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Chromosomes are tightly packed pieces of DNA. Within the human body there are 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 of them are autosomes and the other pair is sex-linked. Chromosomes are inherited from your parents and are your genetic code. DNA forms chromosomes which holds genes. Genes code for DNA and provide instructions for building proteins. Proteins is what makes our body and are responsible for each trait we have. Chromosomes can have defects such as mutations this can be caused by not having enough chromosomes or having too much.

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Genetic testing uses DNA to help people find out if they have a disease and what the possibility is to passing it to their offspring. This process is done by a genetic counselor and are also prepared to help the family with getting adjusted to a genetic diagnosis. They also help with helping the parents understand genetic diseases. Genetic counselors can help a family understand the risks of having a child with a genetic disorder.

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Genetic disorders are caused by abnormalities in an individual's genetic material. There are 4 types of genetic disorders single-gene, multifactorial, chromosomal, and mitochondrial. Single-gene is classified as autosomal dominant recessive and sex-linked. Dominant is where one gene can be passed from a parent to inherit the disease. Recessive is where both parents need to pass the gene for the disease to be inherited. Sex-linked is where it is passed on the sex chromosomes. Multifactorial disorders are caused by multiple bad genes mixed with the environment. These are not guaranteed to be inherited. Mitochondrial disorders are rare meaning they are caused by mutations. Chromosomal disorders are inherited by not having enough chromosomes or even extra.

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There are multiple genetic disorders and people want to know if they are carriers and can pass this to their offspring. There are types of genetic screening such as carrier screening, preimplantation genetic diagnosis, fetal screening, prenatal diagnosis, and newborn screening. Carrier screening is a test that is done on adults who consider having children that want to know if their children can inherit any diseases. A preimplantation genetic diagnosis is done by people with autosomal dominant or sex-linked disorders that don't want to pass it off to their children. Fetal screening/ prenatal diagnosis is done on fetuses while still inside the womb. Newborn screening is a test of infants after birth.

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A key task in genetic testing is amplifying DNA by PCR. PCR or polymerase chain reaction is a procedure that produces multiple copies of a DNA sequence. PCR is a three-step process that occurs in a thermal cycler. Three ingredients are added are Taq polymerase, DNA primers, and nucleotides. The first step is denaturation where the temperature in the thermal cycler increases to 95 degrees C. This breaks up the hydrogen bonds in the double-stranded helix. The second step is annealing. The thermal cycler decreases to 55 degrees C making the DNA primers do their job. The DNA primers target the section of DNA being copied and binds to it. The last step is extension where the temperature is 72 degrees C.  This requires Taq polymerase and DNA nucleotides. Taq polymerase attaches to the DNA where the primer is. The nucleotides are added to the DNA making it double-stranded. Once the Taq polymerase job is finished there are two double-stranded pieces of DNA made. This process repeats over and over again.

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PCR copies DNA but that is not enough another process must be done before it is used to diagnose disease. Diagnosis is done by medical officials looking in the cells and they decode the message in the sequence of nucleotides. Genotype which is what is in our DNA predicts our phenotypes. A genotype is a genetic code for the traits all humans contain such as blue eyes and blonde hair. These traits can be tested by gel electrophoresis. This process begins with the isolation of DNA. Cells are taken from the body and are blown up. This mixes all the contents within the cell together where the DNA is taken away from the rest of the contents. This process is called centrifugation. At the end of this process, a pellet is made that includes DNA. Inside the tube, chelex is added that forces the DNA to separate itself from the waste in the tube. Then the DNA holding supernatant is transferred to a new tube. This small piece of DNA has to go through the process of PCR. After the DNA is replicated it must be inspected for having a disease with restriction enzymes. Restriction enzymes are molecular scissors that cut a strand of DNA where wanted. Now it must be determined and this can be done with the process of gel electrophoresis. Once the gel is done the genotype is revealed which can show if they are a carrier, affected by the disease, or if they do not have either.

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During pregnancy, health is very important for the baby. This determines the health of the baby. The first trimester in pregnancy is the most important because major body systems are formed. Chemical substances can have a negative effect on the baby and exercise with a healthy diet should be done throughout the whole pregnancy.

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Gene therapy is a treatment for diseases where faulty genes are replaced with normal working ones. Gene therapy can provide people that have diseases with normal genes so the body can function properly. This works by vectors that deliver healthy genes to the non-functional ones. There are multiple types of vectors including retroviruses, adenoviruses, adeno-associated viruses, herpes simplex viruses, liposomes, and naked DNA. All these vectors have the same purpose in delivering normal genes to the bad ones but the way they do that is different and where they deliver it to.

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Using gene therapy is good for fixing people with diseases but it can do so much more. This includes making the perfect human whether is academically or in sports. Gene therapy fixes genes so could they make a human better in some ways?

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Technology nowadays allows parents to make selections for their babies. Is it possible for parents to choose their offspring's gender? If so what else could they choose such as hair and eye color? How much money would this process cost each family?

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Future Applications of Reproductive Technology

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Future Applications of Reproductive Technology

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Reproductive cloning is a way to make a genetic copy of an individual. Another form is therapeutic cloning. This is done for healing purposes instead of reproductive ones. Can this technology further in the future such as using a strand of your own DNA to make a new arm or leg? What else could be done if so?