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Is it right to get a cochlear implant?
I think it is right to get an implant because it will help people connect to and better understand the world around them. With the implant, people can be part of both the deaf and hearing worlds. Even though the procedure is dangerous, it is worth it because of the benefits.

What are the benefits of this?
She will be able to be friends with and communicate with more people. She can play sports, learn languages, and do many other things that she wouldn't have been able to do. You can also go to regular school and be successful in the world in the future with her talents and advance her career.

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Chemical Senses
Olfactory-extremely sensitive (5 million receptors) airborne chemicals soluble in the Nasal Mucous. Only sense that doesn't go to the thalamus.
Receptor cells sends info to the olfactory bulb to limbic system. Problems with sense of smell due to clogged receptor cells. Due to direct connection with limbic system. Olfactory sense strongly correlated with memory. Memory is state dependent
Gustation (taste)- different fro flavor = sensory interaction
smell + taste/texture
Taste buds (papillae) receptor cells for taste. Characteristic pattern to taste sensation
5 tastes- salty, sour, bitter, sweet, umami
Items that reduce that taste: smoking, drinking, texture
Skin senses: cutaneous sensations: pressure, temperature and pain
Some spots are especially sensitive to certain stimuli. Pressure only receptors
Brain is most sensitive to unexpected stimulation. Certain areas have more concentrated tactile nerve endings than others (fingertips lips)
Sensory cortex controls this sense.
Kinesthesis: sense of body parts and positions (involved with PNS)
Vestibular sense-monitors head position and movement (balance)
Semicircular canals, vestibular sacs, connects canals w/ cochlea (fluid) (spin = dizzy)
Pain
-no one specific receptor or stimulus. Individual differences.
Who has stronger tolerance for pain
Athletes have stronger tolerance for pain. Mindset can affect reactions. Cultures see pain differently. Cognition. (it doesnt hurt). Physiological, women are the stronger sex.
Memory affects pain- you don't think it'll hurt as bad because you know it, or it'll hurt more (mindset)
Gate Control Theory- ronald melzack and patrick wall- "neurological gate" in the spinal cord controls the transmission of pain to the brain. Small nf open (pain)/large nf Close (other senses close off pain)
Endorphins associated with pain. Morphine used to relieve pain.
How people respond to pain (daniel Kahneman)- if you want a positive experience and less pain, taper down even longer...no immediate cut off
Phantom limb- misinterpretation. Demonstration= candle technique vs walking over the coals.
Touch- skin sensations. Pressure. only skin sensation with identifiable receptors.
warmth, cold, pain. When you touch something, you only feel hot.

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The Ear-everything in the ear is based on vibrations
sound waves enter the outer ear and travel to the ear drum, causing it to vibrate
the vibrations cause the hammer, anvil, and stirrup of the middle ear to hit eachother and carry the vibrations to the oval window
then onto the fluid in the snail-shaped cochlea, of the inner ear
This causes the hairs (Cilia) in the basilar membrane to move which sends neuron to the organ of corti
Message is then sent to the auditory nerve. Message is then sent to the thalamus and then the temporal lobe
Theories of hearing
1)Place theory- originally suggested by helmoltz discovered by georg von bekesy- ability to hear different pitches of sound is due to location of neuron acvtivity on basilar membrane in cochlea (caused by frequency pitch of sound waves)
higher frequency, short wavelength, higher pitch, neuron activity closer to base of basilar membrane .
explains high pitch. problem= can't explain lower tones. Why? area in rest of snail cochlea is too similar, no differential
2) Frequency theory- vibration triggers neural impulses to brain at the same rate as sound wave
how does it work: lower frequencies = fewer neural impulses. Higher frequencies = larger amount of neural impulses.
Explains low pitches, problem with pitches about 1000 hertz. why? Pitches above 1000 hertz are too fast to be read by number of impulses.
3) Volley principle- neural cells can alternate firing and thereby achieve combined frequency for very average pitch
Hearing Problems
Conductive Deafness: Problems of conducting sound wave to cochlea. Why? Ear drum puncture/bones can't vibrate. Solution? Can be repaired with hearing aids. Why? Hearing aides amplify frequency people are very sensitive to loud sounds, compressing sounds is a key!
Sensorineural hearing loss- nerve deafness (hair cells). What causes this type of deafness: caused by loud noises, age, or genetics. Cochlea implants may be helpful but...
Other senses:
McGurk Effect: what we see effects what we hear
sound can alter perceived vision
Tritone Paradox: tones contain both higher and lower frequency in them and our brain has a preference for which. Our location an upbringing  effect the preference
Shepard tune illusion- if multiple soundwaves are played one after another and one quickly drops an octave, your brain doesn't notice the jump and think you're continuosly going higher and higher.

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Differentiate between binocular and monocular cues
Perception- how we organize and interpret information from our senses
Gestalt= "whole" or "form". We see things as a "whole"
Sometimes what we see is not what is there
Rules of perception(Gestalt)
1- Figure-Ground: we organize information into a figure seen against a ground
Grouping principles
2- Proximity: group nearby figures together
Muller-Lyer Illusion: the lines look different sizes with the triangles on the ends, especially when they're apart.
3- Similarity: group similar figures together
4-Continuity: see smooth, continuous patterns
5-Connectedness: when linked, we see spots, lines or areas as a single unit
Depth Perception- 2 dimensions fall on retina; perceive as 3D. we estimate distance.
Visual Cliff- Eleanor Gibson & Richard Walk: test of depth perception, infants and toddlers by crawling age (6 months), we can see depth
Visual Constancy- perceiving objects as unchanging despite changes in retinal images
5 types of Constancy:
1-color: perception of familiar objects as having consistent colors, even if changing illumination
2-shape: see the same shape despite angle it's at
3-size: despite the distance, objects don't change size (general idea of size)
4-location
5-brightness
Monocular Cues: cues to one eye
Interpostion- (1 Object Blocks View of Another so) often referred to as superposition
Relative Clarity: Aerial Perspective; perception that hazy objects are farther away than sharp objects
Relative size: assumption that 2 objects are similar size, 1 closer has larger retinal image
Texture Gradient: coarse, distinct texture is closer than finer, indistinct texture
Relative Height- objects higher in field of vision appear farther away (vertical dimensions appear longer than horizontal dimensions)
Relative motion (Motion Parallex)- movement of self causes stable items to appear to move, nearest object appears to move faster
Binocular cues- cues to both eyes:
Linear perspective- parallel lines appear to converge in distance (Ponzo Illusion) (people over estimate train's distance)
Light and Shadow aka Shadowing- nearby objects reflect more light into eyes (dimmer objects appear farther away)
Retinal Disparity- difference between sight/views of 2 eyes (ex pen movement)
Convergence- cue for perceiving depth; eyes converge inward towards object
Stereoscopic Vision- combine 2 retinal images to get 3D perception
Assumption- closer object gets larger
Stroboscopic movement- motion pictures ie. Cartoons flip book
Phi Phenomenon- illusion of lights, blinking off and on
Autokinetic Illusion- perceived motion created by single stationary object (slight movement of eye muscles make object move)
Sound localizations-
Monaural cue- louder sound means closer sound
Binaural cues- stereophonic= stereo: multi directional audio perspective

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Learn color theories and visual cues
Transduction- signals are formed into neural impulses as light passes through retina
Parallel processing-processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously (color, form, and motion happen at the same time)
Hubel and Weisel: neurons in the visual cortex respond to specific features responsible for motion:
shape, form, color, movement
Electro magnetifc Spectrum:
- Wavelength- the distance from one wave peak to another
High frequency-short wavelength, bluish colors, high pitched sounds
Low frequency- long wavelength, reddish colors, low pitched sounds
Large amplitude- tall wavelength, bright colors, loud sounds
Small amplitude- short wavelength, dull colors, soft sounds
Theories of color vision:
-Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory: each cone is maximally sensitive to 1 of 3 colors (red green or blue). Combined stimulation of these cones cause other colors by mixing light waves (red + green = yellow)
-Afterimage: when you stare at  1 or 2 colors, cones become saturated, then when you look at a white piece of paper you see the opposite colors due to saturation of cones. Young-Helmholtz theory cannot explain afterimage because with afaterimage you see the opposite color or colorblindness
Colorblindness- partial or total inability to perceive hues
monochromats(black and white)
dichromats (red/green, yellow/blue)
trichromats (normal color vision)
Color blindness involves 2 colors pairs not 1 single cone. according to young helmholtz color blindness should be you can't see red, green, or blue only so this isn't correct
-Opponent process theory- (hering) three kinds of cones that all work in pairs
paired with opposites: if one is stimulated the other is inhibited. (red &green) j(blue &yellow) (black &white)
both theories are correct, trichromatic explains individual cones, opponent process explains other layers of the retina
-Surrounding context- if an item is viewed with other colors then the color of the object changes

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Understand the PARTS and PATH of vision
-Cornea- protects eyeball; transparent protector place where light enters the eye
-Aqueous humor - liquid, keeps the eye round
-Iris - color of the eye, muscle; protects from damage
-Lens- looks cloudy; transparent part of the ye inside the pupil that focuses light onto the retina(upside down) by changing its curvature
- Accommodation- lens shape changes according to distance: round = close, flat= far. If lens is rigid, it's difficult to focus
-Pupil- inside lens; adjustable opening in the center of the iris where light continues to enter; contracts in bright light and relaxes in dim light (reflexive response)
-Virtuous humor- allows lens to bend
-Retina- has 3 layers and attatches to the optic nerve; inner lining on the back of the eyeball that contains receptor cells sensitive to light
- Rods show black and white
-Cones show color
Blindsight- the ability to respond to something not consciously perceived
-Fovea- point of central focus on the retina. image seen at fovea is seen upside down and gets fixed at the thalamus; the line of central focus, holds only cones.
-Optic Nerve- carries info to the thalamus and then the occipital lobe
-Optic Chiasm- spot where nerves cross eachother (left to right/right to left)
-Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)- Areas in Thalamus that interprets images
Occipital Lobe
3 Layers of the Retina:
- 1st layer(green): rods and cones, 20-1, rods = peripheral vision, cones = detail, rods = movement, cones - not senssitive to light, rods = very sensitive to light
- 2nd layer: Bipolar Cells- specialized neurons connect to rods and cones (1 axon/1 dendrite)
-3rd layer: Ganglion Cells- axons of these cells, made of Optic Nerve and sends info to thalamus specifically the LGN
2 kinds of Ganglion Cells: Magnocellular Cells (MCells)- detect motion
Parvocellur Cells - detect color/what item is
Acuity- ability to distinguish fine details, Sharpness
-Transduction- light mmust pass through the layers of the retina
-length of wave determines hue
-intensity of wave determines brightness
Pathway of light:

light through the eye to the cornea-
aqueous humor - through pupil -
lens - vitreous humor - retina -
optic nerve - brain - the occipital lobe

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Understand the difference between absolute, subliminal and difference thresholds.
-Absolute Threshold- the minimum stimulation necessary to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. In other words, this smalest amount of stimuli we can detect 50% of the time
-Just noticeable difference- the amount something must be changed in order to detect it 50% of the time
-Difference Threshold- the minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli 50% of the time
-JND is a constant fraction of original stimulus. Varies among senses: 8% light, 2& weight, .3% tone. Greater intensity means greater amount of change necessary. Ex: Bright color needs to have even brighter difference to be able to notice a difference.
-Approximate thresholds:
-Sensation thresholds- when stimuli are detectable less than 50% of the time, they are "subliminal"
-Signal detection theory- predicts when and how we see things. Expectations and biases influence your abilities to detect things

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Understand the difference between top-down and bottom-up processes of sensation and perception
-perception is based on what's going on in the world around you
-priming; doing something to lead people to a response
-perceptual set; what the world is telling you to perceive or how it should be perceived
-senses- what you actually perceive/ see/hear/smell
-sensory adaptation- as you get used to something, the potence goes down. You adapt to your senses as they go along.
Perception- the top down way our brains organize and interpret that information and put it into context
Perceptual set- the psychological factors that determine how you perceive your environment
figure-ground relationship: the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings
Prosopognosia
sensation-bottom up process by which we take in senses from around us
1-perception is top down, sensation is bottom up
2- top down changes perception because it is based on expectation and context and the environment
Absolute threshold sensation- the minimum amount of times we should pick up a stimulus
Bottom up processing takes longer to do but is always more accurate than top down
Inattentional blindness- when you're focused on one thing, you're unable to focus on something else that is also there
Change blindness- when your environment shifts but you don't notice the change.