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calling

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A child must be “able to accomplish a repertoire of speech acts, to take part in speech events, and to evaluate their accomplishment by others.” (Hymes, 1972)

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4. Strategic competence: being able to recognise and repair communication breakdowns

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3. Discourse competence: manipulating language according to mode and genre

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2. Sociolinguistic competence: understanding which register is right for which context

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1. Linguistic competence: i.e. linguistic methods

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Effective language acquisition means:
- Using the right language in the right context
- Learning to interpret subliminal meanings

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Dell Hymes (1996)

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The caregiver is competing for their child's attention

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Fivush and Schwarzmueller (1998): verbalising events as they unfold is critical for long-term retention in memory

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Chouinard and Clarke (2003): adults spend more time unconsciously reformulating a child's utterance than they do correcting it

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Babies turn towards singsong intonation and ignore regular conversation

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Kuhl (1992): Swedish, English and Russian parents exaggerated the important vowel sounds, especially in minimal pairs

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Brown, Cazden and Bellugi (1969): caregivers respond to the truth-value of an utterance, rather than its grammatical correctness

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Nelson (1973): children whose mother corrected them during the holophrastic stage acquired language more slowly

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Fernald and Mazzie (1991): higher pitch and exaggerated intonation facilitate learning

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Hart and Risley (1995): children from HSE families hear up to 44 million utterances, compared to the average 12 million from LSE families

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Clarke-Stewart (1973): children whose mothers talk more have larger vocabularies

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Known-answer questions to elicit speech

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Model and encourage politeness

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Adjacency pairs and tripartite exchanges

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Scaffold by recasting non-standard utterances

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Simple sentences, omission of auxiliary verbs, direct interrogatives/imperatives, nomination instead of pronouns, omission of inflexions

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Deixis to direct child's attention

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Dynamic verbs denoting common activities

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Concrete nouns in immediate environment

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May adopt phonological simplification strategies, e.g. diminutive suffixes, unstressed syllable deletion

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Exaggerated intonation, varied + animated prosody, stress on key syllables

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Not a linguistic universal

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Likely to respond to all forms of communication from the child

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Pretend play requires adherence to the rules within the play world, promoting self-regulatory development

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Usha Goswami: children with imaginary friends have richer language skill and are better at constructing narratives

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Jenkins and Astington (1996): children with siblings develop a theory of mind more quickly. Pretend play with siblings is thought to make high demands for imaginative cooperation

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Leslie (1987) found that for a child to pretend that one object is another, s/he must detach the primary representation from the pretend representation. The latter is thus a metarepresentation: it represents a representation in child's parallel objective world. Pretend play therefore marks the emergence of metacognition

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Pretend play begins around 2yrs, and is typically based on veridical situations

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Starting school introduces a child to:
- Cueing and bidding
- Tripartite exchanges (IRF)
- Code-switching registers
- Being sensitive to the needs of a listener

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Peek-a-boo parallels turn-taking, response, pleasure, and common understanding

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Turn-taking and adjacency pairs learned before speaking

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requesting action

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practising

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answering

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protesting

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repeating

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greeting

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labelling

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representational
(convey information)

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imaginative
(creativity)

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heuristic
(enquire, explore)

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personal
(express)

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interactional
(engage)

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regulatory
(control others)

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instrumental
(satisfy needs)

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Dore

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Halliday (1975)

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Youseff (1991) found that a 3.9yr old in the Caribbean could switch registers between her English-speaking mother and Trinidadian English-speaking caregiver

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Bilingual children have slightly delayed development, but learn to code-switch from a young age

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To begin with, they are egocentric. They must develop a theory of mind

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Children must learn to recognise:
- Politeness
- Sarcasm
- Subliminal meanings
- Humour
- Hinting
- Being economical with truth

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a) Children first memorise the (correct) unanalysed form by rote.
b) As they become aware of inflexional principles, they overgeneralise
c) They must then learn irregularities

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Berko-Gleason (1958), Wug Test: analysed children's acquisition of inflexional morphemes. 3-4yr olds correctly applied the plural 's'

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Children are morphologically creative, yet logically so (virtuous errors)

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Derivational: affixes which change a word's class or meaning

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Brown (1973):
1. Present progressive -ing
2. Plural
3. Possessive
4. Articles
5. Regular past tense
6. Third person singular
7. Auxiliary 'be'

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Omitted in early stages

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Inflectional: grammatical affixes

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Child will usually:
- Begin to invert auxiliaries but may conjugate incorrectly
- Struggle to invert when used with interrogative pronouns
- Struggle to conjugate main verb to infinitive

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Interrogatives:
- Pronouns and possessives
- Incorrect conjugation
- Struggle to invert auxiliary
- Omission of 'do' auxiliary
- Adds negation, namely negative modals in closed questions

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Child expresses questions through intonation, and interrogative pronouns. They omit pronouns and copula verbs

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Child must learn:
- Insertion of 'do' auxiliary or interrogative
- Conjugation of main verb to infinitive
- Inversion of pronoun/auxiliary

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Must learn the nature and purpose of subordinate clauses, as well as appropriate conjunctions and relative pronouns

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Ursula Bellugi:
1. Not using pronouns
2. Subject pronouns in initial position, object pronouns in medial and final positions
3. Standard usage

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Second person last to be acquired

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Demonstratives to refer to objects in immediate environment

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Probably learn first person first, because they are egocentric

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Hard to learn, because there are so many and they change according to context

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Ursula Bellugi (1967):
1. Add negatory particle 'no' to beginning of affirmative sentences
2. Use of contracted negation (can't, don't) because learnt as units; negatory particle in correct position; omit auxiliary and verb tense
3. Struggle to change verb to infinitive in presence of auxiliary; limited use/conjugation of 'do'; double-negatives; 'not' instead of 'no'

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A child must learn:
- That different negatory particles are used in different grammatical constructions
- not, no, do not, don't, cannot, can't
- Negatory particles must follow an auxiliary/copular verb, e.g. have, can, do
- After an auxiliary, the main verb becomes an infinitive
- The negatory particle doesn't change word order
- Double-negatives are grammatically incorrect

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4. Interrogatives

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3. Complex sentences

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2. Pronouns

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1. Negation

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Whilst a child is now relatively competent grammatically, they may still struggle with the following:

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Whilst most grammatical rules are mastered by 5yrs, the child may be yet to learn the passive voice

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Child may repeat standard utterances telegraphically, disproving behaviourism and supporting ZPD

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MLU = 3-5 words