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Best viewed in PC or Tablet in 100% zoom.

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Figure 23. Gravitropism, phototropism, and thigmotropism in real life! Adapted from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oC7J7K_JJ8

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Thank you so much for reading Kate & Pag's Padlet! We hope you learned something new and learned more about the local plants in the Philippines and also how other plants suggest their development from a mere zygote to germination. The growth of the plant is then directed by tropisms... Plants aren't so simple, after all.

(Note: this gif is not accurate XD)

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The same idea happens for gravitropism, but now the stimulus is gravity. The direction of auxin is towards the portion of the plant, which is lower, thus experiencing greater gravitational force. In plants that are horizontally oriented, the stem, which is exhibits negative gravitropism, would move the auxin to the lower side and cause the elongation of said. This makes the stem turn upwards. The roots exhibiting positive gravitropism would still direct auxin to the lower side; however, this auxin instead inhibits elongation of the lower side. This makes the roots grow downwards. (see Figure 22).

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Figure 22. A plant exhibiting both negative and positive gravitropism. Adapted from https://qsstudy.com/biology/geotropism-growth-regulatory-substances

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Figure 21. Positive phototropism exhibited by the shoot system and negative phototropism exhibited by the root system. Adapted from https://www.sciencefacts.net/phototropism.html

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For phototropism, in dark conditions, auxin that is moving from shoot to root through vascular tissue causes vertical growth. When the plant is introduced to light, a light gradient signals the plant to move auxin for redistribution from the lit portion of the stem to the “shaded” portion before continuing the shoot to root movement. The auxin is now less concentrated in the lit areas of the stem and more concentrated in the shaded portions of the stem that grows unevenly. The shaded stem portion elongates much faster, thus causing the plant to bend towards the light. The converse happens for the root system, as seen in the figure (Christie et al., 2011).  This idea is illustrated in Figure 21.

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Tropism is the ability of a plant to respond positively or negatively to different stimuli. Examples are phototropism (light), gravitropism (gravity), thigmotropism (touch), and hydrotropism (water).
These tropisms can be explained by Cholodny–Went hypothesis on auxin movement.

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Figure 20. Pathways and mechanisms of the mobilization and breakdown of macromolecule reserves, specifically carbohydrate, protein, and lipid, respectively (Bewley, 2001; Hartmann et al, 2010).

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Solute accumulation and cell wall relaxation allow for water uptake to increase rapidly in this phase. The seed's carbohydrate, protein, and lipid reserves are mobilized.   (Figure 20)

Amyloplasts store starch. The starch goes is converted to oligosaccharides by α-amylase, then β-amylase converts oligosaccharides to maltose, and finally, maltase converts maltose to glucose, which can be used in the seedlings metabolic pathways. The study of how reserves are mobilized can be exemplified by the cereal crops.

Protein storages containing phytin would be the primary source for amino acids in protein synthesis.  Phytase mobilized phytin to release the phosphate and salts required for the synthesis.

Lipid bodies or seed oils, on the other hand, go through lipid catabolism to provide a high-energy carbon source for other pathways.

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PHASE II: Metabolic Processes Reinitiate

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PHASE II: Metabolic Processes Reinitiate

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Water uptake slows down until the gradient is reestablished. Though also termed a “lag phase,” many essential processes to development occur, such as the breakdown of food reserve and the liberation of solutes. Now water uptake is slower and gradually increases as solute potential (Ψs) become more negative due to the prior statement. The seed also increases in volume while there is a reformation of the cytoskeleton and DNA repair mechanisms. The phase is concluded by the emergence of the radicle through the seed coat by the breakage or weakening of the seed coat. simultaneously or stepwise with the protrusion of the radicle.

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The more negative matric potential (Ψm), caused by the binding of water to seed surfaces like the microcapillaries in the cell wall, drives the gradient in water potential (Ψ) and leads to imbibition. Imbibition rehydrates the macromolecules, and imbibition ceases once these macromolecules are saturated with water.

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Figure 19. The phases of seed germination with associated embryo and seed activity. (Bewley, 2001)

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Figure 18. Radicle breaks out of the seed coat! Photo adapted from https://bit.ly/3bPG2nt

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Methods you can do to promote seed germination and start planting.

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Methods you can do to promote seed germination and start planting.

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Scarification - Removal of limitation brought about by the seed coat through external forces.

1. Mechanical – Used to physically break down the seed coat. The seed can be rubbed against pieces of sandpaper or abrasive sand, shaken severely, introduced to extreme temperature changes by dipping in water, pierced with a needle without damaging the embryo, and exposed to certain intermittent light. These all cause the seeds to be more permeable to air and water.

2. Chemical – Used to chemically break down the seed coat. The seed can be immersed in acids like sulfuric acid for a certain period of time, followed by neutralization and washing to prevent embryo contact with the acid, enzymes like cellulose and pectinase, organic solvents like alcohol and acetone.

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Methods of Breaking Seed Dormancy (Mousavi et al., 2011)

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Methods of Breaking Seed Dormancy (Mousavi et al., 2011)

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Normally, seed dormancy can be broken by a variety of methods and factors. Mostly, seeds rely on the decrease in abscisic acid following an increase of gibberellin to kick start germination. This is regulated by the genes of the seed, and the following are some ways genes are simulated to do so.

Photoblasty
Positive Photoblasty – Seeds in the presence of light can break dormancy. Phytochrome that sense red and far-red wavelengths regulate seed germination. Light stimulates the radicle of the embryo to penetrate the endosperm, which is the main cause of coat-imposed dormancy. Here are examples of plant seeds that need light exposure to germinate.

Brief exposure: Lactuca sativa

Intermittent exposure: Kalanchoë spp.

Photoperiods: Long-period: Betula spp.; Short-period: Tsuga canadensis

Negative Photoblasty – These seeds prefer the dark rather than light to germinate, so their germination is light inhibited. The far-red phytochrome inhibits breaking dormancy. An example is an Onion (Allium cepa).

Stratification – Seeds require exposure to low temperatures ranging from 0 to 10ºC. For apple seeds, the duration of chilling may take 50 to 80 days long, with just the embryo and with the seed coat, respectively.

After-ripening – seeds need dry storage at room temperature for a duration of time before being able to break dormancy. The plant Hordeum vulgare takes weeks, while Rumex crispus takes as long as five (5) years of after-ripening.

Chemicals – Naturally occurring nitrates can act to break seed dormancy. In tandem with light, Sysymbrium officinale requires both to break dormancy. Nitric oxide in the physiology of plants stimulates germination, especially through the active compound karrikinolide. Nitric oxide can induce this in many species, including the model organism Arabidopsis (Bethke et al., 2006).

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Scientific Name: Casuarina equisetifolia
Common Name: Agoho, Australian Pine Tress
Family: Casuarinaceae
Description: An evergreen tree having an open uneven crown and a pine-like appearance; Bearing a great resemblance to coniferous plant because it produces needle-like and cone-like leaves and fruits, respectively
Habitat: Open coastal strand along areas having tropic and subtropic climates
Importance: Commonly planted due to the following reasons: control landslide and erosion, coastal landscaping, for fuel, pulp, tannin, and timber (GISD, n.d.; Elfers, 1988)

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There are two different types of seed dormancy which can be the cause individually or in tandem. These types are the following:

(1) Coat-imposed (Exogenous Dormancy); and

(2) Embryo dormancy (Endogenous Dormancy)

In coat-imposed dormancy, the seed dormancy is intruded along with the seed embryo by the outer seed covering and other enclosing tissues (e.g., endosperm, extrafloral organs, periderm, etc.), which will later germinate in the presence of both oxygen (O2) and water (H2O) and when enclosing organs and tissues are damaged or removed. There are five primary mechanisms of the said type of dormancy including:

1.  Production of phytohormone inhibitors, such as abscisic acid (ABA) that inhibits the process of seed germination;

2.  Holding and keeping inhibitors;

3. Involvement in facilitated gas exchange mechanism, which can inhibit growth, considering seed coat’s low level of permeability to oxygen;

4. Strong mechanical constraints; and

5. Preventing water uptake.

In seed embryo dormancy, the physiology, morphology, or morphophysiology of the embryo is what keeping the seed dormant.

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It is a phenomenon wherein the seed will not germinate or develop even though needed environmental cues and factors to grow are available seed dormancy, an adaptive mechanism, is commonly exhibited by plant species as their advantage in terms of abundance and distribution. This phenomenon establishes a permanent delay in seed germination processes, providing enough time for the dispersal of seed throughout a wide range of geographic locations. Furthermore, by doing so, survival is heightened, considering that development is prevented under an unfavorable environmental condition for the seed itself.

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Figure 17. Comparison of the two axis. Adapted from Taiz et al., 2014.

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Figure 17. Radial Patterning in Arabidopsis Embryo Development with the Schemes of the longitudinal sections (Laux et al., 2004).

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The radial axis extends from the center to the surface across the vascular, ground, and epidermal tissue and is first observed in the globular stage. Periclinal divisions occur to separate three radially defined regions.

The layers from outermost to innermost are the following:

1. Protoderm - later becomes the epidermis

2. Ground Tissue - later becomes the cortex and the endodermis in root and hypocotyl

3. Procambium - later becomes the vascular tissues and the pericycle.

The following are some genes that mainly control the establishment of this axis.

MERISTEM LAYER1 (ATML1) & PROTODERMAL FACTOR2 (PDF2) - encode homeodomain transcription factor, which promotes superficial positioning of the epidermal tissues.

SCARECROW (SCR) - separates cortical and endodermal layers.

SHORT-ROOT (SHR) - differentiates cortical and endodermal cells and establishes a functioning Casparian strip.

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Figure 16. Apical–Basal Axis Arabidopsis Embryo Development with the Schemes of the longitudinal sections (Laux et al., 2004).

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The apical-basal axis extends between the tips of the embryonic root and shoot. The zygote itself polarity in terms of the dense, cytoplasmic apical cell and the elongated, vacuolated basal cell which were products of transverse division.

At the globular stage, the axis is divided into three main parts as seen in Figure 16. Starting from the

1.  Apical region- later becomes the SAM and cotyledons

2.  Middle region- later becomes the hypocotyl and apical regions of RAM

3.  Hypophysis- derived from the apical suspensor and later becomes the columella, root cap, and quiescent center.

The following are some genes and hormones that mainly control the establishment of this axis.

GURKE (GK)- encodes acetyl-CoA carboxylase which is needed for the synthesis if VLCFA and sphingolipids. They are crucial for apical patterning.

GNOM (GN)- encodes guanine nucleotide exchange factor needed for transport of auxin via polar distribution of PIN auxin efflux carriers.

MONOPTEROS (MP)- needed for the normal formation of basal elements, root and hypocotyl though encoding auxin response transcription factor (ARF),

AUXIN- the plant hormone’s movement establishes apical dominance, stem elongation, and lateral branching.

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Another Comparison can be drawn from Taiz et al. 2014 in for Arabidopsis and Rice based on 5 major developmental stages.

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Monocot vs. Eudicot in the Ordered Parts of their Respective Embryogenesis based on Figure 15.

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Monocot vs. Eudicot in the Ordered Parts of their Respective Embryogenesis based on Figure 15.

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Figure 15. Zygotic embryogenesis comparison of (A) eudicot Arabidopsis and (B) monocot Graminae (Armenta-Medina et al., 2021).

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Scientific Name: Swietenia macrophylla

Common Name: Big-leaf mahogany

Family: Meliaceae

Description: A slow-growing evergreen tree present among tropic areas, growing at approximately 35 m x 35 m

Habitat: S. macrophylla can be found in all types of forest, mostly in mixed forest belts

Importance: Having anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, antimutagenic, antidiabetic, and antitumor activities (Moghadamtousi et al., 2013)

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Figure 14. Swietenia macrophylla and its seeds. Photos adapted fromhttp://www.natureloveyou.sg/Swietenia%20macrophylla/Main.html.

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ScientificName: Stachytarpheta jamaicensis

Common Name: Jamaica vervain, blue porter weed/snakeweed

Family: Verbenaceae

Description: Weedy herbaceous plants, typically grow at around 60–120 cm tall, having a dark green stem, which turns woody towards the base of the stem

Origin: Caribbean

Habitat: S. macrophylla can be found in all types of forest, mostly in mixed forest belts

Importance: Medicinal uses, which can be used to treat high blood pressure, GI tract, chills, blisters, fevers, and issues in the respiratory system (Liew & Yong, 2016)

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Figure 13. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis and its seeds. Photos adapted from https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Stachytarpheta_jamaicensis and https://indiabiodiversity.org/species/show/33308.

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Scientific Name: Psidium guajava

Common Name: Common guava

Family: Myrtaceae

Description: Fast-growing subtropical and tropical species highly adapted to various adverse and environmental conditions

Origin: Native tree to the countries along Caribbean, South and Central America

Habitat: Thrives in dry and humid climates at 0 to 1500 m high

Importance: Fruits and herbs and spices; structural materials for infrastructure; source of pharmaceutical medicine (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, n.d.,)

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Figure 12. Psidium guajava and its seeds. Photos adapted fromhttp://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Psidium+guajava and http://www.stuartxchange.ph/Bayabas.html.

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Scientific Name: Axonopus compressus

Common Name: Carpet grass

Family: Poaceae

Description: Stoloniferous perennial, typically spreading by above-ground runners, rooting at each node

Habitat: Roadsides, gardens, plantations, and waste areas; highly adapted to warm areas; moderately shade tolerant, but it can grow under full sunlight.

Importance: Forage; erosion and landscape control; ornamental (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, n.d.)

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Figure 11. Axonopus compressus and its seeds. Photos adapted from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axonopus_compressusand https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/axonopus_compressus.html.

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Scientific Name: Mikania micranth

Common Name: Bitter vine

Family: Asteraceae

Description: Vigorous, fast-growing, perennial, creeping plant having cordate leaves and white flowers, producing many seeds.

Origin: Native tree to South and Central America

Habitat: Grow along with a wide range of habitats

Importance: Forage; soil and landscape improvement; green manure; source of pharmaceutical medicine (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, n.d.)

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Figure 10. Mikania micrant and its seed. Photos adapted from http://idtools.org/id/fnw/factsheet.php?name=14643#prettyPhoto and https://www.flickr.com/photos/lennyworthington/46057437491.

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Scientific Name: Ficus balete

Common Name: Balete

Family: Moraceae

Description: Characterized by having big, thick, or stiff leaf and has epiphytic habits; branches are dropping

Origin: Endemic in the Philippines

Distribution: Aside from its occurrence in the Philippines, it can also see in some Southeast Asian countries and islands of the South Pacific

Importance: It has medicinal uses, which can be applied on minor woods, for liver diseases, and rheumatic headache

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Figure 9. Ficus balete and its seeds. Photos adapted from https://www.exportersindia.com/viet-d-e-l-t-a-corporation-company5050685/rubber-seed-3082562.htm and  https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/87538786490058117/.

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Scientific Name: Mussaenda philippica

Common Name: Queen of Philippines

Family: Rubiaceae

Description: Tropical large shrub or small tree angiosperm, typically

grow in tropical areas and grown as an ornamental

Origin: Philippines and in tropical regions

Habitat: Open and/or semi-shaded areas in savannah, both primary and secondary forests, coastal scrubs, ravines, roadsides, and riparian at an elevation of about 1400 m

Importance: It is common in the Philippines as an ornamental, and its structures are utilized in both traditional African and Filipino medicine (Dapar et al., 2020). For instance, in Nigeria, it is commonly used to alleviate dysentery, stomachache, and an antidote for snakebites (Kar et al., 2014)

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Figure 8. Mussaenda philippica and its seeds. Photos adapted from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301746442_A_Taxonomic_Revision_of_Philippine_Mussaenda_Rubiaceae_Mussaendeae_1/figures?lo=1 and https://toptropicals.com/cgi-bin/garden_catalog/cat.cgi?uid=Mussaenda_philippica&comments=1

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Scientific Name: Langerstroemia speciosa

Common Name: Queen’s Crape Myrtle, Banaba

Family: Lythraceae

Description: A perennial, autotropic angiosperm, grows into shrubs or small tree

Origin: Southeast Asia, Indian subcontinent

Habitat: Open sites, like secondary grassland, forest, and especially along the river

Importance: Can be used as herbs and spices, and its plant extract can be a health supplement for controlling blood sugar level as well as weight loss; Also, it can be used to treat some diseases affecting kidney, blood pressure, and diabetes (Miura et al., 2012)

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Figure 7. Langerstroemia speciosa and its seeds. Photos adapted from https://www.amazon.in/RK-Seeds-Lagerstroemia-speciosa-Myrtle/dp/B07PV3XS8G and https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Banaba_Flower_(Lagerstroemia_speciosa).jpg.

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Scientific Name: Quisqualis indica

Common Name: Rangoon creeper

Family: Combretaceae

Description: Vine having clusters of red flower

Origin: Native to Asian countries having a tropical climate

Importance: Utilized for both medicinal and ornamental purposes; Anthelmintic for parasitic worm infection, alleviates diarrhea, and anti-inflammatory (Khare, 2007).

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Figure 6. Quisqualis indica and its seeds. Photos adapted from https://typicalgardener.wordpress.com/2009/10/10/quisqualis-indica/ and https://www.herbalshop.com/medicinal-herbs/quisqualis-fruit-without-shell-shi-jun-zi/.

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Figure 5. Casuarina equisetifolia and its seeds. Photos adapted from https://www.bonsai-bci.com/index.php/by-common-name/evergreen-conifers/510-casuarina-equisetifolia and

https://www.fleppc.org/Manage_Plans/Casuarinamgmntplan_FINAL-05-13-13.pdf

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In the Philippines, there are several efforts that being pursued to establish seed banks. The Department of Agriculture lends a 192M pesos fund to launch a community seed bank as well as different seed production programs, enabling Filipino farmers to yield their requirement of certified seeds every other cropping season (PhilStar, 2011). Also, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, with the collaboration of The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, enhancing Philippine community seed banks. There are a lot of development projects to sustain and preserve seeds along with developing agriculture (Daniel & Adetumbi, 2006). There are several organic seed banks established in the Philippines, particularly in the Northern Philippines (Global Giving, n.d.). Along with this, the Cordillera Ecological Center, composed of indigenous Filipino groups, supports the global seed banking movement for food security (Bengwayan, 2020).

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Plant's capability to produce seeds that can remain viable in soil, allowing them to strive in unsuitable conditions for germination and conservation of genetic variability in a long time. Our flora species are under threats of several factors, such as diseases and pests, climate change, pollution, and loss of habitat.

In line with this, human develop a so-called “seed bank” to store various copies of seeds came from gene banks around the world for the future generation. It is considered to be a backup system, protecting the human race against adverse events and calamities, which can deteriorate our crops vital for our survival, considering that it is one of our food resources. Thereby, to protect these seeds, seed banks are catastrophic-proof and kept under low humidity and temperature, preserving the seeds collected and ensuring that these can grow when needed.

There are numerous seed banks all over the world. Their seed collections are of significance to us and the health of the environment we are living in. Hence, restoring and regenerating the wealth of our planet.

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Figure 4-2. The Baguio de Cebu Eco Mountain Adventures. Photos adapted from https://sugbo.ph/2019/baguiodecebu-ecomountain-adventures/ and https://cebubulletin.ph/mt-manunggal-little-baguio-in-cebu/

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Among urban residents, leaving the city for a good day of peace is a treat and a privilege. As such, “Little Baguio of Cebu,” Mt. Manunggal Eco-Adventure, also known as Baguio de Cebu Eco Mountain Adventures, offers a lot of thrilling adventure and great scenery. There is a lot of things you can experience, including camping, mountain climbing, sky biking, and zip-lining (see Fig. 4-2). Above all, a great view of the places’ flora and fauna can bring relaxation and calm.

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Figure 4-1. Some flowers that can welcome you along your adventure in Mt. Manunggal. Photos adapted from https://adrenalineromance.com/2017/06/29/mt-manunggal-trekking-cebus-most-historic-mountain/

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ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITIES AND THEIR FLORA DIVERSITY 

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ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITIES AND THEIR FLORA DIVERSITY 

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Mt. Manunggal has a diverse ecosystem. It is surrounded by a lot of flora species, which have medical significance in human health. According to the ethnobotanical study of Abaquita (2018), a total of 128 species of medicinal plants [126 angiosperms, and two (2) ferns] were recorded known to treat several diseases affecting the human gastrointestinal (GI) tract, respiratory and varying skin diseases. Among those species, the family Poaceae tallied the most abundant in all habitats, considering that they easily propagate. Furthermore, due to several anthropogenic activities and its disturbed ecosystem, the domination of alien plants has often been observed (Garces, 2019). Anthropogenic activities include abaca processing, animal grazing, carpentry, camping, farming, poaching or hunting, livestock, medicinal plants, wood charcoal, and mountain climbing. Also, native colorful and wildflowers can welcome you in trails, considering that these can strive in the cold environment along with moist soils and high altitudes (Garces & Flores, 2018) (see Fig. 4-1).

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Figure 3. Diverse scenery around Mt. Manunggal. Photos adapted from https://www.sheenzoned.com/2017/07/twin-hike-manulit-peak-mt-mauyog.html and https://adrenalineromance.com/2017/06/29/mt-manunggal-trekking-cebus-most-historic-mountain/

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One of the fascinated and most challenging parts of visiting the Mt. Manunggal is their steep trail, which could be reached for about four (4) to seven (7) hr among first timers, varying upon the built and physical conditioning, and two (2) to three (3) hours for those who are familiar to these trails. Along the way, there are a lot of upland farms planted with several fruits and vegetables (e.g., carrots, cabbage, garlic, onions, eggplants, etc.). Also, the site has distinguishable alternating hills along with soil having volcanic ashes and igneous rocks. Different water resources, including beautiful waterfalls, cool springs, and rivers, can be found at the foot of this mountain.

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Some sounds to listen to while reading :)

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Figure 2. The trails in the Mt. Manunggal. Photos adapted from https://adrenalineromance.com/2017/06/29/mt-manunggal-trekking-cebus-most-historic-mountain/