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Main concern was how society maintained social order through the collective conscience. Sociology should be a study of social facts and studied objectively.
Society can externally constrain individuals based in social integration and social regulation, these constraints can shape our behaviour (link to suicide)

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Instrumental: Material needs, supported by economic and political subsystems.
Expressive: Emotional needs, supported by the kinship and cultural subsystem.

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Interested in value consensus and through socialisation and social control agencies, value consensus is maintained; society is linked up of elements that meet functional prerequisites.
Adaptation: Economic production to ensure physical needs are met. Supported by the Economic function.
Goal attainment: Making decisions for the masses. Supported by the Political function.
Integration: Need to control conflict. Supported by social harmony.
Latency: Maintenance of value consensus. Supported by the family.

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1. Organic Analogy: In a highly differentiated society, the functional unity is less likely, and some aspects may act to divide rather than unite.
2. All parts of society have positive functions: Some parts of society may be dysfunctional, Durkheim and Parsons ignore the possibility of distinguishing between positive functions-
Manifest Function: Deliberate and intended function
Latent Function: Unintended function.
3. Certain institutions are indispensible: Functions performed by religion or the family can be performed by other institutions, so it is wrong to assume society cannot function without them.

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Logical Criticisms- Teleology is the idea that things exist because of their functions, a real explanation is one that identifies its cause.
Action perspective: Criticises functionalists 'over-socialised' view of the individual.

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Wanted a scientific explanation of society. Those who owned economic power were able to control society ensuring norms and values mirrored their own and they were generally accepted- even if they were not benefitting them.
EVAL: Simplistic, one-dimensional view of inequality as he sees class as the only important division.

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1. Humanistic or critical Marxism: some similarities with action and interpretive sociology
2. Scientific or structuralist Marxsim: structural approach and has similarities with positivist sociology

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The social structure was made up of three different levels:
The Economic level- production to satisfy a need
The Political level- compromising all forms of organisation
The ideological level- involving ways in which people see themselves.
With these levels exist two important tools that the bourgeoisie use to control the proletariat:
The ideological state apparatus and The repressive state apparatus. Didn't believe that the proletariat had dual class consciousness, any exploitation was permitted by the bourgeoise.
EVAL: Too deterministic according to humanist marxists.

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Discusses the concept of hegemony to explain how the bourgeoisie use ideas and values to prevent a proletariat revolution by winning consent of the working class.
The bourgeoisie along with hegemony, use coercion to control the proletariat. Hegemony can never be complete because:
-The ruling class are a minority
-The proletariat have a dual consciousness.
EVAL: Over emphasises the power of individual

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Key concept is patriarchy, which is universal and the biggest source of social conflict and inequality in society. All men oppress all women and patriarchy occurs in both the public and private sphere.
Separatism: Females to live separately
Consciousness Raising: Sharing experience and collectively re-claiming their power
Political Lesbianism: The only non-oppressive form of sexuality
EVAL: Claimed to be too essentialist

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Women are a source of cheap, exploitable labour and serve to reproduce the labour force and absorb anger.
EVAL: Does not explain inequality in non-capitalist societies.

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Laws and policies can create equality for women, as sexism is culturally constructed and transmitted via socialisation.
EVAL: Fail to look at the underlying social causes of female oppression

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Combine Marxist and Radical feminism as it focuses on :
The economic system
The gender system
To fully understand 'patriarchal capitalism' we must look at the private and public spheres

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Criticise other feminists for ignoring the individual experiences of all women. Women are not a single homogenous group and all women have different experiences based on: sexuality; social class; ethnicity and family background.
Criticise early feminists for claiming to speak on behalf of all women,  when in reality they only spoke on behalf of white, middle-class, heterosexual women

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Focus on discourse, feel as though middle-class, white women dominate feminism.
EVAL: Walby argues that although women are different, some have similar experiences

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Aim was to achieve Verstehen. Classified meanings that actors give to their actions into 4 types:
Instrumentally Rational Action- Calculates the most efficient way of achieving a given goal
Value Rational Action- A goal the actor views as desirable for its own sake
Traditional Action- Involves customary, routine and habitual actions
Affectual Action- Action expresses emotion
EVAL: Doesn't consider why we recognise some actions collectively

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We do not respond to stimulus in an automatic and pre-determined way. Before we respond, we interpret the meaning of an action and then choose an appropriate response, we do this by putting ourselves in the other person

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Actions are based on meanings we give to situations, meanings arise form interaction and are not fixed, meanings are a result of interpretive procedures.
Blumer suggests our behaviour is partly predictable, but there is always room for negotiation i how we perform in institutions

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We define our self-concept as a result of how we think other people see us. We embrace those labels which leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy.

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Argues we actively construct our 'self' by manipulating other people's impression of us:
Presentation of self= Seek to present a particular image
Impression management= Then study our audience to see how they respond to the self we have presented and adjust our performance when necessary

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The meaning of any experience varies according to its social context. Schutz argues that we share knowledge of various contexts and the meanings of them which allows us to communicate and co-operate. Without these 'share typifications' social order would be impossible

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Social order is an accomplishment, something that is constructed actively everyday. Garfinkel looked at the methods or rules that we use to produce the meanings in the first place:
Indexicality- nothing has a fixed meaning. This is a threat to social order, because if meanings are unclear then communication becomes difficult.
Reflexivity- we behave as if meanings are clear and obvious, using common-sense knowledge to prevent indexicality.
EVAL: denies the existence of wider society- ignores the impact of wider society

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In reality, society is probably best understood using a mixture of structural and action approaches. Constraints from social structures can control the behaviour of groups and individuals, but individuals can make their own choices. Human beings create and reinforce, or can change a destroy these structures

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Three main elements of modernity:
1. Economic- involved the growth of the capitalist market economy
2. Political- emergence of the centralised nation state
3. Culture- emphasis on scientific and technical knowledge.
Characterised by stability and overt social control. Unfragmented and focused around production. The disenchantment of society stressed the importance of scientific knowledge. A focus on scientific research that helped sociology become an academic success.

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Late modernity is characterised by the boundaries of time and space, also reflexivity where individuals actively construct their own identity

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Modernity underwent a global transformation, and we should now focus on trying to understanding the cosmopolitan condition, amplified by globalisation e.g. transnational news coverage, international criminality.

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Characterised by instability and fragmentation due to a rejection of traditional values. Valid or invalid knowledge doesn't exist and there is now a plurality of truth. Theories claiming to hold a monopoly have been rejected due to a lack of evidence, individuals now create their own choice.

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Meta-narratives are simplistic and reductionist, knowledge is no longer a tool of the authorities.
The victory of capitalism has caused the idea of a perfect society to be abandoned in pursuit of goods and services.

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Simulacra are the experiences that people accept as real when they are not always accurate. We live in a hyper-reality dominated by consumerism

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Marketisation of education
EMA
Education Action Zones

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Divorce Reform Act
Marital Rape Act
Civil Partnership Act

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Job Seekers Allowance
Tax Credits

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Far left policies are likely to have less support

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Left or Right Wing

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Sociology can make a difference to social policy. Townsend believed that the recommendations made regarding poverty could make a difference to social policy