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-final texts ready for 14th
-friday 9th image deadline
-hand in 19th

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words: 200 words or less, images for size: 60x108mm (suggestion)

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-tarot chapter markers
-detailed description of projects to follow in next pages

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CARDS workshop Monday 5th July (publication)

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CARDS workshop Monday 5th July (publication)

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-border instead become decorative to it doesn't interfere with design
-a4 landscape, works on screen and desktop, fits with standard zine format & easy to print out
-make something of the DIY aesthetic too
-78 cards traditionally, but we can do however many we'd like (what's important)
-tarot as a bookmark to mark each persons project, 'chapter beginning', then have optional amount of following pages for work
-final texts ready for 14th
-friday 9th image deadline

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Based off of Nahum intro speech lol

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Inspired by Ruth’s Pinterest link

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-online format
-book/leaflet/separate cards and leaflet or combined
-G formatting InDesign skeleton
-can have separate downloadable PDF of cards if people want to print them out
-what vessel would the cards be contained in? origami fold box
-email sent to cohort ahead of monday

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Tarot for All Ages features simple card summaries and child-friendly illustrations, making it one of the first tarot decks aimed at younger readers and beginners of all ages. Includes 78 cards and a booklet explaining how to create your own readings and get started on interpreting the cards. Tarot is not just for grown-ups!

Elizabeth Haidle is an illustrator based in Portland, Oregon. She is the creative director for Illustoria magazine, as well as a collaborator at Mascot Press, an independent comics publisher.

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Tarot for All Ages features simple card summaries and child-friendly illustrations, making it one of the first tarot decks aimed at younger readers and beginners of all ages. Includes 78 cards and a booklet explaining how to create your own readings and get started on interpreting the cards.

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(irem's project)

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Copy of Copy of Copy of The Confessional card idea (1)

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Copy of Copy of Copy of The Confessional card idea

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smaller border, more space for designs

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Orange Cute Pastel Dinosaurs Baby Announcement Event Yard Sign

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'window into soul'
gothic architecture

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or 'the sanctuary' if name change w/ project
-window
-conversation
-confession
-experience
-sharing

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video

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magician experiment COHORT CARDS EXPERIMENT 4

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video

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Copy of Copy of nap hourglass COHORT CARDS EXPERIMENT 1

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Copy of nap hourglass COHORT CARDS EXPERIMENT 1

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Copy of Copy of COHORT CARDS EXPERIMENT 4

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video

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-intro card (the speech?)
-cohort cards abt projects
15 pages
-outro card (e.g. the butterfly or the final presentation?)
(17)

journey/other/joke/experiential/shared cards:
-the manifesto
-the stress nap
-the speech (Nahum speech)
-the cohort
-the tutorial
-the caterpillar
-the chrysalis
-the butterfly
-the experiment
-the quote (guest lecturer quotes)
-the waiting room (zoom)
-the question (research q)
-the tutor
-the gravity (Irem)
-the liminal space
(35)

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video

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-card to represent final project
-cards tied together w/ border and text type/font
-collective drawings for other cards
-1/2 cards each
-two sides to a card? how does this work for us?
-card next to a description in a leaflet/book?
-extra cards at beginning w explanations/intros
-interpretations w the context behind them (leaflet)
-word limit for the descriptions
-'Holy Numbers' e.g. 7, 40, 3, 777 etc etc
-get Nelly & Nahum to create a card? Also Alexander, Lauren, Magid etc
-can someone photoshop out backgrounds (need someone willing and able to do this with designs)
-create a group manifesto
-group working sessions
(3-5 BST friday 2nd Jun card working session)
(Monday 5th 3-5 BST too card working session)

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https://www.are.na/neta-bomani/100-days-of-zines

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100 days of zine studies and experiments for a more up to date timeline go to http://instagram.com/mchapoarchive http://zines.netabomani.com

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Descarga los mejores 37 Fondos de Pantalla Glitch para utilizar en tus dispositivos móviles, te van a encantar. Descárgalos y Compártelos

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Welcome to our landscapes

Welcome to Landscapes of Love, a Webzine made by the students & stewards of the Digital Love Languages class of Summer 2020.
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This webzine is a collaborative non-hierarchical collection of the materials, projects, and ephemera gathered over the course of 10 weeks.
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Digital Love Languages Blog

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Here are sketches of the initial planning meeting from which this space was conceived; drawn by Masha Kouznetsova, Kara Holder, & Hilary Wei Wang.
Max Fowler, G Chiarion, Amy Fang, Melanie Hoff, & many others contributed code & 'blobs' to these loving landscapes.

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Welcome to our landscapes Welcome to Landscapes of Love, a Webzine made by the students & stewards of the Digital Love Languages class of Summer 2020.✧ This webzine is a collaborative non-hierarchical collection of the materials, projects, and ephemera gathered over the course of 10 weeks.✧✧✧ ☽ Digital Love Languages Blog ✧✧ ✧✧✧✧✧✧✧✧✧✧ ☽ Here are sketches of the initial planning meeting from which this space was conceived; drawn by Masha Kouznetsova, Kara Holder, & Hilary Wei Wang.Max Fowler, G Chiarion, Amy Fang, Melanie Hoff, & many others contributed code & 'blobs' to these loving landscapes.

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Other name(s)

Mexican bingo[1]

Language(s)

Spanish

Random chance

High

Material(s) required

cards

Lotería is a traditional game of chance, similar to bingo, but using images on a deck of cards instead of numbered ping pong balls. Every image has a name and an assigned number, but the number is usually ignored. Each player has at least one tabla, a board with a randomly created 4 x 4 grid of pictures with their corresponding name and number. Players choose a to play with, from a variety of previously created tablas, each with a different selection of images.

Lotería is the Spanish word for lottery. The deck is composed with a set of 54 different cards with a picture on it. To start, the caller ( cantor, or singer) shuffles the deck. One by one, the caller picks a card from the deck and announces it to the players by its name, sometimes using a verse before reading the card name. Each player locates the matching pictogram of the card just announced on their board and marks it off with a chip or other kind of marker. In Mexico, it is traditional to use small rocks, crown corks or pinto beans as markers. The winner is the first player that shouts "¡Buena!" right after completing a tabla or a previous agreed pattern: row, column, diagonal or a pozo.

Lotería de Pozo is a variant version of the traditional Mexican Lotería, where the basic rules apply. For this version, before the game begins, players agree on how many pozos are to be completed in a row, column or diagonal pattern. A Pozo is a group of images in a square. The square may contain 2 x 2 (4) or 3 x 3 (9) images for a traditional tabla.

Loteria online game is a game to allow computer users to play an online a version of the Lotería Mexicana. It was created in 1996.

The origin of lotería can be traced far back in history. The game originated in Italy in the 15th century and was brought to New Spain (modern Mexico) in 1769. In the beginning, lotería was a hobby of the upper classes, but eventually it became a tradition at Mexican fairs.

Don Clemente Jacques began publishing the game in 1887. The current images have become iconic in Mexican culture, as well as gaining popularity in the US and some European countries. Other popular Lotería sets are Lotería Leo, Gacela and Lotería de mi tierra.

During the 1930s, the Catholic church came up with their own version of la Lotería. It consisted of Catholic images instead of the traditional images used in the original game. The Catholic church did this to promote their beliefs by making their very own game board similar to the Lotería.

The following is a list of the original 54 lotería cards, traditionally and broadly recognized in Mexico. Below each card name and number, are the verses (in Spanish) sometimes used to tell the players which card was drawn. However, there are several less traditional sets of cards, depicting different objects or animals.

12 El valiente ("the brave man")

El que espera, desespera.

He who waits despairs. (A pun: espera "to wait" and es pera "to be a pear" are homophones in Mexican Spanish.)

Tocando su bandolón, está el mariachi Simón.

There playing his lute, is Simon the mariachi.

El caso que te hago es poco.

The attention I pay you is little. (A pun: caso "attention" and cazo "saucepan" are homophones in Mexican Spanish)

Este mundo es una bola, y nosotros un bolón.

This world is a ball, and we a great mob. (A pun: bola can mean both "ball, sphere" and "crowd, mob", bolón is a superlative with the latter meaning)

Tanto va el cántaro al agua, que se quiebra y te moja las enaguas.

So often does the jug go to the water, that it breaks and wets your slip.

Saltando va buscando, pero no ve nada.

Jumping it goes searching, but it doesn't see anything. (A pun: venado "deer" sounds like ve nada "see nothing")

On December 9, 2019, Google celebrated Lotería with a Google Doodle. The interactive game has the El Apache, El borracho, El diablito, El gorrito, La muerte, El negrito, El soldado, and El valiente cards replaced with El ajolote ("the axolotl"), El buscador ("the search engine"), La concha ("the conch"), El elote ("the fresh ear of corn"), El emoji ("the emoji"), El gorro ("the cap"), El guacamole ("the guacamole"), and El xoloitzcuintle ("the hairless dog").[citation needed ] Artworks for La sirena and El guacamole cards not found during the game can still be seen in the background of the end screen.

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Other name(s) Mexican bingo[1] Language(s) Spanish Random chance High Material(s) required cards Lotería is a traditional game of chance, similar to bingo, but using images on a deck of cards instead of numbered ping pong balls. Every image has a name and an assigned number, but the number is usually ignored.

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https://www.pinterest.com/pin/641551909423124578/

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background art

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Copy of Holy Book IWTB Publication ideas 2

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I won't be surprised if you find a pot of gold under your couch after installing this.

We hope you love the products we recommend! All of them were independently selected by our editors. Just so you know, BuzzFeed may collect a share of sales or other compensation from the links on this page if you decide to shop from them. Oh, and FYI - prices are accurate and items in stock as of time of publication.

You know what's a great natural phenomenon? Rainbows.

Nickelodeon

They're just pretty, y'know?

And you know what's a great man-made creation? Privacy.

Fox

Living in a city, I actually don't know what that is.

When you combine these two fantastic elements, you get this amazing peel-and-stick window film. It blocks out prying eyes but still lets sunlight in, so you get 1. privacy and 2. rainbows!

amazon.com

It actually has a privacy level of 3/5, meaning you can still make out shapes and colors through the film. It also controls heat and blocks out 96% of UV rays as an added bonus.

Get the window film from Amazon for $17.98 and get an installation kit for $9.48.

Shopping for something specific? Check out BuzzFeed Reviews to find the best things for every budget!

BuzzFeed

Reviews have been edited for length and/or clarity.

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This Peel-And-Stick Window Film Will Fill Your Home With RAINBOWS

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I won't be surprised if you find a pot of gold under your couch after installing this. We hope you love the products we recommend! All of them were independently selected by our editors. Just so you know, BuzzFeed may collect a share of sales or other compensation from the links on this page if you decide to shop from them.

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Created in 2006 by multidisciplinary artist Kimsooja, To Breathe - A Mirror Woman was an elaborate installation at the Palacio de Cristal, Parque del Retiro, in Madrid. Originally built in the late 1880s to house a collection of flora and fauna from the Philippines, Kimsooja transformed the Palacio de Cristal into a multisensory sound and light experience. A special translucent diffraction film was used to cover the windows to create an array of naturally occurring rainbows which were in turn reflected by a mirrored surface that covered the entire floor. Additionally, an audio recording of the artist breathing was played throughout the space to further enhance the experience. The installation was on view through the end of the summer and you can read much more about it here.

Kimsooja most recently wrapped the Korean Pavilion with a similar film treatment at the 2013 Venice Art Biennale. (via My Amp Goes to 11)

Do stories and artists like this matter to you? Become a Colossal Member and support independent arts publishing. Join a community of like-minded readers who are passionate about contemporary art, help support our interview series, gain access to partner discounts, and much more. Join now!

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A Reflective Palace of Rainbows by Kimsooja

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Created in 2006 by multidisciplinary artist Kimsooja, To Breathe - A Mirror Woman was an elaborate installation at the Palacio de Cristal, Parque del Retiro, in Madrid. Originally built in the late 1880s to house a collection of flora and fauna from the Philippines, Kimsooja transformed the Palac

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https://www.cumberlandstainedglass.com/why-do-so-many-catholic-churches-feature-stained-glass-windows/

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Memorial of the Holy Guardian Angels "See that you do not despise one of these little ones, for I say to you that their angels in heaven always look upon the face of my heavenly Father." Matthew 18:10
We honor, today, our glorious Guardian Angels! They are treasures and helpers beyond what we could imagine.

A few days ago we honored the Archangels, Michael, Gabriel and Raphael. In that reflection we looked at the hierarchy of celestial beings created by God. Though the Guardian Angels are on the bottom of that list, they are no less glorious and magnificent than the host of other celestial beings.

Guardian Angels are traditionally said to have been created for the sole purpose of serving us in our needs. Yes, God could have chosen to care for us directly without the use of angels, but He didn't. He chose to create angels as mediators of His grace and care.

It's fair to say that our Guardian Angels love us with a perfect love. They know us, care for us and desire deeply that we become holy. Their primary purpose is to get us to Heaven and to draw us into the heights of sanctity. How do they do this?

They do it by mediating God's grace to us. The word "angel" means messenger. Thus, our angels play a central role in communicating to us the will and mind of God. They can speak all that God wants to say to us. They are also protectors in that they bring grace from God to particular situations in life to fight against evil and to help us do good.

Reflect, today, upon the gift of your own guardian angel. This celestial being was created for the sole purpose of caring for you and getting you to Heaven. Speak to your angel, today. Rely upon your angel's intercession and allow this holy angel to communicate to you God's abundant grace.
Angel of God, my Guardian dear, to whom God's love commits me here, ever this day be at my side, to light and guard, to rule and guide. Amen. Angels of God, pray for me. Jesus, I trust in You.
October is the month of the Holy Rosary

Saint of the Day - Guardian Angels

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Memorial of the Holy Guardian Angels "See that you do not despise one of these little ones, for I say to you that their angels in heaven always look upon the face of my heavenly Father." Matthew 18:10 We honor, today, our glorious Guardian Angels! They are treasures and helpers beyond what we could imagine.

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by Dan Scott

Clouds are a staple of landscape painting. You can use them as the key feature or idea of your painting (see Issac Levitan's Clouds above); to create a sense of moody atmosphere; or simply as a composition tool for their dynamic shapes.

Many artists struggle to paint them. That's perhaps due to their transient, organic, and everchanging nature, making it difficult to apply any step-by-step rules or processes. In this post, you'll find some guidance on how to paint clouds. I cover:

Clouds are transient and fleeting by nature, but that doesn't mean you should ignore all ideas of form and structure. Quite the opposite. Ideas of form and structure help you organize all the information and detail into something convincing on the canvas. The challenge lies in capturing these ideas without compromising the inherent transience.

Your goal is to see clouds as basic shapes and forms just as you would a tree, rock, or person. Steve Huston calls this "box logic". What would the clouds look like if you could only see cubes, spheres, cylinders, and cones?

Try it on the following painting by Ivan Aivazovsky. What do you see in terms of shape and form?

In this above example, I translated the clouds into basic three-dimensional forms. But sometimes shape is more appropriate, especially when the clouds are tightly compacted in the sky, diminishing any sense of distinct form. (Note: Shape is basically a flat, or two-dimensional version of a form-a circle is a flat version of a sphere).

Take Isaac Levitan's A Stormy Day (below). Clouds dominate the sky, so much so that it's impossible to make out any distinct forms. Depth is implied by the overlapping shapes, rather than the rendering of three-dimensional forms. Shape is therefore more effective in simplifying all this detail.

And don't forget negative space (the areas between the clouds-typically blue sky). I've indicated the negative space in the below painting.

As with many aspects of painting, there are two ways you could deal with positive and negative space:

1. You could paint in the clouds first (positive space) then fill in the gaps with color (negative space); or

2. You could start with the blue sky (negative space) then fill in the clouds (positive space).

Most aspiring artists ignore option 2-they focus on painting things, rather than the area between things. There's nothing wrong with this approach, but sometimes it's more effective to focus on the negative space first.

Negative space also acts as a useful audit tool to check if your positive space is correct. For example, say you are painting clouds in the sky. You start by outlining the shape of the clouds. If your drawing is correct, then the shapes representing positive space should match the reference. If not, there's something wrong with your clouds. Errors often require a change in your perspective before they rear their heads.

(Note: This section applies more so to clouds that have a distinct form, with light and dark planes, rather than clouds that are better depicted by a flat shape).

Once you see clouds as basic shapes and forms, you can apply the laws of light as you would to any object.

To keep things simple, assume there's one light source-the Sun. Each cloud equals a simple form, be it a box, sphere, cylinder, cone, or combination. For each change in plane, there's a change in lightness. Planes facing towards the light will be lighter than planes facing away from light. Areas in light should be distinct from areas in shadow. Be selective with your highlights and dark accents-less is more!

The position of the Sun in relation to the clouds determines which planes are hit by light and which are in shadow. The nature of the light (strong, weak, direct, diffused, warm, cool, etc.) influences the level of lightness (value) and color temperature.

Get these fundamentals right, and most of the hard work is done. You'll be free to add your own creative flair without compromising the sense of realism, whether that be energetic brushwork, subtle color transitions, a burst of light, or a rich, dark accent. See John Singer Sargent's study below-it's oozing with creative flare, but the fundamentals are strong as always with his work.

I'll run through some examples of how the laws of light apply to clouds, starting with Sargent's Palazzo Labia. Venice. Sargent didn't mess around with subtle mid-tones-he kept things simple with distinct highlights and shadows. This plays well with the painting's loose style (highly rendered clouds would surely look out of place, no matter how skillfully painted).

In terms of color, clouds are typically limited to white, grays, and other weak tones. Rarely will you see clouds bursting with color, bar maybe a vivid sunset. That doesn't diminish the importance of color, it just means you need to be restrained in your use of it. Think subtle color transitions rather than bravado statements like you see in Vincent van Gogh's work.

Your color selections will depend on factors such as:

The nature of the light (how warm or cool it is).

The overall key (value range) of your painting. In other words, how light is your lightest light, and how dark is your darkest dark?

The overall color theme of your painting. You may decide to use colors that reflect the overall theme rather than the colors you actually see.

Whatever you do, don't default to pure white for lights and dull blue or gray for darks. Have a strategy; think critically about what colors you should use and why. If you're ever in doubt, fall back to observation.

In my sunset painting below, the colors I used for the clouds were based on observation and the overall theme of the painting. I used more blue than I actually saw, as it fit in better with the theme and created a sharper contrast against the sunset's warm colors.

Gesture typically refers to the movement and flow of the human body. Portrait painters understand it deeply. But nature also has a gesture; it's just hidden behind all the details.

Capturing nature's gesture will inject life and movement into otherwise static and flat clouds.

A simple way to understand gesture is to look at a cloud, or a group of clouds, and try to capture it using a single line. Think of this as nature's gesture line. Build structure and form around it and let it guide your brush.

I've suggested the gesture line(s) in the following paintings. Keep in mind, this is not an exact science; it's just how I perceive gesture and movement.

Try it yourself. Where is the gesture in Levitan's painting below?

Barring some stylistic choices, you will typically use soft edges for clouds, with hard edges reserved for highlights and perhaps dark accents. That's because clouds are soft, fluffy, and transient by nature. Overuse of hard edges can make your clouds appear rigid and solid.

In Constable's Rain Over the Sea, hard edges are only used in the sky for some highlights; everything else is soft. The sea on the other hand is filled with hard edges, giving a sense of relative solidity (even if it is water). The horizon line is also represented by a hard edge, separating the sky and sea.

It doesn't matter how well you paint something if it doesn't fit in with the rest of the painting. How often do you see paintings where the clouds, although meticulously painted, appear like cardboard cutouts glued onto the painting.

Every mark you make on the canvas must be done with the intention of improving the painting as a whole. This runs true for clouds, trees, rocks, water, people, edges, colors, shadows, or any part of the whole.

The key is to stay in touch with the big picture rather than getting lost in the details. Step back from your painting often and purposefully. Wander around. Interrogate it. Look for problems with the big picture, don't hide from them. (If you spend all your time painting with your eyes glued to the canvas, you might overlook the glaring mistake that can only be seen from afar).

Think about many of the great Impressionist works-from up close, you see an incoherent mess of color; but it all comes together as you step back. The Impressionists painted with the big picture in mind. You should do so as well, regardless of your preferred style.

In my painting below, the clouds represent strong shapes in the overall composition. I didn't render them with intricate detail or capture every slight change in color. Instead, I simplified them to fit their role in the painting.

Clouds are a key feature of Gustave Courbet's Calm Sea. But they aren't rendered with fine detail; rather soft edges, simplified brushwork, and compressed values (the lights and darks are restrained). This fits in with the rest of the painting and allows the two boats resting on the shore to command attention.

On a separate note, notice the sense of balance in this painting. The sky, ocean, and shore take up a vast majority of space, yet it's the small boats resting on the shore, and even the ones sailing in the distance, that command attention. An interesting contrast of big and quiet against small and noisy.

In Monet's Impression, Sunrise, the clouds are there for atmosphere, nothing more. There's so little rendering that the clouds blend seamlessly into the rest of the painting.

In Levitan's Vladimirka, the clouds are rendered with rather fine detail, yet the sky as a whole is subtle compared to the land of dark colors and sharp contrast. Notice how Levitan created depth in the sky by picking out a few clouds to detail, effectively pulling them forward in perspective.

Clouds are fleeting and transient, but that doesn't mean you should ignore structure and form. Seeing clouds as basic shapes and forms will help you simplify and organize all the information.

If you cannot make out distinct forms, use shape to simplify the clouds.

Focus on getting the fundamentals of light and color right first, then inject your creative flair, if at all.

Your use of color will depend largely on the nature of the light, the overall key of your painting, and the overall theme.

Much like the human body, nature also has a gesture. It's what will give your clouds a sense of life and movement.

You will mostly be dealing with soft and lost edges, plus a few hard edges for highlights and perhaps dark accents.

It doesn't matter how well you paint the clouds if they don't fit in with the rest of the painting.

(If you want to learn more about the principles of art, you might be interested in my Painting Academy course.)

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How to Paint Clouds (Detailed Guide) - Draw Paint Academy

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Isaac Levitan, Clouds, 1895 Clouds are a staple of landscape painting. You can use them as the key feature or idea of your painting (see Issac Levitan's Clouds above); to create a sense of moody atmosphere; or simply as a composition tool for their dynamic shapes. Many artists struggle to paint them.

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Stock Photo - Christian iconography; or, The history of Christian art in the middle ages (1851

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Download this stock image: Christian iconography; or, The history of Christian art in the middle ages (1851) - FTF320 from Alamy's library of millions of high resolution stock photos, illustrations and vectors.

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Christianity - Art, Iconography, Religion

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Christianity - Art, Iconography, Religion: Christian art constitutes an essential element of the religion. Until the 17th century the history of Western art was largely identical with the history of Western ecclesiastical and religious art. During the early history of the Christian church, however,…

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gutenberg chapter john gospel images johannes gutenberg bible heart book paper pictures

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gutenberg chapter john gospel images johannes gutenberg bible heart book paper pictures

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gutenberg chapter john gospel images johannes gutenberg bible heart book paper pictures

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printable scrapbook paper bible pages - Google Search

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Musaeum Hermeticum, Frankfurt edition, 1749

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Musaeum Hermeticum, Frankfurt edition, 1749

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The eternal lapis ✡️ Is produced by the rotation of the elements, in the unification of upper and lower, of fire 🔼 and water 🔽. It is the celestial image of earthly gold, shown here as Apollo in the underworld, amongst the six Muses or metals.

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The last supper viewer perspective

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eco-conscious printer
affordable pricing
good quality

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Skeleton/Structure
with the 4 elements
from chaos - resolution

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The Quran translated into many languages in a simple and easy interface

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The Bible (from Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία, , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts, writings, or scriptures sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, Islam, Rastafari, and many other faiths. It appears in the form of an anthology, a compilation of texts of a variety of forms that are all linked by the belief that they are collectively revelations of God. These texts include theologically-focused historical accounts, hymns, prayers, proverbs, parables, didactic letters, admonitions, essays, poetry, and prophecies. Believers also generally consider the Bible to be a product of divine inspiration.

Those books that are included in the Bible by a tradition or group are called canonical, indicating that the tradition/group views the collection as the true representation of God's word and will. A number of biblical canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents from denomination to denomination. The Hebrew Bible shares most of its content with its ancient Greek translation, the Septuagint, which in turn was the base for the Christian Old Testament. The Christian New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be Jewish disciples of Christ, written in 1st-century Koine Greek. Among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about what should be included in the canon, primarily about the biblical apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect or recognition.

Attitudes towards the Bible also differ among Christian groups. Roman Catholics, High Church Anglicans, Methodists and Eastern Orthodox Christians stress the harmony and importance of both the Bible and sacred tradition, while many Protestant churches focus on the idea of sola scriptura, or scripture alone. This concept rose to prominence during the Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only infallible source of Christian teaching. Others, though, advance the concept of prima scriptura in contrast, meaning scripture primarily or scripture mainly.

The Bible has had a profound influence on literature and history, especially in the Western world, where the Gutenberg Bible was the first book printed using movable type. According to the March 2007 edition of , the Bible "has done more to shape literature, history, entertainment, and culture than any book ever written. Its influence on world history is unparalleled, and shows no signs of abating." With estimated total sales of over five billion copies, it is widely considered to be the best-selling book of all time. As of the 2000s, it sells approximately 100 million copies annually.

The English word is derived from Koinē Greek: τὰ βιβλία, romanized: ta biblia, meaning "the books" (singular βιβλίον, biblion). The word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of "scroll" and came to be used as the ordinary word for "book". It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, "Egyptian papyrus", possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos (also known as Gebal) from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece.

By the 2nd century BCE, Jewish groups began calling the books of the Bible the " scriptures", and they referred to them as " holy", or in Hebrew, כִּתְבֵי הַקֹּדֶשׁ ( Kitvei hakkodesh), and Christians now commonly call the Old and New Testaments of the Christian Bible "the Holy Bible" (in Greek, τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια, tà biblía tà ágia) or "the Holy Scriptures" (η Αγία Γραφή, e Agía Graphḗ).

The Greek ta biblia (lit. "little papyrus books") was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books" (the Septuagint). Christian use of the term can be traced to c. 223 CE. The biblical scholar F. F. Bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer (in his Homilies on Matthew, delivered between 386 and 388) to use the Greek phrase ta biblia ("the books") to describe both the Old and New Testaments together.

Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra "holy book", while biblia in Greek and Late Latin is neuter plural (gen. bibliorum). It gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun ( biblia, gen. bibliae) in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. Latin biblia sacra "holy books" translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια tà biblía tà hágia, "the holy books".

Development

The Bible is not a single book but a collection of books, whose complex development is not completely understood. The books began as songs and stories orally transmitted from generation to generation before being written down in a process that began sometime around the start of the first millennium BCE and continued for over a thousand years. The Bible was written and compiled by many people, from a variety of disparate cultures, most of whom are unknown. British biblical scholar John K. Riches wrote:

[T]he biblical texts were produced over a period in which the living conditions of the writers - political, cultural, economic, and ecological - varied enormously. There are texts which reflect a nomadic existence, texts from people with an established monarchy and Temple cult, texts from exile, texts born out of fierce oppression by foreign rulers, courtly texts, texts from wandering charismatic preachers, texts from those who give themselves the airs of sophisticated Hellenistic writers. It is a time-span which encompasses the compositions of Homer, Plato, Aristotle, Thucydides, Sophocles, Caesar, Cicero, and Catullus. It is a period which sees the rise and fall of the Assyrian empire (twelfth to seventh century) and of the Persian empire (sixth to fourth century), Alexander's campaigns (336-326), the rise of Rome and its domination of the Mediterranean (fourth century to the founding of the Principate, 27 BCE), the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple (70 CE), and the extension of Roman rule to parts of Scotland (84 CE).

Considered to be scriptures (sacred, authoritative religious texts), the books were compiled by different religious communities into various biblical canons (official collections of scriptures). The earliest compilation, containing the first five books of the Bible and called the Torah (meaning "law", "instruction", or "teaching") or Pentateuch ("five books"), was accepted as Jewish canon by the 5th century BCE. A second collection of narrative histories and prophesies, called the Nevi'im ("prophets"), was canonized in the 3rd century BCE. A third collection called the Ketuvim ("writings"), containing psalms, proverbs, and narrative histories, was canonized sometime between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE. These three collections were written mostly in Hebrew, with some parts in Aramaic, and together form the Hebrew Bible or "TaNaKh" (a portmanteau of "Torah", "Nevi'im", and "Ketuvim").

Greek-speaking Jews in Alexandria and elsewhere in the Jewish diaspora considered additional scriptures, composed between 200 BCE and 100 CE and not included in the Hebrew Bible, to be canon. These additional texts were included in a translation of the Hebrew Bible into Koine Greek (common Greek spoken by ordinary people) known as the Septuagint (meaning "the work of the seventy"), which began as a translation of the Torah made around 250 BCE and continued to develop for several centuries. The Septuagint contained all of the books of the Hebrew Bible, re-organized and with some textual differences, with the additional scriptures interspersed throughout.

During the rise of Christianity in the 1st century CE, new scriptures were written in Greek about the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who Christians believed was the messiah prophesized in the books of the Hebrew Bible. Two collections of these new scriptures - the Pauline epistles and the Gospels - were accepted as canon by the end of the 2nd century CE. A third collection, the catholic epistles, were canonized over the next few centuries. Christians called these new scriptures the " New Testament", and began referring to the Septuagint as the " Old Testament".

Between 385 and 405 CE, the early Christian church translated its canon into Vulgar Latin (the common Latin spoken by ordinary people), a translation known as the Vulgate, which included in its Old Testament the books that were in the Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible. The Vulgate introduced stability to the Bible, but also began the East-West Schism between Latin-speaking Western Christianity (led by the Catholic Church) and multi-lingual Eastern Christianity (led by the Eastern Orthodox Church). Christian denominations' biblical canons varied not only in the language of the books, but also in their selection, organization, and text.

Jewish rabbis began developing a standard Hebrew Bible in the 1st century CE, maintained since the middle of the first millennium by the Masoretes, and called the Masoretic Text. Christians have held ecumenical councils to standardize their biblical canon since the 4th century CE. The Council of Trent (1545-63), held by the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant Reformation, authorized the Vulgate as its official Latin translation of the Bible. The Church deemed the additional books in its Old Testament that were interspersed among the Hebrew Bible books to be " deuterocanonical" (meaning part of a second or later canon). Protestant Bibles either separated these books into a separate section called the " Apocrypha" (meaning "hidden away") between the Old and New Testaments, or omitted them altogether. The 17th-century Protestant King James Version was the most ubiquitous English Bible of all time, but it has largely been superseded by modern translations.

Textual history

The books of the Bible were written and copied by hand, initially on papyrus scrolls. No originals survive, and the oldest existing scrolls are copies that were made centuries after the books were first written. The copies contained both errors and intentional changes, resulting in different versions of the books in circulation, ultimately diverging into distinct lineages, called "text families" or "text types". Over time, the individual scrolls were gathered into collections, but these collections had different scrolls, and different versions of the same scrolls, with no standard organization. By the 3rd century CE, scrolls were supplanted by early bound books called codexes, and collections of biblical books began being copied as a set.

More than 220 Dead Sea Scrolls discovered in Qumran in 1947, which date between 250 BCE and 100 CE, are the oldest existing copies of the books of the Hebrew Bible of any considerable length. The Qumran scrolls attest to many different biblical text types. In addition to the Qumran scrolls, there are three major manuscript witnesses (historical copies) of the Hebrew Bible: the Septuagint, the Masoretic Text, and the Samaritan Pentateuch. Existing complete copies of the Septuagint, a translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, date from the 3rd to the 5th centuries CE, with fragments dating back to the 2nd century BCE. The Masoretic Text is a standardized version of the Hebrew Bible that began to be developed in the 1st century CE and has been maintained by the Masoretes since the latter half of the first millennium CE. Its oldest complete copy in existence is the Leningrad Codex, dating to c. 1000 CE. The Samaritan Pentateuch is a version of the Torah maintained by the Samaritan community since antiquity and rediscovered by European scholars in the 17th century; the oldest existing copies date to c. 1100 CE.

There are about 3,000 existing New Testament manuscripts, copied between the 2nd and 17th centuries. The manuscripts include papyri, over a hundred of which have been discovered in Egypt since 1890; about 300 great uncial codices, which are vellum or parchment books written in block Greek letters, mostly dating between the 3rd and 9th centuries CE; and about 2,900 minuscules, written in a cursive style (using connected letters) that superseded uncials beginning in the 9th century. These manuscripts differ in varying degrees from one another and are grouped according to their similarities into textual families or lineages; the four most commonly recognized are Alexandrian, Western, Caesarean, and Byzantine.

Hebrew Bible

The Masoretic Text is the authoritative Hebrew text of the Hebrew Bible. It defines the books of the Jewish canon, and also the precise letter-text of these biblical books, with their vocalization and accentuation.

The oldest extant manuscripts of the Masoretic Text date from approximately the 9th century CE, and the Aleppo Codex (once the oldest complete copy of the Masoretic Text, but now missing its Torah section) dates from the 10th century. The term "Keter" (crown, from the Arabic, taj) originally referred to this particular manuscript. Over the years, the term Keter came to refer to any full text of the Hebrew Bible, or significant portion of it, bound as a codex (not a scroll) and including vowel points, cantillation marks, and Masoretic notes. Medieval handwritten manuscripts were considered extremely precise, the most authoritative documents from which to copy other texts.

The name Tanakh ( Hebrew: תנ"ך‎) reflects the threefold division of the Hebrew Scriptures, Torah ("Teaching"), Nevi'im ("Prophets") and Ketuvim ("Writings").

The Torah (תּוֹרָה) is also known as the "Five Books of Moses" or the Pentateuch, meaning "five scroll-cases". Traditionally these books were considered to have been written almost entirely by Moses himself, although since the 17th century scholars have viewed it as being the product of multiple anonymous authors. There are a variety of hypotheses regarding when and how the Torah was composed, but there is a general consensus that it took its final form during the reign of the Persian Achaemenid Empire (probably 450-350 BCE), or perhaps in the early Hellenistic period (333-164 BCE).

The Hebrew names of the books are derived from the first words in the respective texts. The Torah consists of the following five books:

The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the creation (or ordering) of the world and the history of God's early relationship with humanity. The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's covenant with the biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (also called Israel) and Jacob's children, the " Children of Israel", especially Joseph. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of Ur, eventually to settle in the land of Canaan, and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt. The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of Moses, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. He leads the Children of Israel from slavery in ancient Egypt to the renewal of their covenant with God at biblical Mount Sinai and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation was ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses.

The commandments in the Torah provide the basis for Jewish religious law. Tradition states that there are 613 commandments ( taryag mitzvot).

Nevi'im ( Hebrew: נְבִיאִים‎, Nəḇî'îm, "Prophets") is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and Ketuvim. It contains two sub-groups, the Former Prophets ( Nevi'im Rishonim נביאים ראשונים‎, the narrative books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings) and the Latter Prophets ( Nevi'im Aharonim נביאים אחרונים‎, the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel and the Twelve Minor Prophets).

The Nevi'im tell the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy and its division into two kingdoms, ancient Israel and Judah, focusing on conflicts between the Israelites and other nations, and conflicts among Israelites, specifically, struggles between believers in "the LORD God" ( Yahweh) and believers in foreign gods, and the criticism of unethical and unjust behaviour of Israelite elites and rulers; in which prophets played a crucial and leading role. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians followed by the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem.

Former Prophets

The Former Prophets are the books Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings. They contain narratives that begin immediately after the death of Moses with the divine appointment of Joshua as his successor, who then leads the people of Israel into the Promised Land, and end with the release from imprisonment of the last king of Judah. Treating Samuel and Kings as single books, they cover:

Joshua's conquest of the land of Canaan (in the Book of Joshua),

the struggle of the people to possess the land (in the Book of Judges),

the people's request to God to give them a king so that they can occupy the land in the face of their enemies (in the Books of Samuel)

the possession of the land under the divinely appointed kings of the House of David, ending in conquest and foreign exile (Books of Kings)

Latter Prophets

The Latter Prophets are divided into two groups, the "major" prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets, collected into a single book. The collection is broken up to form twelve individual books in the Christian Old Testament, one for each of the prophets:

Ketuvim or Kəṯûḇîm (in Biblical Hebrew: כְּתוּבִים‎ "writings") is the third and final section of the Tanakh. The Ketuvim are believed to have been written under the Ruach HaKodesh (the Holy Spirit) but with one level less authority than that of prophecy.

The poetic books

In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their poetry. Collectively, these three books are known as Sifrei Emet (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, איוב, משלי, תהלים yields Emet אמ"ת, which is also the Hebrew for "truth").

These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system.

The five scrolls (Hamesh Megillot)

The five relatively short books of Song of Songs, Book of Ruth, the Book of Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Book of Esther are collectively known as the Hamesh Megillot ( Five Megillot). These are the latest books collected and designated as "authoritative" in the Jewish canon even though they were not complete until the 2nd century CE.

Other books

Besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles. Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics:

Their narratives all openly describe relatively late events (i.e., the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of Zion).

The Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them.

Two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only books in the Tanakh with significant portions in Aramaic.

Order of the books

The following list presents the books of Ketuvim in the order they appear in most printed editions. It also divides them into three subgroups based on the distinctiveness of Sifrei Emet and Hamesh Megillot.

The Three Poetic Books ( Sifrei Emet)

The Five Megillot ( Hamesh Megillot)

Other books

The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Babylonian Talmud ( Bava Batra 14b-15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.

In Tiberian Masoretic codices, including the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, and often in old Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.

Canonization

The Ketuvim is the last of the three portions of the Tanakh to have been accepted as biblical canon. While the Torah may have been considered canon by Israel as early as the 5th century BCE and the Former and Latter Prophets were canonized by the 2nd century BCE, the Ketuvim was not a fixed canon until the 2nd century of the Common Era.

Evidence suggests, however, that the people of Israel were adding what would become the Ketuvim to their holy literature shortly after the canonization of the prophets. As early as 132 BCE references suggest that the Ketuvim was starting to take shape, although it lacked a formal title. References in the four Gospels as well as other books of the New Testament indicate that many of these texts were both commonly known and counted as having some degree of religious authority early in the 1st century CE.

Many scholars believe that the limits of the Ketuvim as canonized scripture were determined by the Council of Jamnia c. 90 CE. Against Apion, the writing of Josephus in 95 CE, treated the text of the Hebrew Bible as a closed canon to which "... no one has ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a syllable..." For a long time following this date the divine inspiration of Esther, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes was often under scrutiny.

Original languages

The Tanakh was mainly written in biblical Hebrew, with some small portions (Ezra 4:8-6:18 and 7:12-26, Jeremiah 10:11, Daniel 2:4-7:28) written in biblical Aramaic, a sister language which became the lingua franca for much of the Semitic world.

Samaritan Pentateuch

Samaritans include only the Pentateuch in their biblical canon. They do not recognize divine authorship or inspiration in any other book in the Jewish Tanakh. A Samaritan Book of Joshua partly based upon the Tanakh's Book of Joshua exists, but Samaritans regard it as a non-canonical secular historical chronicle.

Septuagint

The Septuagint, or the LXX, is a translation of the Hebrew Scriptures and some related texts into Koine Greek, begun in the late 3rd century BCE and completed by 132 BCE, initially in Alexandria, but in time it was completed elsewhere as well. It is not altogether clear which was translated when, or where; some may even have been translated twice, into different versions, and then revised.

As the work of translation progressed, the canon of the Septuagint expanded. The Torah always maintained its pre-eminence as the basis of the canon but the collection of prophetic writings, based on the Nevi'im, had various hagiographical works incorporated into it. In addition, some newer books were included in the Septuagint, among these are the Maccabees and the Wisdom of Sirach. However, the book of Sirach, is now known to have existed in a Hebrew version, since ancient Hebrew manuscripts of it were rediscovered in modern times. The Septuagint version of some biblical books, like Daniel and Esther, are longer than those in the Jewish canon.

Since Late Antiquity, once attributed to a hypothetical late 1st-century Council of Jamnia, mainstream Rabbinic Judaism rejected the Septuagint as valid Jewish scriptural texts. Several reasons have been given for this. First, some mistranslations were claimed. Second, the Hebrew source texts used for the Septuagint differed from the Masoretic tradition of Hebrew texts, which was chosen as canonical by the Jewish rabbis. Third, the rabbis wanted to distinguish their tradition from the newly emerging tradition of Christianity. Finally, the rabbis claimed a divine authority for the Hebrew language, in contrast to Aramaic or Greek - even though these languages were thelingua franca of Jews during this period (and Aramaic would eventually be given a holy language status comparable to Hebrew).

The Septuagint is the basis for the Old Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Old Armenian, Old Georgian and Coptic versions of the Christian Old Testament. The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches use most of the books of the Septuagint, while Protestant churches usually do not. After the Protestant Reformation, many Protestant Bibles began to follow the Jewish canon and exclude the additional texts, which came to be called biblical apocrypha. The Apocrypha are included under a separate heading in the King James Version of the Bible, the basis for the Revised Standard Version.

Incorporations from Theodotion

In most ancient copies of the Bible which contain the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Book of Daniel is not the original Septuagint version, but instead is a copy of Theodotion's translation from the Hebrew, which more closely resembles the Masoretic Text. The original Septuagint version was discarded in favour of Theodotion's version in the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE. In Greek-speaking areas, this happened near the end of the 2nd century, and in Latin-speaking areas (at least in North Africa), it occurred in the middle of the 3rd century. History does not record the reason for this, and St. Jerome reports, in the preface to the Vulgate version of Daniel, "This thing 'just' happened." One of two Old Greek texts of the Book of Daniel has been recently rediscovered and work is ongoing in reconstructing the original form of the book.

The canonical Ezra-Nehemiah is known in the Septuagint as "Esdras B", and 1 Esdras is "Esdras A". 1 Esdras is a very similar text to the books of Ezra-Nehemiah, and the two are widely thought by scholars to be derived from the same original text. It has been proposed, and is thought highly likely by scholars, that "Esdras B" - the canonical Ezra-Nehemiah - is Theodotion's version of this material, and "Esdras A" is the version which was previously in the Septuagint on its own.

Some texts are found in the Septuagint but are not present in the Hebrew. These additional books are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah (which later became chapter 6 of Baruch in the Vulgate), additions to Daniel ( The Prayer of Azarias, the Song of the Three Children, Susanna and Bel and the Dragon), additions to Esther, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Odes, including the Prayer of Manasseh, the Psalms of Solomon, and Psalm 151.

Some books that are set apart in the Masoretic Text are grouped together. For example, the Books of Samuel and the Books of Kings are in the LXX one book in four parts called Βασιλειῶν ("Of Reigns"). In LXX, the Books of Chronicles supplement Reigns and it is called Paralipomenon (Παραλειπομένων - things left out). The Septuagint organizes the minor prophets as twelve parts of one Book of Twelve.

Christian Bibles

A Christian Bible is a set of books that a Christian denomination regards as divinely inspired and thus constituting scripture. Although the Early Church primarily used the Septuagint or the Targums among Aramaic speakers, the apostles did not leave a defined set of new scriptures; instead the canon of the New Testament developed over time. Groups within Christianity include differing books as part of their sacred writings, most prominent among which are the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books.

Historically significant translations of the Christian Bible into English include the Geneva Bible, the Douay-Rheims Bible, the King James Version, the Revised Version, the American Standard Version, the Revised Standard Version, the New American Standard Bible, the New American Bible, the New International Version, the New King James Version, and the English Standard Version.

Old Testament

The books which make up the Christian Old Testament differ between the Catholic (see Catholic Bible), Orthodox, and Protestant (see Protestant Bible) churches, with the Protestant movement accepting only those books contained in the Hebrew Bible, while Catholic and Orthodox traditions have wider canons. A few groups consider particular translations to be divinely inspired, notably the Greek Septuagint and the Aramaic Peshitta. The Old Testament consists of many distinct books produced over a period of centuries: The first five books - Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, book of Numbers and Deuteronomy - reached their present form in the Persian period (538-332 BCE), and their authors were the elite of exilic returnees who controlled the Temple at that time. The books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings follow, forming a history of Israel from the Conquest of Canaan to the Siege of Jerusalem c. 587 BCE.

These history books make up around half the total content of the Old Testament. Of the remainder, the books of the various prophets - Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve " minor prophets" - were written between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE, with the exceptions of Jonah and Daniel, which were written much later. The "wisdom" books - Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Psalms, Song of Solomon - have various dates: Proverbs possibly was completed by the Hellenistic time (332-198 BCE), though containing much older material as well; Job completed by the 6th century BCE; Ecclesiastes by the 3rd century BCE.

Apocryphal or deuterocanonical books

In Eastern Christianity, translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. The Septuagint was generally abandoned in favour of the 10th-century Masoretic Text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into Western languages. Some modern Western translations since the 14th century make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic Text, where the Septuagint may preserve a variant reading of the Hebrew text. They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in other texts, e.g., those discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.

A number of books which are part of the Peshitta or the Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew Bible (i.e., among the protocanonical books) are often referred to as deuterocanonical books by Roman Catholics referring to a later secondary (i.e., deutero) canon, that canon as fixed definitively by the Council of Trent 1545-1563. It includes 46 books for the Old Testament (45 if Jeremiah and Lamentations are counted as one) and 27 for the New.

Eighty book Protestant Bibles have fourteen books in between the Old Testament and New Testament in a section called the Apocrypha. Protestant traditions traditionally teach that these books are useful for instruction, but are non-canonical. However, Eastern Orthodox Churches include these books as part of their Old Testament and the Roman Catholic Church most of them with the exception of three books.

The Roman Catholic Church recognizes:

In addition to those, the Greek and Russian Orthodox Churches recognize the following:

Russian and Georgian Orthodox Churches include:

2 Esdras i.e., Latin Esdras in the Russian and Georgian Bibles

There is also 4 Maccabees which is only accepted as canonical in the Georgian Church, but was included by St. Jerome in an appendix to the Vulgate, and is an appendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible, and it is therefore sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha.

The Syriac Orthodox tradition includes:

The Ethiopian biblical canon includes:

and some other books.

The Revised Common Lectionary of the Lutheran Church, Moravian Church, Reformed Churches, Anglican Church and Methodist Church uses the Apocryphal Books liturgically, with alternative Old Testament readings available. Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Lutheran Church and Anglican Church include the fourteen books of the Protestant Apocrypha, many of which are the Deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church, plus 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, which were in the Vulgate appendix.

Pseudepigraphal books

The term pseudepigrapha commonly describes numerous works of Jewish religious literature written from about 300 BCE to 300 CE. Not all of these works are actually pseudepigraphical. It also refers to books of the New Testament canon whose authorship is misrepresented or questionable. The Old Testament pseudepigraphal works include the following:

Book of Enoch

Notable pseudepigraphal works include the Books of Enoch (such as 1 Enoch, 2 Enoch, surviving only in Old Slavonic, and 3 Enoch, surviving in Hebrew, c. 5th to 6th century CE). These are ancient Jewish religious works, traditionally ascribed to the prophet Enoch, the great-grandfather of the patriarch Noah. They are not part of the biblical canon used by Jews, apart from Beta Israel. Most Christian denominations and traditions may accept the Books of Enoch as having some historical or theological interest or significance. It has been observed that part of the Book of Enoch is quoted in the Epistle of Jude (part of the New Testament) but Christian denominations generally regard the Books of Enoch as non-canonical or non-inspired. However, the Enoch books are treated as canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.

The older sections (mainly in the Book of the Watchers) are estimated to date from about 300 BCE, and the latest part (Book of Parables) probably was composed at the end of the 1st century BCE.

Denominational views of pseudepigrapha

There arose in some Protestant biblical scholarship an extended use of the term pseudepigrapha for works that appeared as though they ought to be part of the biblical canon, because of the authorship ascribed to them, but which stood outside both the biblical canons recognized by Protestants and Catholics. These works were also outside the particular set of books that Roman Catholics called deuterocanonical and to which Protestants had generally applied the term Apocryphal. Accordingly, the term pseudepigraphical, as now used often among both Protestants and Roman Catholics (allegedly for the clarity it brings to the discussion), may make it difficult to discuss questions of pseudepigraphical authorship of canonical books dispassionately with a lay audience. To confuse the matter further, Eastern Orthodox Christians accept books as canonical that Roman Catholics and most Protestant denominations consider pseudepigraphical or at best of much less authority. There exist also churches that reject some of the books that Roman Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants accept. The same is true of some Jewish sects. Many works that are apocryphal are otherwise considered genuine.

Role of the Old Testament in Christian theology

The Old Testament has always been central to the life of the Christian church. Bible scholar N.T. Wright says "Jesus himself was profoundly shaped by the scriptures." He adds that the earliest Christians also searched those same Hebrew scriptures in their effort to understand the earthly life of Jesus. They regarded the "holy writings" of the Israelites as necessary and instructive for the Christian, as seen from Paul's words to Timothy (2 Timothy 3:15), and as pointing to the Messiah, and as having reached a climactic fulfilment in Jesus himself, generating the " new covenant" prophesied by Jeremiah.

New Testament

The New Testament is the name given to the second and final portion of the Christian Bible. Jesus is its central figure. The term "New Testament" came into use in the 2nd century during a controversy among Christians over whether the Hebrew Bible should be included with the Christian writings as sacred scripture. The New Testament presupposes the inspiration of the Old Testament. Some other works which were widely read by early churches were excluded from the New Testament and relegated to the collections known as the Apostolic Fathers (generally considered orthodox) and the New Testament Apocrypha (including both orthodox and heretical works).

The New Testament is a collection of 27 books of 4 different genres of Christian literature ( Gospels, one account of the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles and an Apocalypse). These books can be grouped into:

The New Testament books are ordered differently in the Catholic/Orthodox/Protestant tradition, the Slavonic tradition, the Syriac tradition and the Ethiopian tradition.

Original language

The mainstream consensus is that the New Testament was written in a form of Koine Greek, which was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean from the Conquests of Alexander the Great (335-323 BCE) until the evolution of Byzantine Greek (c. 600).

Historic editions

The original autographs, that is, the original Greek writings and manuscripts written by the original authors of the New Testament, have not survived. But historically copies exist of those original autographs, transmitted and preserved in a number of manuscript traditions. There have been some minor variations, additions or omissions, in some of the texts. When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they sometimes wrote notes on the margins of the page (marginal glosses) to correct their text - especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line - and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text.

The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type (generally minimalist), the Byzantine text-type (generally maximalist), and the Western text-type (occasionally wild). Together they comprise most of the ancient manuscripts.

Development of the Christian canons

The Old Testament canon entered into Christian use in the Greek Septuagint translations and original books, and their differing lists of texts. In addition to the Septuagint, Christianity subsequently added various writings that would become the New Testament. Somewhat different lists of accepted works continued to develop in antiquity. In the 4th century a series of synods produced a list of texts equal to the 39, 46, 51, or 54-book canon of the Old Testament and to the 27-book canon of the New Testament that would be subsequently used to today, most notably the Synod of Hippo in 393 CE. Also c. 400, Jerome produced a definitive Latin edition of the Bible (see Vulgate), the canon of which, at the insistence of the Pope, was in accord with the earlier Synods. With the benefit of hindsight, it can be said that this process effectively set the New Testament canon, although there are examples of other canonical lists in use after this time.

The Protestant Old Testament of today has a 39-book canon - the number of books (though not the content) varies from the Jewish Tanakh only because of a different method of division - while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books (51 books with some books combined into 46 books) as the canonical Old Testament. The Eastern Orthodox Churches recognize 3 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Prayer of Manasseh and Psalm 151 in addition to the Catholic canon. Some include 2 Esdras. The term "Hebrew Scriptures" is often used as being synonymous with the Protestant Old Testament, since the surviving scriptures in Hebrew include only those books, while Catholics and Orthodox include additional texts that have not survived in Hebrew. Eighty book Protestant Bibles include 14 books called Apocrypha in between the Old Testament and the New Testament that are deemed useful for instruction but non-canonical. Both Catholics and Protestants (as well as Greek Orthodox) have the same 27-book New Testament Canon.

The New Testament writers assumed the inspiration of the Old Testament, probably earliest stated in 2 Timothy 3:16, "All scripture is given by inspiration of God".

Some denominations have additional canonical holy scriptures beyond the Bible, including the standard works of the Latter Day Saints movement and Divine Principle in the Unification Church.

Ethiopian Orthodox canon

The Canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is wider than the canons used by most other Christian churches. There are 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible. The Ethiopian Old Testament Canon includes the books found in the Septuagint accepted by other Orthodox Christians, in addition to Enoch and Jubilees which are ancient Jewish books that only survived in Ge'ez but are quoted in the New Testament, also Greek Ezra First and the Apocalypse of Ezra, 3 books of Meqabyan, and Psalm 151 at the end of the Psalter. The three books of Meqabyan are not to be confused with the books of Maccabees. The order of the other books is somewhat different from other groups', as well. The Old Testament follows the Septuagint order for the Minor Prophets rather than the Jewish order.

The Peshitta ( Classical Syriac: ܦܫܺܝܛܬܳܐ‎ or ܦܫܝܼܛܬܵܐ pšīṭtā) is the standard version of the Bible for churches in the Syriac tradition. The consensus within biblical scholarship, although not universal, is that the Old Testament of the Peshitta was translated into Syriac from biblical Hebrew, probably in the 2nd century AD, and that the New Testament of the Peshitta was translated from the Greek. This New Testament, originally excluding certain disputed books ( 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude, Revelation), had become a standard by the early 5th century. The five excluded books were added in the Harklean Version (616 AD) of Thomas of Harqel.

Divine inspiration

The Second Epistle to Timothy says that "all scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness". ( 2 Timothy 3:16) Various related but distinguishable views on divine inspiration include:

the view of the Bible as the inspired word of God: the belief that God, through the Holy Spirit, intervened and influenced the words, message, and collation of the Bible

the view that the Bible is also infallible, and incapable of error in matters of faith and practice, but not necessarily in historic or scientific matters

the view that the Bible represents the inerrant word of God, without error in any aspect, spoken by God and written down in its perfect form by humans

Within these broad beliefs many schools of hermeneutics operate. "Bible scholars claim that discussions about the Bible must be put into its context within church history and then into the context of contemporary culture." Fundamentalist Christians are associated with the doctrine of biblical literalism, where the Bible is not only inerrant, but the meaning of the text is clear to the average reader.

Jewish antiquity attests to belief in sacred texts, and a similar belief emerges in the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention divine agency in relation to its writings. In their book A General Introduction to the Bible, Norman Geisler and William Nix write: "The process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record." Most evangelical biblical scholars associate inspiration with only the original text; for example some American Protestants adhere to the 1978 Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy which asserted that inspiration applied only to the autographic text of Scripture. Among adherents of biblical literalism, a minority, such as followers of the King-James-Only Movement, extend the claim of inerrancy only to a particular version.

Versions and translations

The original texts of the Tanakh were almost entirely written in Hebrew; about one per cent is written in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, and the Targum Onkelos, an Aramaic version of the Bible. There are several different ancient versions of the Tanakh in Hebrew, mostly differing by spelling, and the traditional Jewish version is based on the version known as Aleppo Codex. Even in this version there are words which are traditionally read differently from written, because the oral tradition is considered more fundamental than the written one, and presumably mistakes had been made in copying the text over the generations.

The primary biblical text for early Christians was the Septuagint. In addition, they translated the Hebrew Bible into several other languages. Translations were made into Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translations of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.

The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible.

According to the Latin Decretum Gelasianum (also known as the Gelasian Decree), thought to be of a 6th-century document of uncertain authorship and of pseudepigraphal papal authority (variously ascribed to Pope Gelasius I, Pope Damasus I, or Pope Hormisdas) but reflecting the views of the Roman Church by that period, the Council of Rome in 382 CE under Pope Damasus I (366-383) assembled a list of books of the Bible. Damasus commissioned Saint Jerome to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin. This translation became known as the Latin Vulgate Bible, in the 4th century CE (although Jerome expressed in his prologues to most deuterocanonical books that they were non- canonical). In 1546, at the Council of Trent, Jerome's Vulgate translation was declared by the Roman Catholic Church to be the only authentic and official Bible in the Latin Church.

Since the Protestant Reformation, Bible translations for many languages have been made. The Bible continues to be translated to new languages, largely by Christian organizations such as Wycliffe Bible Translators, New Tribes Mission and Bible societies.

7378

Approximate number of languages spoken in the world today

2217

Number of translations into new languages in progress

1196

Number of languages with some translated Bible portions

1582

Number of languages with a translation of the New Testament

717

Number of languages with a full translation of the Bible (Protestant Canon)

3495

Total number of languages with some Bible translation

John Riches, professor of divinity and biblical criticism at the University of Glasgow, provides the following view of the diverse historical influences of the Bible:

It has inspired some of the great monuments of human thought, literature, and art; it has equally fuelled some of the worst excesses of human savagery, self-interest, and narrow-mindedness. It has inspired men and women to acts of great service and courage, to fight for liberation and human development; and it has provided the ideological fuel for societies which have enslaved their fellow human beings and reduced them to abject poverty. ... It has, perhaps above all, provided a source of religious and moral norms which have enabled communities to hold together, to care for, and to protect one another; yet precisely this strong sense of belonging has in turn fuelled ethnic, racial, and international tension and conflict.

Other religions

In Islam, the Bible is held to reflect true unfolding revelation from God; but revelation which had been corrupted or distorted (in Arabic: ); which necessitated the giving of the Qur'an to the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, to correct this deviation.

Members of other religions may also seek inspiration from the Bible. For example, Rastafari view the Bible as essential to their religion and Unitarian Universalists view it as "one of many important religious texts".

Biblical studies

Biblical criticism refers to the investigation of the Bible as a text, and addresses questions such as authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention. It is not the same as criticism of the Bible, which is an assertion against the Bible being a source of information or ethical guidance, or observations that the Bible may have translation errors.

Higher criticism

In the 17th century, Thomas Hobbes collected the current evidence to conclude outright that Moses could not have written the bulk of the Torah. Shortly afterwards the philosopher Baruch Spinoza published a unified critical analysis, arguing that the problematic passages were not isolated cases that could be explained away one by one, but pervasive throughout the five books, concluding that it was "clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses ..."

Archaeological and historical research

Biblical archaeology is the archaeology that relates to and sheds light upon the Hebrew Scriptures and the Christian Greek Scriptures (or the New Testament). It is used to help determine the lifestyle and practices of people living in biblical times. There are a wide range of interpretations in the field of biblical archaeology. One broad division includes biblical maximalism which generally takes the view that most of the Old Testament or the Hebrew Bible is based on history although it is presented through the religious viewpoint of its time. It is considered to be the opposite of biblical minimalism which considers the Bible to be a purely post-exilic (5th century BCE and later) composition. Even among those scholars who adhere to biblical minimalism, the Bible is a historical document containing first-hand information on the Hellenistic and Roman eras, and there is universal scholarly consensus that the events of the 6th century BCE Babylonian captivity have a basis in history.

The historicity of the biblical account of the history of ancient Israel and Judah of the 10th to 7th centuries BCE is disputed in scholarship. The biblical account of the 8th to 7th centuries BCE is widely, but not universally, accepted as historical, while the verdict on the earliest period of the United Monarchy (10th century BCE) and the historicity of David is unclear. Archaeological evidence providing information on this period, such as the Tel Dan Stele, can potentially be decisive. The biblical account of events of the Exodus from Egypt in the Torah, and the migration to the Promised Land and the period of Judges are not considered historical in scholarship.

Bible museums

Illustrations

The grandest medieval Bibles were illuminated manuscripts in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders ( marginalia) and miniature illustrations. Up to the 12th century, most manuscripts were produced in monasteries in order to add to the library or after receiving a commission from a wealthy patron. Larger monasteries often contained separate areas for the monks who specialized in the production of manuscripts called a scriptorium, where "separate little rooms were assigned to book copying; they were situated in such a way that each scribe had to himself a window open to the cloister walk." By the 14th century, the cloisters of monks writing in the scriptorium started to employ laybrothers from the urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome and the Netherlands. Demand for manuscripts grew to an extent that the Monastic libraries were unable to meet with the demand, and began employing secular scribes and illuminators. These individuals often lived close to the monastery and, in certain instances, dressed as monks whenever they entered the monastery, but were allowed to leave at the end of the day. A notable example of an illuminated manuscript is the Book of Kells, produced circa the year 800 containing the four Gospels of the New Testament together with various prefatory texts and tables.

The manuscript was "sent to the rubricator, who added (in red or other colours) the titles, headlines, the initials of chapters and sections, the notes and so on; and then - if the book was to be illustrated - it was sent to the illuminator." In the case of manuscripts that were sold commercially, the writing would "undoubtedly have been discussed initially between the patron and the scribe (or the scribe's agent,) but by the time that the written gathering were sent off to the illuminator there was no longer any scope for innovation."

Maciejowski Bible, Leaf 37, the 3rd image, Abner (in the centre in green) sends Michal back to David.

References

Works cited

Baden, Joel S. (2012). The Composition of the Pentateuch: Renewing the Documentary Hypothesis. Anchor Yale Reference Library. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300152647.

Bandstra, Barry L. (2009) [2004]. Reading the Old Testament: an introduction to the Hebrew Bible (4th ed.). Wadsworth Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-39105-0. OCLC 244017850.

Brown, Raymond E. (2010) [1997]. An Introduction to the New Testament. The Anchor Yale Bible Reference Library. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14016-3. OCLC 762279536.

Bruce, Frederick (1988). The Canon of Scripture. Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP Academic. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-8308-1258-5.

De Hamel, Christopher (1992). Medieval Craftsmen: Scribes and Illuminations. Buffalo: University of Toronto.

Gravett, Sandra L.; Bohmbach, Karla G.; Greifenhagen, F. V.; Polaski, Donald C. (2008). An introduction to the Hebrew Bible: a thematic approach. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-23030-2. OCLC 196303211.

Greifenhagen, Franz V. (2003). Egypt on the Pentateuch's Ideological Map. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-567-39136-0.

Henshaw, T. (1963). The Writings: The Third Division of the Old Testament Canon. George Allen & Unwin Ltd.

Lim, Timothy H. (2017) [2005]. The Dead Sea Scrolls: a very short introduction (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-877952-0. LCCN 2016953719. OCLC 978451657.

Parker, David C. (2013). "The New Testament text and versions". In Paget, James Carleton; Schaper, Joachim (eds.). Volume 1: From the Beginnings to 600. The New Cambridge History of the Bible. Cambridge University Press. pp. 412-454. ISBN 978-0-521-85938-7. OCLC 774213683.

Riches, John (2000). The Bible: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-285343-1.

Ulrich, Eugene (2013). "The Old Testament text and its transmission". In Paget, James Carleton; Schaper, Joachim (eds.). Volume 1: From the Beginnings to 600. The New Cambridge History of the Bible. Cambridge University Press. pp. 83-104. ISBN 978-0-521-85938-7. OCLC 774213683.

Wright, N.T. (2005). The Last Word: Scripture and the Authority of God - Getting Beyond the Bible Wars. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-087261-8.

Further reading

Anderson, Bernhard W. Understanding the Old Testament. ISBN 0-13-948399-3.

Asimov, Isaac. Asimov's Guide to the Bible. New York: Avenel Books, 1981. ISBN 0-517-34582-X.

Berlin, Adele, Marc Zvi Brettler and Michael Fishbane. The Jewish Study Bible Archived 3 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-529751-2.

Bible, Authorized Version. The New Cambridge Paragraph Bible, with the Apocrypha, King James Version, ed. by David Norton. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 2005. N.B.: This is a critically reconstructed text of the Authorized "King James" Bible with its entire contents (including all of its marginalia, fore-matter, the Apocrypha, etc.), as close to the original translators' intentions and wording as possible at the time of this edition, with spelling modernized according to current Commonwealth usage. ISBN 978-0-521-84386-7

Brown, Raymond E., Joseph A. Fitzmyer, and Roland E. Murphy, eds. (1990). The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-614934-0.

Dunn, James D. G. and John W. Rogerson, eds. (2021). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-7978-3.

Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (August 2002). "Review: "The Bible Unearthed": A Rejoinder". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 327 (1): 63-73. doi:10.2307/1357859. JSTOR 1357859. S2CID 161668327.

Herzog, Ze'ev (29 October 1999). "Deconstructing the walls of Jericho". . Archived from the original on 21 December 2008.

Dever, William G. (March-April 2007). "Losing Faith: Who Did and Who Didn't, How Scholarship Affects Scholars" (PDF). Biblical Archaeology Review. 33 (2): 54. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 October 2008.

Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005. ISBN 0-06-073817-0.

Head, Tom. The Absolute Beginner's Guide to the Bible. Indianapolis: Que Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0-7897-3419-2

Hoffman, Joel M. In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language Archived 2015-09-03 at the Wayback Machine. New York University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8147-3690-4

Hotchkiss, Gregory K. The Middle Way: Reflections on Scripture and Tradition, in series, Reformed Episcopal Pamphlets, no. 3. Philadelphia, Penn.: Reformed Episcopal Publication Society, 1985. 27 p. N.B, the approach to the issue is from an evangelical Anglican (Reformed Episcopal Church) orientation. OCLC 19737224

Kingstone Media. The Epic Bible: God's Story from Eden to Eternity. Wander (2020). 840p. ISBN 978-1414396675

Lienhard, Joseph T. The Bible, The Church, and Authority. Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, 1995.

Lindsell, Harold. The Battle for the Bible. Zondervan Publishing House, 1978. ISBN 0-310-27681-0

Masalha, Nur, The Bible and Zionism: Invented Traditions, Archaeology and Post-Colonialism in Palestine-Israel. London, Zed Books, 2007.

McDonald, Lee M. and Sanders, James A., eds. The Canon Debate. Hendrickson Publishers (2002). 662p. ISBN 978-1565635173

Miller, John W. The Origins of the Bible: Rethinking Canon History Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1994. ISBN 0-8091-3522-1.

Newsom, Carol A.; Ringe, Sharon H.; Lapsley, Jacqueline E., eds. (2012) [1992]. Women's Bible Commentary (Revised and updated ed.). Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-23707-3.

Roper, J.C., Bp., et al.. The Bible. Toronto: Musson Book Co., 1924. In series, "The Layman's Library of Practical Religion, Church of England in Canada", vol. 4. N.B.: Series statement given here in the more extended form of it on the book's front cover.

Siku. The Manga Bible: From Genesis to Revelation. Galilee Trade (2008). 224p. ISBN 978-0385524315

Taylor, Hawley O. "Mathematics and Prophecy." Modern Science and Christian Faith. Wheaton: Van Kampen, 1948, pp. 175-83.

Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, s.vv. "Book of Ezekiel", p. 580 and "prophecy", p. 1410. Chicago: Moody Bible Press, 1986.

External links

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The Bible (from Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία, , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts, writings, or scriptures sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, Islam, Rastafari, and many other faiths. It appears in the form of an anthology, a compilation of texts of a variety of forms that are all linked by the belief that they are collectively revelations of God.

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