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ship carrying about 20 enslaved Africans arrived in Point Comfort

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Harvard College Founded

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William and Mary Founded

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University of Michigan opens in Detroit
- founded as the Catholepistemiad or University of Michigania
- founded by Augustus Woodward, Rev. John Monteith, and Rev. Gabriel Richard

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The Morrill Act establishing land-grant colleges was signed into law.

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Howard University is established as one of two federal colleges

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Brigham Young University Established

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Founding of Spelman College -first institution for Black women

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The Second Morrill Act passes establishing the black land-grant colleges

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Plessy v Ferguson, separate but equal doctrine ruling.

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Joliet Junior College, First junior college

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Wisconsin Plan—great public university model

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First Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) was administered.

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Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (GI Bill) is approved by Congress

Provided World War II veterans with funds for college education, unemployment insurance, and housing. It put higher education within the reach of millions of veterans of WWII and later military conflicts.

Did not include African American students- they also did not receive housing benefits

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Truman Report calls for universal higher education with the concept of community colleges

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Educational Testing Service (ETS) is founded.

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U.S. Supreme rules in Brown vs Board of Education ending separate but equal

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Separate But Equal Doctrine

In 1896, the Supreme Court ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson that racially segregated public facilities were legal, so long as the facilities for Black people and whites were equal.

The ruling constitutionally sanctioned laws barring African Americans from sharing the same buses, schools and other public facilities as whites-known as "Jim Crow" laws -and established the "separate but equal" doctrine that would stand for the next six decades.

But by the early 1950s, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP) was working hard to challenge segregation laws in public schools, and had filed lawsuits on behalf of plaintiffs in states such as South Carolina, Virginia and Delaware.

In the case that would become most famous, a plaintiff named Oliver Brown filed a class-action suit against the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, in 1951, after his daughter, Linda Brown, was denied entrance to Topeka's all-white elementary schools.

In his lawsuit, Brown claimed that schools for Black children were not equal to the white schools, and that segregation violated the so-called "equal protection clause" of the 14th Amendment, which holds that no state can "deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."

The case went before the U.S. District Court in Kansas, which agreed that public school segregation had a "detrimental effect upon the colored children" and contributed to "a sense of inferiority," but still upheld the "separate but equal" doctrine.

Brown v. Board of Education Verdict

When Brown's case and four other cases related to school segregation first came before the Supreme Court in 1952, the Court combined them into a single case under the name Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.

Thurgood Marshall, the head of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, served as chief attorney for the plaintiffs. (Thirteen years later, President Lyndon B. Johnson would appoint Marshall as the first Black Supreme Court justice.)

At first, the justices were divided on how to rule on school segregation, with Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson holding the opinion that the Plessy verdict should stand. But in September 1953, before Brown v. Board of Education was to be heard, Vinson died, and President Dwight D. Eisenhower replaced him with Earl Warren, then governor of California.

Displaying considerable political skill and determination, the new chief justice succeeded in engineering a unanimous verdict against school segregation the following year.

In the decision, issued on May 17, 1954, Warren wrote that "in the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place," as segregated schools are "inherently unequal." As a result, the Court ruled that the plaintiffs were being "deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the 14th Amendment."

Little Rock Nine

In its verdict, the Supreme Court did not specify how exactly schools should be integrated, but asked for further arguments about it.

In May 1955, the Court issued a second opinion in the case (known as Brown v. Board of Education II), which remanded future desegregation cases to lower federal courts and directed district courts and school boards to proceed with desegregation "with all deliberate speed."

Though well intentioned, the Court's actions effectively opened the door to local judicial and political evasion of desegregation. While Kansas and some other states acted in accordance with the verdict, many school and local officials in the South defied it.

In one major example, Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas called out the state National Guard to prevent Black students from attending high school in Little Rock in 1957. After a tense standoff, President Eisenhower deployed federal troops, and nine students-known as the " Little Rock Nine"- were able to enter Central High School under armed guard.

Impact of Brown v. Board of Education

Though the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board didn't achieve school desegregation on its own, the ruling (and the steadfast resistance to it across the South) fueled the nascent civil rights movement in the United States.

In 1955, a year after the Brown v. Board of Education decision, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery, Alabama bus. Her arrest sparked the Montgomery bus boycott and would lead to other boycotts, sit-ins and demonstrations (many of them led by Martin Luther King Jr.), in a movement that would eventually lead to the toppling of Jim Crow laws across the South.

Passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, backed by enforcement by the Justice Department, began the process of desegregation in earnest. This landmark piece of civil rights legislation was followed by the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Fair Housing Act of 1968.

In 1976, the Supreme Court issued another landmark decision in Runyon v. McCrary, ruling that even private, nonsectarian schools that denied admission to students on the basis of race violated federal civil rights laws.

By overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine, the Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education had set the legal precedent that would be used to overturn laws enforcing segregation in other public facilities. But despite its undoubted impact, the historic verdict fell short of achieving its primary mission of integrating the nation's public schools.

Today, more than 60 years after Brown v. Board of Education, the debate continues over how to combat racial inequalities in the nation's school system, largely based on residential patterns and differences in resources between schools in wealthier and economically disadvantaged districts across the country.

HISTORY Vault: Black History

Sources

History - Brown v. Board of Education Re-enactment, United States Courts.
Brown v. Board of Education, The Civil Rights Movement: Volume I (Salem Press).
Cass Sunstein, "Did Brown Matter?" The New Yorker, May 3, 2004.
Brown v. Board of Education, PBS.org.
Richard Rothstein, Brown v. Board at 60, Economic Policy Institute, April 17, 2014.

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Brown v. Board of Education: Summary, Ruling & Impact | HISTORY

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Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka was a landmark 1954 Supreme Court case in which the justices ruled unanimously that racial segregation of children in public schools was unconstitutional.

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California Higher Education Master Plan (first higher education system)

The Master Plan transformed a collection of uncoordinated and competing
colleges and universities into a coherent system & created, for the first time anywhere, a system that combined exceptional quality with broad access for students

UC Berkeley
CSU- serves majority students who have Pell grants

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James Meredith enters the University of Mississippi as first African American Student

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U.S. Supreme Court vs. Fordice desegregates statewide systems of higher education

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Reauthorization of Higher Ed. Act, including Title IX passes prohibiting discrimination in programs receiving fed. Financial aid

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The Higher Education Act passes increasing federal govt. support for student financial aid

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Founding of Morehouse College

Morehouse College is a private historically Black men's liberal arts college in Atlanta, Georgia.

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The Navajo Community College Act established the first tribal college, Diné College.

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1968 - Navajo Community College Act establishes first tribal college

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1968 - Navajo Community College Act establishes first tribal college

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"Diné College was established in 1968 as the first tribally-controlled community college in the United States. In creating an institution of higher education, the Navajo Nation sought to encourage Navajo youth to become contributing members of the Navajo Nation and the world society."

https://www.dinecollege.edu/about_dc/history/

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Diné College was established in 1968 as the first tribally-controlled community college in the United States. In creating an institution of higher education, the Navajo Nation sought to encourage Navajo youth to become contributing members of the Navajo Nation and the world society. Under the direction of an eight-member Board of Regents confirmed by the Government Services Committee of the Navajo Nation Council, the College serves residents of the 26,000 square mile Navajo Nation, which spans the states of Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. As a postsecondary educational institution, Diné College awards associate degrees and certificates in areas important to the economic and social development of the Navajo Nation.

The Navajos have a long history of dedication to education for their people. A few days before his death in 1893, the great chief, Hastinn Ch'il Haajiin (Manuelito) said, "My grandchild, education is the ladder. Tell our people to take it." For the past five decades, the Navajos have allocated a relatively large proportion of their efforts and resources to improving educational opportunities for their tribal members.

The Navajo Tribe took a momentous step toward educational self-determination of Indians by establishing Navajo Community College (now Diné College) in 1968. This landmark institution was an innovative means to meet the long unmet postsecondary educational needs of Native Americans.

Diné College was the first college established by Native Americans for Native Americans. It set a precedent for later tribally controlled community colleges on or near reservations. Diné College remains the oldest and largest. In the following decades, 33 similar colleges have been founded by other Indian tribes.

A major milestone in the development of Diné College was its attainment of accreditation by the North Central Association (NCA) Commission on Institutions of Higher Education in 1976. It became the first tribally controlled institution to be accredited as a two-year college. In 1995 NCA renewed the accreditation of the College for an additional six years. The 2002 comprehensive visit garnered a recommended 8 year re-accreditation.

Under the direction of an eight-member Board of Regents confirmed by the Government Services Committee of the Navajo Nation Council, Diné College has the responsibility to serve residents of the 26,000 square mile Navajo Nation which spans the states of Arizona, New Mexico and Utah.

As a postsecondary educational institution, Diné College awards Associate degrees and Certificates in areas important to the economic and social development of the Navajo Nation. To comply with the College mission, personalized instruction is guaranteed to each student because of the low student-faculty ratio.

In 1998, Diné College bestowed its first baccalaureate degrees under the Diné Teacher Education Program, accredited under a partnership with Arizona State University.

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Diné College was established in 1968 as the first tribally-controlled community college in the United States. In creating an institution of higher education, the Navajo Nation sought to encourage Navajo youth to become contributing members of the Navajo Nation and the world society.

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San Francisco State College, a PWI establishes a Black studies program

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Yale and Princeton accept first women undergraduates

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The founding of Liberty University- First Evangelical College

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Regents of university of Cal. V. Bakke , quota banned but race can be used as a factor in admissions

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The Indian Education Act expands support for tribally controlled college

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U.S. News and World Review published first college rankings report

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Creation of the National Commission on Accreditation

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University of Phoenix established it first “online campus”

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Graham B. Spanier, Penn State President fired by Board of Trustees

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Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) created

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Closure of  for-profit Corinthian Colleges

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Mizzou Student Protest

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Indictment of Operation Varsity Blues

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2019 - Georgetown Student Fee Reparations

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2019 - Georgetown Student Fee Reparations

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"$400,000 a year to benefit the descendants of the 272 enslaved people who were sold to help keep the college afloat nearly two centuries ago, officials said."

"-support community projects such as health clinics and schools."

"-students would play “a substantial role” in the new initiative but would not be required to pay additional fees. The university plans to seek voluntary contributions from alumni, faculty, students and philanthropists."

https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/30/us/georgetown-slavery-reparations.html

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University officials described the decision as one step in a dialogue with the descendants, who are seeking $1 billion.

Georgetown University will raise about $400,000 a year to benefit the descendants of the enslaved people who were sold to help keep the college afloat nearly two centuries ago, officials said. Credit... Justin T. Gellerson for The New York Times

Joining a wave of American institutions moving to offer a measure of restitution for their ties to slavery, Georgetown University announced on Tuesday that it would raise about $400,000 a year to benefit the descendants of the 272 enslaved people who were sold to help keep the college afloat nearly two centuries ago, officials said.

The university plans to use the money to support community projects such as health clinics and schools. The announcement came six months after Georgetown students voted in a nonbinding referendum to impose student fees that would have raised about $400,000 a year to support the descendants.

Georgetown officials said students would play "a substantial role" in the new initiative but would not be required to pay additional fees. The university plans to seek voluntary contributions from alumni, faculty, students and philanthropists.

"We embrace the spirit of this student proposal," wrote John J. DeGioia, Georgetown's president, in a letter to the university community, adding that officials would "ensure that the initiative has resources commensurate with, or exceeding the amount that would have been raised annually through the student fee."

Georgetown officials described the decision as one step in a dialogue with the descendants, who are seeking $1 billion for a foundation that would finance educational, health, housing and other needs. Dr. DeGioia said the university would continue to participate in those talks along with the Jesuits, who established and ran Georgetown and organized a slave sale in 1838 to help save the college from foundering.

Conversations about reparations for slavery have spread in just a few years from activist circles to college quads to the halls of Congress. Georgetown is the third institution to take such a step in the past two months. This month, Princeton Theological Seminary announced it would spend $27 million on scholarships and other initiatives to make amends for its ties to slavery.

In September, Virginia Theological Seminary, which relied on enslaved laborers, created a $1.7 million reparations fund. And last year, the Catholic sisters of the Society of the Sacred Heart created a reparations fund to finance scholarships for African-Americans in Grand Coteau, La., where the nuns had owned about 150 black people.

At Georgetown, college officials relied on Jesuit plantations in Maryland to help finance the school's operations, university officials said. The 1838 sale - worth about $3.3 million in today's dollars - was organized by two of Georgetown's early presidents, both Jesuit priests.

Dr. DeGioia said the university would begin funding community programs in 2020 and described the new fund as part of the university's efforts "to respond to the question: How do we address now, in this moment, the enduring and persistent legacies of slavery?"

But Shepard Thomas, a descendant of an enslaved couple sold in 1838 and a student leader who helped organize the spring referendum, criticized the decision to raise the money through charitable contributions instead of student fees.

On Wednesday, he and other student leaders issued a statement saying that Georgetown's plan "delegitimizes and undermines student effort and the democratic vote of the undergraduate student body" and "contains no clear criteria, accountability measures or transparency with regards to construction or implementation."

In an interview, Mr. Thomas said he feared that descendants would ultimately end up with less financial support, and noted that the university's plan would not allow individual descendants to receive assistance with medical bills, housing or scholarships.

"That isn't sufficient," he said.

Video

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transcript

'How Can You Not Vote Yes?': Georgetown Students React to Reparations Fund

In a nonbinding referendum, undergraduates at Georgetown University voted to raise their tuition by $27.20 per student per semester in order to benefit descendants of the 272 enslaved Africans that the Jesuits who ran the school sold in 1838.

"I want everyone here to know that we cannot remove the historical precontext to our current context." "These students are taking their Georgetown education while they're here at Georgetown, and they're stepping up to be representative of that." "I oppose this 272 referendum primarily because these funds have been allocated, or will be allocated if it passes, before we know what's going to happen with it, which is simply an irresponsible position for the committee to take." "I try to look at things from a very like, third-party perspective, and like looking down on this like, how can you not vote yes?"

In a nonbinding referendum, undergraduates at Georgetown University voted to raise their tuition by $27.20 per student per semester in order to benefit descendants of the 272 enslaved Africans that the Jesuits who ran the school sold in 1838. Credit Credit... Gabriella Demczuk for The New York Times

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Is Georgetown's $400,000-a-Year Plan to Aid Slave Descendants Enough?

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University officials described the decision as one step in a dialogue with the descendants, who are seeking $1 billion. Joining a wave of American institutions moving to offer a measure of restitution for their ties to slavery, Georgetown University announced on Tuesday that it would raise about $400,000 a year to benefit the descendants of the 272 enslaved people who were sold to help keep the college afloat nearly two centuries ago, officials said.

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University of Phoenix established it first “online campus”