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Paraguayan leader began to hate the Spanish for making their colony less significant. Portuguese nationalism eventually helped them remove the Spanish governor and declare independence.

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James E. Painter Journalist, BBC World Service, London. Author of Paraguay in the 1970s and others.

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Paraguay | History, Geography, Map, & Facts

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Geographical and historical treatment of Paraguay, including maps and statistics as well as a survey of its people, economy, and government.

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The Brazilians break away from Portugal after convincing them to move their royal court back to Portugal and eventually feel there is no reason for Portugal to control them.

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The colony of Brazil gained independence through an atypical arrangement with its colonizer. Though revolutions did occur in its history, Brazil's path to statehood ultimately came about by uniting with Portugal in the 19th century.

Main Ideas

The Napoleonic Wars drove the Portuguese royal court into exile in Brazil, where they hoped to escape the fighting and maintain control over Portugal and its territories.

The Portuguese government-in-exile was reluctant to move back to Lisbon after the Napoleonic Wars, however. Prince Regent João VI found it more advantageous to remain in Brazil, and from there elevated the colony into a kingdom by uniting it in a political union known as the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves.

A major revolution convinced João to move his court back to Portugal. With the royal court's return, however, the Portuguese government saw little reason for Brazil to maintain its political autonomy.

The Brazilians, led by João's son Pedro I, rebelled against Portugal and established the Empire of Brazil. After a three-year war between the Brazilians and the Portuguese, the Empire of Brazil was recognized as a fully independent state.

The reign of Pedro I's son, Pedro II, marked the start of a new age of prosperity for Brazil. However, the latter years of Pedro II's rule also led to the empire's decline. Pedro II's increasing indifference to state affairs paved the way for the military coup which founded the First Brazilian Republic.

Union

The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) had profound effects on the South American colony of Brazil. Brazil became the refuge of the Portuguese royal family and the center of its power as a government-in-exile after the French army invaded the Iberian Peninsula. The Portuguese prince regent, João VI (1767-1826), transferred the royal court to Brazil, mere days before French forces stormed the Portuguese capital of Lisbon.

This transfer marked a major turning point for the colony of Brazil, which was elevated to the State of Brazil in 1808. From then on, the center of the Portuguese Empire lay within this former colony, where the royal family ruled from Rio de Janeiro. After French defeat in 1815, there were calls for João to return to Portugal. João, however, preferred to remain in Brazil. But as it was inappropriate for the royal family to rule from a colony, João decided to establish a new state and elevate Brazil to equal status with that of Portugal itself.

Thus, the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves began. The State of Brazil, still considered a colony at the time, was formally elevated to the status of Kingdom of Brazil in accordance with this new union. Queen Maria I (1734-1816), João's mother, became the first monarch of the United Kingdom. This union, however, did not extend to the entirety of the Portuguese Empire; it merely provided a structure for the ruling of Portugal's overseas colonial holdings. Still, Brazil gained access to better political and economic privileges because of it. And it was not long before João himself took over this new empire after his mother passed away in 1816.

Independence

In the meantime, Portugal was experiencing some political unrest in the absence of the royal family. The Liberal Revolution of 1820 was the culmination of these tensions-one which convinced João to finally return to Portugal. Lisbon was again established as the empire's capital in 1821.

João returned to a markedly different Portugal, which underwent political reforms. The Portuguese Parliament, known as the Cortes, was part of these changes. The Cortes, however, wanted to turn Brazil back into a colony. By then, Brazil had already achieved political autonomy and enjoyed commercial and diplomatic ties with other nations. It would lose these privileges under any circumstance in which it was reverted back into a colony.

Additionally, João's son and heir-apparent, Dom Pedro I (1798-1834), had been left behind to rule Brazil as regent when his father returned to Portugal. At first, Pedro was reluctant to support Brazil's independence. However, when he received word that the Cortes intended to strip him of the regency, he was quick to proclaim Brazil's independence in 1822. The Empire of Brazil was established not long after, with Pedro becoming its first ruler.

Pedro, however, did not have full control of Brazil. There were still garrisons and militia in the region which were loyal to Portugal. Clashes between the Portuguese and the Brazilians resulted in the Brazilian War of Independence in 1822-1825. Despite the military and naval superiority of the Portuguese militia, the Brazilians managed to win the war and convince Portugal to recognize its independence.

The Empire

This new Brazilian empire was a constitutional monarchy. It saw rapid economic growth during the latter half of the 19th century, enjoyed a degree of political stability, and its citizens--with some exceptions (women and slaves)--could exercise their constitutional rights. However, Pedro's rule did not last long.

João died in 1826, leading Pedro to pursue his father's throne in Portugal. Political chaos broke out during his absence, however. In addition, the Cisplatine War (1825-1828) erupted between Brazil and the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, which was the predecessor to modern-day Argentina. The war ended in a stalemate. Ultimately, while Brazil received some privileges from the peace negotiations during the 1820s, it had to acknowledge the independence of the Cisplatina Province, which became the basis for modern-day Uruguay.

In the meantime, power struggles in Portugal convinced Pedro to abdicate the Brazilian throne in 1831. He left the empire in the hands of his then five-year-old son, Pedro II (1825-1891), while he left for Portugal once more. Unfortunately, as Pedro II was a minor and therefore unfit to rule, a weak regency had to be established.

This regency faced several challenges throughout the course of the 19th century. During Pedro II's reign, Brazil became embroiled in further international conflicts: the Platine War (1851-1852), the Uruguayan War (1864-1864), and the Paraguayan War (1864-1870). Fortunately, Brazil successfully won these conflicts and obtained more territory and privileges for itself. Its infrastructure was also modernized, as new technologies such as railways and telegraphs tied its growing population together. Moreover, Brazil became a major exporter of coffee beginning in the 1840s, before turning to rubber production by the 1880s.

By this time, slavery was also in the process of being abolished. Brazil had had a large slave population, many of whom were acquired through the Atlantic slave trade dating back to the 16th century. These slaves were tasked to become soldiers during times of war in Brazil, and they were also forced to work Brazil's thriving plantations-first in sugar, then later in cotton and coffee. Slavery in Brazil, however, declined over the course of the 19th century, until it was fully abolished in 1888.

Decline

While the Empire of Brazil flourished in its final decades, Pedro II grew weary of the empire and began to distance himself from state affairs. With a disaffected monarchy and no prospective male heirs, Brazil once again slid into civic unrest. Republicanism rose up as a major challenge against the established constitutional monarchy.

In 1889, a military coup overthrew the Brazilian monarchy and established the First Brazilian Republic. Pedro II and the rest of the royal family were promptly exiled, but he did not seem especially challenged by this turn of events. Neither did he support a restoration of the monarchy. Unfortunately for the Brazilians, who were by then accustomed to a more democratic form of government, fell under the control of what became a dictatorship.

Critical Thinking Questions

Why was it important for the Portuguese government to move to Brazil during the Napoleonic Wars?

Why did Brazil refuse to return to its former status as a colony of Portugal?

What were the major strengths of the Empire of Brazil?

Source Citation

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The colony of Brazil gained independence through an atypical arrangement with its colonizer. Though revolutions did occur in its history, Brazil's path to statehood ultimately came about by uniting with Portugal in the 19th century. The Napoleonic Wars drove the Portuguese royal court into exile in Brazil, where they hoped to escape the fighting and maintain control over Portugal and its territories.

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Paraguayan Independence in three minutes

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Paraguayan Independence in three minutes

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Paraguayans side against the king and starts a struggle against the Spanish. Eventually the Paraguayans work together and defeat general Manuel Belgrano to become independent.

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Paraguayan Independence | 3 Minute History

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Otto Von Bismarck uses his power as prime minister to take over territory using realpolitik. He eventually was able to unite the german states by triggering a war with france.

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Key Facts

Global Context

Africa

In 1871 Scottish missionary David Livingstone (1813-1873) is found deep in central Africa after being out of contact with the outside world for six years.

Asia and Oceania

Feudalism is abolished in Japan in 1871.

Central and South America

Chile and Argentina finally settle their borders with the Border Treaty of 1881.

Europe

The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) ends in victory for Prussia in 1871.

Middle East

The Great Persian Famine of 1870-1871 results in approximately two million deaths.

North America

The Yavapai War between western Apache tribes and the U.S. Army begins in Arizona in 1871.

Key Figures

Political Leaders

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), prime minister of Prussia and first chancellor of the German Empire.

Wilhelm I (1797-1888), king of Prussia and first emperor of the German Empire.

Background

Between the Middle Ages and the late nineteenth century, what is now Germany operated as a loose confederation of German-speaking states and kingdoms. At various times, these states fell under the influence of the regional powers that surrounded them: France, Russia, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. By the nineteenth century, the largest of the German states, Prussia, had grown in both power and influence.

The kingdom of Prussia had been founded at the beginning of the eighteenth century by uniting the historical territories of northeastern Germany, Prussia, and Brandenburg under a single monarchy based in Berlin. Since at least the reign of Frederick II (1712-1786), Prussia's government had defined itself in terms of expansionist military power and the efficient organization of the state. Frederick was one of several enlightened despots, or monarchs who embraced Enlightenment ideals, including religious tolerance.

Wilhelm I (1797-1888), king of Prussia from 1861 to 1888, continued the military legacy of his ancestors yet faced a much-altered landscape from that of his predecessors. A major economic depression in the 1840s precipitated a rash of socialist and liberal revolutions that swept through Europe in 1848. The German princes, hoping to appease any radical instincts the protestors might have, agreed to initial social reforms, only to see these reform movements collapse under the weight of their own disagreements. An attempt to create a constitutional monarchy and unified German state failed when both the Austrians and the Prussians passed up the crown.

As a result of the failure of these efforts, the 1850s saw a distinct reactionary backlash throughout Germany and Austria. When Wilhelm became king in 1861, new hopes for reform were raised, given the king's more cautious and pragmatic attitude. Liberals were soon disappointed, however, with Wilhelm's desire to raise Prussia's military budget and voted the measure down in the parliament.

Unwilling to submit to the parliament's authority, Wilhelm was prepared to abdicate to resolve the crisis. The king was dissuaded from this decision after a meeting with Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), then Prussian ambassador to Paris. Bismarck convinced the king not only to stay but also to appoint Bismarck to the cabinet, a decision with momentous consequences. Bismarck was a diplomat as cunning as he was aggressive. As the appointed prime minister, he forced the liberals to a draw by prolonging the constitutional battle over their authority, and he also pursued an increasingly combative foreign policy.

Following the 1848 revolutions, a wave of new nationalist movements developed, most prominently in Italy. Like Germany, Italy had been a patchwork of rival governments and territories before 1865. By stoking a romantic sense of national identity, leading Italian rebels such as Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour (1810-1861), and Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882), managed to bring Italy's chaotic politics under the leadership of the king of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel II (1820-1878).

While Italy's national movement coalesced at a moment of particular fervor in national sentiment, Bismarck's Germany would be unified by altogether different means. Bismarck himself declared that Germany would not be unified with speeches but instead "by blood and iron," a phrase famously used by Bismarck in a speech before a Prussia budgetary committee in 1862.

Having been appointed both prime minister and foreign minister of Prussia in 1862, Bismarck had a free hand from the king in transforming Prussia into something greater than a medium-sized central European power. To do this, Bismarck needed to confront two pressing problems: the competing influence of Austria and the southern resistance to Berlin's leadership.

Bismarck accomplished these objectives by the careful and prudent application of what became known as Realpolitik, or political policy based on practical, "real-world" concerns rather than ethical or ideological concerns. He began and ended wars with less concern for national pride than for Prussia's strategic interests. He led Prussia in its defeat of Denmark in 1864 over the territories of Schleswig and Holstein, and defeated Austria, along with its alliance of southern German territories, in 1866. All that remained for Bismarck to unify Germany once and for all was to win the allegiance of the southern German states.

The Event

An opportunity to bring about German unification arose in 1870, when a relative of Wilhelm's, Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1835-1905), was offered the vacant throne of Spain by the country's regency, which had been looking for a suitable monarch for two years. This development greatly worried France, which felt itself potentially surrounded by hostile German powers. France's ambassador successfully convinced Wilhelm to withdraw support for Leopold, only to anger Wilhelm by demanding that Leopold never be considered eligible for the Spanish throne.

Bismarck took this diplomatic flareup as a pretext to provoke war with France. He edited the report of the king's audience with the ambassador in such a way that a reader would be convinced that each had gravely insulted the other. When French citizens read this statement, which had been released to the press, they clamored for war. Bismarck then appealed to the southern German states to unite with Prussia in defense against the French.

The Franco-Prussian War began on July 19, 1870. Blinded by national pride, the French fought a better-organized Prussian force, now joined by the southern German princes, indignant at the evident warmongering of the French. The French suffered humiliating defeats, including the capture of their emperor, Napoleon III (1808-1873). In his absence, a republican government sprang up in Paris, although this meager self-defense was no match for the professionally trained Germans. Paris capitulated on January 28, 1871. The French were forced to cede two provinces with German-speaking populations, Alsace and Lorraine.

The Franco-Prussian War also galvanized Bismarck's effort to push for German unification. Even before the war had ended, the remaining hold-out princes of southern Germany accepted the common leadership of Wilhelm. On January 18, 1871, while remaining king of Prussia, he was also declared emperor of Germany, and Bismarck was named chancellor of the German Empire. A new constitution of the German Empire was enacted on April 16, 1871, effectively binding Prussia and the southern German territories into a single political body.

Global Effect

For the first time since 1648, when the Peace of Westphalia enshrined the federal sovereignty of German princes, Germany was once again under unified leadership. This new political entity became known as the Second Reich, seeing itself as the legitimate heir to the defunct Holy Roman Empire (known as the First Reich) of which it was once a part. Bismarck's success did not stop with the unification of the empire. He almost immediately launched an extended attack, the Kulturkampf, or culture war, against the influence of the Catholic Church in Germany. He accomplished this by closing down religious institutions, making clergy appointments subject to state approval, and introducing civil marriage legislation. Even the emperor himself was distressed at the scope of Bismarck's attacks, despite the fact that they bolstered the power of his own imperial throne.

The German Empire continued to build strength in Europe and abroad. It began to compete actively with France and Great Britain for colonial influence, particularly in Africa. The same militaristic strain that had earlier characterized the kingdom of Prussia informed Germany's decision-making throughout the rest of the century. During World War I (1914-1918), the French recaptured Alsace-Lorraine, and after Germany was defeated by Allied forces, the country was burdened with heavy indemnity payments as reparations for the war. The empire was dissolved and replaced by the Weimar Republic. This defeat proved a political boon to the Nazi Party, which, led by a charismatic Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), called for a new Germany, a Third Reich.

Source Citation

Gale Document Number: GALE|OTTCDU386865350

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Sidebar: Hide Show In 1871 Scottish missionary David Livingstone (1813-1873) is found deep in central Africa after being out of contact with the outside world for six years. Feudalism is abolished in Japan in 1871. Chile and Argentina finally settle their borders with the Border Treaty of 1881.

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Brazilian Independence in three minutes.

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Brazilian Independence in three minutes.

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The Brazilians rebel against the Portuguese after multiple leaders introduce "reforms" that hurt the colony. When Pedro becomes an important figure in Brazil he leads a revolution and they declare independence.

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Brazilian Independence | 3 Minute History

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Otto Von Bismarck German Unification Video

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Otto Von Bismarck German Unification Video

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Otto Von Bismarck was responsible for uniting Germany, he first became prime minister and ignited a series of wars to establish prussian power. This is known as realpolitik. Next, he triggered the Franco-Prussian war to finally unite all the territories into germany.

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Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898) / German Unification