day is gone in the blink of an eye. We know it's important but you do need support to get it right. The whole basis of gender respect and healthy relationships should be on the curriculum. Our PHSE has been taken off the timetable in terms of having a regular weekly or two-weekly slot. It's now down to six days a year. That's not enough. If children were graded in how healthy and respectful their relationships [were], as well as maths and English, there would be time on the timetable for it."

The National Police Chiefs Council, in its evidence to the commons inquiry, highlighted the availability of online pornography and the absence of sex and relationship education in schools as driving factors in altering the behaviour of young people.

One secondary head of PHSE, based in Lincolnshire, told the Guardian that 95% of a class of year 7 boys told her they had accessed pornography online.

Another teacher, who works in a state-funded secondary school for vulnerable children who have been excluded from mainstream school, described her job as a "tug of war". She said that for excluded or otherwise vulnerable children SRE should be on a par with maths and English. "Our children are classified as a vulnerable because they have been in gangs or because of their family or behavioural issues. There is a lot of violence in their lives. We try to teach respect and feminism but it's hard because we only have one lesson a week. We need an extra lesson every week, at least."

"In a school like ours, it's a tug of war between getting exam results and getting them into college, and teaching them life skills about how to engage in healthy relationships. It is sad because they are the ones [who] need it most."

Additional reporting by Marianna Spring
Topics

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Sexualised behaviour in very young children increasing, say teachers

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
There is a "slow creep" of sexualised language and behaviour among children as young as five in the classroom, teachers have told the Guardian. Primary and secondary school teachers described the level of sex and relationship education (SRE) available to children as inadequate in response to a call out via the Guardian's online Teachers Network.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Honey Boo Boo Retires From Child Beauty Pageants

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
ABC Report: Girls Being Sexualized in Dance

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Hot Girls Wanted: Turned On | Netflix Official Site

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Watch Netflix movies & TV shows online or stream right to your smart TV, game console, PC, Mac, mobile, tablet and more.

# data[].attributes.headline
Gender Recognition Act and Women-only spaces

# data[].attributes.subject
Gender Recognition Act and Women-only spaces

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The GRA and safety of women-only spaces (Full length explainer)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Dr MJ Barker (author of Rewriting the Rules and How to Understand Your Gender) and Dr Nina Burrowes (a psychologist and activist specialising in the psychology of sexual violence) talk about the Gender Recognition Act, the safety of women-only spaces, and how people are responding to the government's current consultation.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Flower and The Jewel; Disney’s Sexualisation Of Brown Women

# data[].attributes.subject
The Flower and The Jewel; Disney’s Sexualisation Of Brown Women

# data[].attributes.body
https://medium.com/@nerdypoc/the-flower-and-the-jewel-disneys-sexualisation-of-brown-women-3266233bfbf2

# data[].attributes.body
How young girls and boys are affected by mainstream porn.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Growing Up in a Pornified Culture | Gail Dines | TEDxNavesink

# data[].attributes.headline
Depicting Authenticity in Women-Made Pornography

# data[].attributes.subject
Depicting Authenticity in Women-Made Pornography

# data[].attributes.body
A piece from Jill Bakehorn about how women use the idea of authenticity to convey their work in porn as activism, and as different from mainstream porn.

# data[].attributes.body
Six middle school girls share their thoughts about the images of girls they see and how they feel about the way girls today are portrayed.

# data[].attributes.headline
Hijab, sexualisation or religious choice?

# data[].attributes.subject
Hijab, sexualisation or religious choice?

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.studyinternational.com/news/hijab-uk-school/

# data[].attributes.headline
Experts raise body image fears as celebrities flaunt the floss bikini trend

# data[].attributes.subject
Experts raise body image fears as celebrities flaunt the floss bikini trend

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
THE hot new craze of barely-there bikinis has experts concerned it is fuelling the early sexualisation of young women.

Cossies don't generally leave much to the imagination but you only have to take a look at reality TV or social media to see swimsuits are now skimpier than ever.

The latest so-called "floss bikini' - nicknamed because of its similarity to dental floss - have been (barely) worn by high-profile celebrities such as reality TV star Kim Kardashian, actor and model Emily Ratajkowski, DJ Tigerlily, Little Mix singer Perrie Edwards and social media star Ellie Gonsalves.
MORE NEWS Bikini trend horrifying parents 'Inactive wear' the new fashion trend Why stick on swimwear is the trend we don't need
Child and adolescent psychologist Dr Andrew Carr-Gregg believes the trend is sending a dangerous message to children and making it tough for parents.

"It's saying that to be accepted you have to be hot and sexy and thin," Dr Carr-Gregg told The Daily Telegraph.

"For young women who are bigger boned or don't look like that, it makes their levels of existing body hatred even higher.

"For parents it's very difficult when you're dealing with a teenage daughter who wants to look like the mainstream."

But elite athlete and model Amy Pejkovic doesn't think there's anything wrong with the revealing trend.

"If it makes you feel sexy, go for it," she said. "The most important benefit of this trend is its ability to minimise your tan-line."

Reality TV contestant Cassandra Wood was the latest to spark a social media storm after flaunting a "floss bikini" on Wednesday's The Bachelor episode.

Viewers were quick to comment on Wood's swimsuit choice, suggesting she might as well have worn nothing at all.

One described the bikini as "too much information" and another simply asked "is that legal?", while others said it was "not fit for the 7.30pm timeslot".

But it's not the first time we've seen skimpy swimwear on TV. The cast of Love Island Australia spent most of their time clad in scanty togs. It was a similar story for Bachelor In Paradise.

Psychologist Sandy Rea does not believe that skimpy bikinis are a problem but rather a self-expression.

"The message is no more or less than another way of showing yourself - we do this already in a variety of modes like ... with makeup," she said.

"Ultimately, body image is a lesson learnt from mothers. It's up to the women who are the main influencers in your life to ensure you feel safe, strong and empowered with your body."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Skimpy bikini trend 'sends dangerous message'

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
THE hot new craze of barely-there bikinis has experts concerned it is fuelling the early sexualisation of young women. Cossies don't generally leave much to the imagination but you only have to take a look at reality TV or social media to see swimsuits are now skimpier than ever.

# data[].attributes.body
On women's hour, fast forward to the conversation about girls' skirts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
BBC Radio 4 - Woman's Hour, Period photos on social media, School skirts a distraction? Anti-extremism

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Posting period photos on social media. And are girls' school uniforms a distraction?

# data[].attributes.body
Philosophy paper on pornography causing women to feel unable to say no to sex

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Testimonial Smothering and Pornography | Feminist Philosophy Quarterly

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This paper defends the claim that there are two previously underexplored ways in which pornography silences women. These ways that pornography silences are (1) the smothering of refusal and (2) the smothering of sexual assault reports, and they can be explained in part through Kristie Dotson's account of "testimonial smothering."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Donnerstein, E. , Linz, D. , & Penrod, S. ( 1987). The question of pornography: Research findings and policy implications. New York: Free Press . Google Scholar

Jensen, R. ( 1997). Introduction. In G. Dines , R. Jensen , & A. Russo (Eds.), Pornography: The production and consumption of inequality (pp.1-8). New York: Routledge. , Google Scholar Crossref

Loftus, D. ( 2002). Watching sex: How men really respond to pornography. New York: Thunder's Mouth. Google Scholar

Tibbals, C. ( 2011). Sex work, office work: Women working behind the scenes in the US adult film industry. Gender, Work, and Organization . doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2010.00552.x Google Scholar

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Review Essay: Pornography's Effects: The Need for Solid Evidence

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Donnerstein, E. , Linz, D. , & Penrod, S. ( 1987). The question of pornography: Research findings and policy implications. New York: Free Press . Google Scholar Jensen, R. ( 1997). Introduction. In G. Dines , R. Jensen , & A. Russo (Eds.), Pornography: The production and consumption of inequality (pp.1-8).

# data[].attributes.body
Radical Feminist viewpoint on pornification.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Pornography and Feminism with Dr. Gail Dines

# data[].attributes.body
Discussing the Everyday Sexism project.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Everyday sexism | Laura Bates | TEDxOxford

# data[].attributes.body
Discussing the sexualisation of trans women

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Julia Serano: "Autogynephilia" & psychological sexualization of MtF transgenderism

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=My2FRPA3Gf8

# data[].attributes.body
An article about inequality concerning bodies of boys vs girls. https://www.smh.com.au/world/north-america/new-gender-rules-girls-can-be-anything-they-want-but-still-must-look-good-20180915-p503yd.html