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Aproximadamente 53 millones de personas hablan español con fluidez en los Estados Unidos. Ese número es más alto que en españa y columbia individualmente. Esto significa que el 13% de las personas en los Estados Unidos hablan español como lengua materna. Curiosamente, solo tres estados combinados representan el 55% de la población hispana en Estados Unidos. Esos tres estados son California, Texas y Florida. Este grupo de población solo está aumentando, lo que hace que el español sea el idioma más hablado después del inglés.

¿Qué porcentaje de hispanohablantes representan California, Texas y Florida?
A. 45%
B. 54%
C. 40%
D. 39%

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Spanish Speakers in the United States ...According to a 2015 report by Instituto Cervantes, the United States has the second highest concentration of Spanish speakers in the world, after Mexico. Roughly 53 million people, 41 million native Spanish speakers, and approximately 11.6 million bilingual Spanish Speakers live in the United States. There are more people speaking Spanish in the U.S. than Spain (47 million speakers) and Colombia (48 million speakers). By 2050, the United States is expected to have 138 million Spanish speakers, making it the largest Spanish-speaking country in the world.

Spanish is spoken by more than 559 million people globally, and here in the U.S., it is the most common non-English language spoken in U.S. homes. While many people who speak a foreign language also speak English very well, 8% of the United States population (25.1 million) is considered limited-English proficient (LEP), meaning they speak English less than "very well." Spanish speakers in the United States account for 64% (16.2 million) of the country's total LEP population. With a large population of Spanish speakers in the United States, and globally, effective communication with limited-English proficient Spanish speakers is critically important in all major industries, such as business, healthcare, legal, government, and education.

We wrote about the top non-English languages spoken by U.S. state here. Today, we're focusing on Spanish speakers in the United States. Watch the video below to learn the top 10 Spanish-speaking states in the country, and then check out the interactive infographic below to deepen your understanding of Spanish language use in your state.

Spanish Spoken at Home: Top 10 States

*(ranked by percentage of total population)

Spanish Speakers in the United States (Interactive Infographic)

*Hover over the interactive map to display.

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Spanish Speakers in the United States (Infographic) - Telelanguage

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Spanish Speakers in the United States ...According to a 2015 report by Instituto Cervantes, the United States has the second highest concentration of Spanish speakers in the world, after Mexico. Roughly 53 million people, 41 million native Spanish speakers, and approximately 11.6 million bilingual Spanish Speakers live in the United States.

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De alguna manera, los mensajes de texto en español son muy similares a los mensajes de texto en inglés. A menudo, las palabras se acortan. Por ejemplo, las palabras que comienzan con "es" como "estoy", la "es" se pierde, por lo que se convierte en "toy". Algunas letras también reemplazan a otras en los mensajes de texto en español. A menudo se usa una "k" para reemplazar una "q" o una "x" para reemplazar "por". ¡Esto puede llevar a que "porque" se vea como "xq"! Los mensajes de texto en español a menudo también incluyen abreviaturas, como "te amo mucho" a "TAM" y "para tu información" a "PTI".

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The days when your Spanish writing skills were only used for penning a letter or finishing an essay are over - now we're sending texts and posting on social media instead.

To transfer your formal writing skills into the digital age, you'll need to pick up some common Spanish internet slang. Master these words and phrases so you can keep up with your group texts and Spanish friends' Instagram comments and DMs.

Shorter words

Similar to how we shorten words in English to save space and time typing on your phone, you'll find when texting your Spanish-speaking friends that some words lose a few letters.

If a word begins with es, like estoy or esta, you can drop the first two letters for a more succinct message. Estoy becomes toy and esta bien is often written as ta b.

Other common words like que, which can mean both what and which, are frequently shortened to just q when written online, and usually connotes confusion.

Gracias can be written as grx or grax, and a combination of bien and bueno is often used in Spanish internet slang as bno, usually to express agreement.

Letter swap

You'll also often see letters switched around - the most common example is the letters q and c, which both become k. The word que alone can be written as k or q, so quiero becomes kiero, and aquí becomes aki.

The letter x is also common in Spanish text slang, and usually stands in for the word por. Por favor can be written as xfa, and porque is xq. The word para is also shortened with an x and written as xa, so para que might appear in a text as xa q.

X also commonly replaces the letters ch in Spanish internet slang. Mucho can be written as mxo and chau as xau.

Abbreviations

In English, you're probably familiar with abbreviations like TTYL that are used in most online communication. Spanish internet speak has its own abbreviated phrases, which can help you text and message online like a local. Keep in mind that some well-known English text abbreviations like LOL and OMG are also used in Spanish.
Te quiero mucho = TQM or TKM
Tqm can be used in a light-hearted and casual way to express your affection for whoever happens to be on the other end of the message. It's less formal than te amo, and might be used colloquially with friends or someone you're in a relationship with.
Besito = BST Te amo mucho = TAM Para tu información = PTI Callate = kyat Estoy muerto = KO Venis = VNS Tengo que irme = TQI/TKI No pasa nada = NPN
This abbreviation can be used to simply mean true or truth, but also can act similarly to the word "right" in English at the end of a sentence.

If you made plans to meet a friend and they haven't arrived yet, vns is a common way of asking where they are, similar to wya in English internet slang.

Numbers and symbols

You might be familiar with the way that symbols can stand in for letters in English, and the same is true for Spanish! Rather than writing saludos to greet your Spanish friends, try salu2 instead.

Similarly, you can replace cien with 100, as they're the same pronunciation when read aloud. You can write recién as re100, or siempre as 100pre.

Jokes aside

Just as you might respond to a friend's text with hahaha in English, Spanish speakers use jajajaja, jejejeje, or jijijiji.

Whether you want to keep up with a group chat or are trying to understand your Spanish-speaking friends' social media pages, these slang phrases and spellings are sure to be useful. Practice texting like a local and use your Spanish skills on your own social media accounts!

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All the Spanish Internet & Text Slang You Need to Know

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The days when your Spanish writing skills were only used for penning a letter or finishing an essay are over - now we're sending texts and posting on social media instead. To transfer your formal writing skills into the digital age, you'll need to pick up some common Spanish internet slang.

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El inglés y el español tienen muchas palabras con raíces iguales o similares que provienen del latín, pero algunas de estas palabras en realidad no tienen el mismo o similar significado. Esto puede ser muy complicado cuando se aprende inglés o español del otro idioma. Estos se denominan "cognados falsos". Un ejemplo de esto es "actualmente" que significa "en este momento", pero la gente a menudo lo confunde con "en realidad". Otro ejemplo es "soportar a los hijos" en vez de "mantener los hijos".

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False cognates are the Achille's heel for ESL students. For languages like Spanish and English, most of the words that look and sound the same do have the same meaning, making them an instinctive way to learn a new language. This is because the two languages share many of the same Latin and Greek roots. Spanish-speaking English Learners who grow accustomed to using their first language as a basis for learning English can start assuming that all words that sound the same also share the same meaning. Of course, this is not the case, as anyone who has ever confused the proverbial "embarazada" with "embarrassed" can tell you.

We've been getting many requests to have more content related to false cognates. We hear your feedback and are working on a new false cognates database as we speak, so please stay tuned!

For now, here is a preview of the most frequently confused false cognates, for Spanish-speaking ESL students. We've also created a handy sheet for you to print out and display in the classroom.

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False cognates are the Achille's heel for ESL students. For languages like Spanish and English, most of the words that look and sound the same do have the same meaning, making them an instinctive way to learn a new language. This is because the two languages share many of the same Latin and Greek roots.

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Alternancia de codigos es cuando un hablante cambia de idioma (o variedades de un idioma) en una conversación. Hay tres tipos de alternancia de codigos: interoracional, intraoracional y marcadores discursivos. Interoracional ocurre en los límites de la oración (a menudo después de la puntuación). Un ejemplo de esto es: "I want to eat ice cream, pero estoy a dieta". Intraoracional ocurre en medio de una oración o enunciado como: "I am muy tired". Marcadores discursivos ocurre cuando se agrega una sola palabra. Un ejemplo de esto es: "so, no sé qué hacer".

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Seçkin Esen is working as an English language teacher in Turkey. He obtained his Bachelor's degree in ELT from Hacettepe University in 2010.

Code Switching in Speech

The ability to communicate our thoughts, emotions, and opinions to others is truly a remarkable skill. But not only does our language communicate who we are, but our use of language can influence our self-concept and identity. It goes both ways: Cultural influences are reflected in our language and also influence how we conceptualize who we are and where we come from. (The social aspect of language is studied by sociolinguistics, a subdivision of linguistics which studies social factors.)

Bilingual communities use certain strategies to make communication more effective and meaningful. One of these tricks is "code switching," which we can observe mostly in second- or foreign-language classes. Code switching refers to the use of two languages within a sentence or discourse. It is a natural conflation that often occurs between multilingual speakers who have two or more languages in common.

Here, we will focus on the definition of code switching, the reasons for using code switching, the types of code switching and their definitions, and examples and suggestions for teachers using code switching to teach a foreign or second language.

What Is Code Switching?

Code switching is when a speaker alternates between two or more languages (or dialects or varieties of language) in one conversation. This phenomenon can be observed in the following examples.

What Are Some Examples of Code Switching?

If you have an exam next week, şimdiden çalışmaya başlamalısın. (English + Turkish)

Gracias for the lovely gift. Está awesome! (Spanish + English)

Pwede ba tayo mag dinner sa Barney's Burgers later? I want protein! (Tagalog + English)

Are we eating chez ta mère demain? (English + French)

Saweyti l-homework tabaa'ik? (Arabic + English)

Nó còng đang celebrate cái sinh nhật. (Vietnamese + English)

Ní yào qù get pizza with me ma? (Mandarin + English)

Who Uses Code Switching?

Code switching occurs mostly in bilingual communities. Speakers of more than one language are known for their ability to code switch or mix their language during their communication. As Aranoff and Miller (2003:523) indicate, many linguists have stressed the point that switching between languages is a communicative option available to a bilingual member of a speech community, just as switching between styles or dialects is an option for the monolingual speaker.

Does the Term "Code Switching" Refer Only to Speech, or Does It Include Actions Also?

Since its inception, the term "code switching" has expanded to encapsulate any situation in which speakers finds themselves switching from one accepted vocabulary, cadence, style, or set of rules to another. For example, you'd probably speak to a potential employer differently than you would address a close friend, so you might switch from casual language to professional-speak in certain settings. Another example is how many African Americans describe playing different roles in different settings and with different micro-cultures, and talk about how they must be very careful to speak with an academic vocabulary and cadence in any interaction with a police officer.

What About Code Switching With Dialects?

Yes, someone might code switch within one language by mixing dialects or types of vernacular. You can mix academic-speak with street-speak, for example, or slip mid-sentence into baby-talk.

Reasons Speakers Use Code Switching

There are a number of possible reasons for switching from one language to another; three are described below.

To Fulfill a Need. A speaker who may not be able to express him/herself in one language might switch to another to compensate for the deficiency. As a result, the speaker may be triggered into speaking in the other language for a while. This type of code switching tends to occur when the speaker is upset, tired, or distracted in some manner, or when they are less fluent in one language.

To Express Solidarity. Switching also commonly occurs when an individual wishes to express solidarity with a particular social group. Rapport is established between the speaker and the listener when the listener responds with a similar switch.

To Exclude Others. Code switching may also be used to exclude others from a conversation who do not speak the second language. For example, if two people in an elevator in an English-speaking place spoke Spanish, then not only would the others on that elevator who do not speak Spanish would be excluded from the conversation, but also a degree of comfort and intimacy would be established between the Spanish-speakers due to the fact that not all those present in the elevator can listen to their conversation.

Is Code Switching a Bad Thing?

As Skiba (1997) comments, code switching is not a language interference on the basis that it supplements speech. Where it is used due to an inability of expression, code switching provides continuity in speech rather than presenting an interference in language.

When is code switching helpful?

The socio-linguistic benefits of code switching include communicating solidarity with or affiliation to a particular social group, so code switching can be viewed as a means of providing a linguistic advantage rather than an obstruction to communication.

Furthermore, code switching allows a speaker to convey more nuanced attitudes and emotions by choosing from a bigger pool of words that is available to a bilingual person, much like how one might use font, bolding, or underlining in a text document to emphasize points.

Utilizing the second language, then, allows speakers to increase the impact of their speech and use it in a more effective manner.

When is code switching harmful?

If a dominant culture requires all citizens to conform to the dominant language and manner of speaking, or if subcultures are punished in any way for not conforming completely to the language majority, this is harmful.

Code Switching as a Language Interference

In certain settings, code switching might be a barrier to communication rather than an aid. In the classroom, for example, code switching can be seen as language interference since it might impede learning. Although students may see code switching as an acceptable form of communication in society and may feel comfortable switching languages in everyday normal conversation, in some other settings, this type of communication would put those who are not bilingual at a disadvantage, because they would not be able to understand. Therefore, code switching can be both beneficial and a possible language interference, depending on the situation and the context in which it occurs.

Is Code Switching Deliberate or Accidental?

Sometimes, speakers flip from one language to another accidentally, but in many situations, code switching is done deliberately to both create unity or to exclude someone from a conversation. It is seen as a sign of solidarity within a group, and it is also assumed that all speakers in a conversation must be bilingual in order for code switching to occur. Bilinguals do not usually translate from the weaker language to the stronger one. Code switching is used most often when a word doesn't "come."

Types of Code Switching

1. Inter-Sentential
In inter-sentential code switching, the language switch is done at sentence boundaries-words or phrases at the beginning or end of a sentence. This type is seen most often in fluent bilingual speakers. For example: If you are late for the job interview, işe alınmazsın.
2. Intra-Sentential
In intra-sentential code switching, the shift is done in the middle of a sentence, with no interruptions, hesitations, or pauses to indicate a shift. The speaker is usually unaware of the shift. For example: You are sleepy coğu zaman, because you spend a lot of saat in your bed. Different types of switches occur within the clause level and within the word level.
3. Extra-Sentential or Tag Switching
This is the switching of either a single word or a tag phrase (or both) from one language to another. This type is common in intra-sentential switches. It involves the insertion of a tag from one language into an utterance in another language. For example: " Él es de Oaxaca y así los criaron a ellos, if you know what I mean." Another example is how Turkish students use some boundary words like ama (but) or yani (I mean) while speaking English.

Is Code Switching the Same as Code Mixing?

Both involve creating hybrid words or switching between two or more language within phrases, clauses, or from one complete sentence to the next. Some use the terms "code mixing" and "code switching" interchangeably, especially those who study morphology, syntax, and other formal aspects of language, but other areas (like subfields of linguistics, communication, or education theory) have their own extremely specific definitions for code mixing.

The main difference can be summarized like this: Code switching is something speakers do intentionally because they want to express themselves with a personal style or flavor, but code mixing is something speakers might do unintentionally simply because they don't know the correct word or phrase.

What If Speakers Mix Languages Because They Are Not Fluent?

Some researchers call this need-based conflation of languages "code mixing" rather than code switching.

Is Spanglish a Kind of Code Switching?

Linguists regard Spanglish (Spanish + English) as a hybrid language, and many refer to Spanglish as "Spanish-English code-switching," although it also includes lexical and grammatical shifts as well. In Spanglish, speakers are allowed to switch back and forth without following rules.

However, a speaker is misguided to think that they can make up new words that sound kind of like another language in order to fit in with that other culture. " Mi housa es su housa" for example, is just silly (and possibly insulting).

Here are some other hybrid ways of speaking:

Taglish (Tagalog + English)

Franglais (French + English)

Hindinglish (Hindi + English)

Germanglish (German + English)

Is Code Switching the Same as Speaking a Pidgin Language?

Code switching and pidgin are not exactly the same. The difference is that code switching generally occurs when both speakers are fluent in both languages used in the conversation, while a pidgin language is a grammatically simplified way of talking that develops between two or more groups that don't share a language. Pidgin is more like a third dialect that evolves when speakers do not share a common language. Usually, in pidgin, a speaker draws from two or more languages but vocabulary and grammar are simplified and reduced.

How to Use Code Switching in the Classroom

Allow language-learners to code switch when they have difficulty continuing a conversation in the new language.

If a student pauses mid-sentence trying to remember a word, it will be helpful if the teacher allows her to substitute the word with one from her native language in order to continue. If rules strictly prohibit code switching, classroom rapport and learning will be thwarted.

If students find the need to resort to code switching, it's the teacher's job to use those events as opportunities for learning. Teach the vocabulary, offer synonyms, and model other things students might do to continue conversations without resorting to code switching.

Should a teacher explain instructions in both the native and the new language?

It's best to explain instructions in the language you're trying to teach, and to avoid repeating those instructions in the native language afterward. If students know that you will explain it in their native tongue later, they are less likely to listen to and learn the new language.

Is there any situation where code switching should be avoided in the classroom?

Try to avoid code switching in classrooms where students speak different native tongues. If all your students are native English speakers occasional code switching may be helpful, but if your classroom includes students from different linguistic backgrounds, it will confuse the class and prevent learning.

Suggestions for Teachers

The teacher can use code switching to help promote learning, especially while teaching new vocabulary. Here are some suggestions for teachers of intermediate level students learning English. These examples set the lesson in a classroom of native Turkish speakers, but you could do something like this in any classroom full of students who share any native tongue.
Activity #1:
The teacher shares a written dialogue which includes an English statement for which the students don't know the Turkish meaning.

Joselyn: Babs, Babs, Oh there you are!

Babs: Calm down. What's the rush?

Joselyn: (I've been bursting to tell you.)

Babs: Tell me what? It's obviously got you excited.

Jocelyn: Well, Heather just told me that Mandy has dumped Gordon and got a new boyfriend.

Babs: Oohh, fancy that. Who is he?

The teacher wants the students to learn the meaning of the new word " bursting." Have the class brainstorm to guess what it means in context (hopefully they'll come up with something like Sana söylemek için can atıyorum), then the teacher introduces the new word: To burst.
* Activity 2:
The teacher gives another dialogue to the students and wants them to guess the meaning of the words which are written in bold.

John: Would you like to go out to dinner or to a movie?

Karen: Either one, it's up to you.

John: What would you prefer?

Karen: I really don't care; I just want to get out of the house.

John: Well, then how about dinner and a movie?

Karen: That's a great idea!

Students try to guess the meaning of it's up to you from the context. And after finding the its meaning as ' sana bağlı' , they are asked to put those words in the dialogue and read it again.

Conclusion

Code switching is a phenomenon that is inevitable in bilingual communities. It occurs naturally in second- or foreign-language classrooms and it can be used beneficially in many classroom activities. Although it is sometimes seen as a sloppy or presumptive way to speak, it is natural and can be turned to a purposeful and useful activity in language classes.

References

Aranoff, M. and Rees - Miller, J. (2003). The Handbook Of Linguistics. Blackwell Publishers: Oxford

Crystal, D. (1987). The Cambridge Encyclopedia Of Language. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge

Romaine, S. (1992). Bilingualism. Blackwell Publishers: Cambridge

Saunders, G. (1988). Bilingual Children: From Birth To Teens. Multilingual Matters Ltd: Clevedon

Skiba, R. (1997). Code Switching As a Countenance of Language Interference. The Internet TESL Journal. Vol. III. No: 10.

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Code Switching: Definition, Types, and Examples

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Seçkin Esen is working as an English language teacher in Turkey. He obtained his Bachelor's degree in ELT from Hacettepe University in 2010. The ability to communicate our thoughts, emotions, and opinions to others is truly a remarkable skill. But not only does our language communicate who we are, but our use of language can influence our self-concept and identity.

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La sociolingüística es el estudio del lenguaje y cómo se relaciona con factores sociales como: edad, raza, género, sexualidad, clase social y más. Esto significa que la forma en que alguien habla un idioma puede depender de estos factores. También significa que alguien puede cambiar la forma en que habla dependiendo del grupo que identifique el oyente. Cambiar la forma en que hablamos dependiendo de con quién hablamos se llama "cambio de código". ¡Que interesante!

¿Qué es "cambio de código"?:
A. Cambiar la forma en que hablamos dependiendo de con quién hablemos
B. Algo relacionado con las computadoras
C. Simplemente cambiando las palabras que dices dependiendo de la situación.
D. Ninguna de las anteriores

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Sociolinguistics: Crash Course Linguistics #7

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"Ladino" es un idioma compuesto que consiste en (principalmente) hebreo y español. Se convirtió en un idioma después de la diáspora de 1492 cuando los judíos españoles fueron expulsados ​​de España. Hablaban español antiguo y lo combinaban con los idiomas nativos de los lugares a los que se mudaron como: hebreo, árabe, turco y más. La población ladina disminuyó significativamente durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Se estima que alrededor de 200.000 personas en el mundo pueden entender o hablar completamente el idioma. Aunque se considera un idioma diferente al español, tiene muchas similitudes en la ortografía y la pronunciación debido a sus raíces.

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Most people have heard of Yiddish, a Hebrew and German hybrid language. Were you aware that there is another composite language, which contains Hebrew and other Semitic languages, that is an offshoot of Spanish, called Ladino?

Ladino is classified as a Judeo-Spanish Romance language. In Spanish, it's called djudeo-espanyol or ladino. In English, the language is also known as Sephardic, Crypto-Jewish, or Spanyol.

In the 1492 diaspora, when the Jews were expelled from Spain, they took with them Spanish of the late 15th century and expanded the lexicon with language influences from the Mediterranean, primarily where they settled.

Foreign words that mixed with Old Spanish derive mainly from Hebrew, Arabic, Turkish, Greek, French, and to a lesser extent from Portuguese and Italian.

The Ladino community population took a large hit when the Nazis destroyed most of the communities in Europe where Ladino had been the first language among Jews.

Very few of the people who speak Ladino are monolingual. Ladino language advocates fear that it could die out as speakers more often use the languages of the cultures around them.

It is estimated that about 200,000 people can understand or speak Ladino. Israel has one of the largest Ladino-speaking communities, with many words borrowed from Yiddish. Traditionally, Ladino was written in the Hebrew alphabet, writing and reading right to left. In the 20th century, Ladino adopted the Latin alphabet, used by Spanish and English, and the left-to-right orientation.

Although separate languages, Ladino and Spanish are inextricably linked in a way that speakers of the two languages can communicate with each other, much like Spanish and Portuguese speakers can understand each other.

Ladino retains Spanish vocabulary and grammar rules from the 15th century interspersed with many borrowed words. The spelling resembles Spanish.

For an example, the following paragraph about the Holocaust, written in Ladino, very closely resembles Spanish and would be understood by a Spanish reader:

En komparasion kon las duras sufriensas ke pasaron los reskapados de los kampos de eksterminasion nazistas en Gresia, se puede dizir ke las sufriensas de los olim en el kampo de Kipros no fueron muy grandes, ma despues de anyos de vida en los kampos de konsentrasion, en teribles kondisiones, eyos kerian empesar en una mueva vida en Erets Israel i sus planos eran atrazados agora por unos kuantos mezes.

A big difference in Ladino is that the "k" and "s" are usually used to represent sounds that are sometimes represented in Spanish by other letters.

Another notable grammatical difference from Ladino is that usted and ustedes, the forms of the second-person pronoun, are missing. Those pronouns were developed in Spanish after the Jews had left.

Other Spanish language developments that came after the 15th century, which Ladino did not adopt, included distinguishing different sound for the letters . After the diaspora, Spaniards had given the two consonants the same sound. Also, Ladino does not include the inverted question mark or the use of the .

Organizations in Turkey and Israel publish and maintain resources for the Ladino community. The Ladino Authority, an online resource, is based in Jerusalem. The authority proctors an online Ladino language course primarily for Hebrew speakers.

A combination of Jewish studies and language studies programs in universities and associations in the U.S. and globally offer courses, revival groups or encourage Ladino study woven into their studies.

Judeo-Spanish Ladino should not be confused with the Ladino or Ladin language spoken in part of northeastern Italy, which is closely related with the rumantsch-ladin of Switzerland. The two languages have nothing to do with the Jews or Spanish beyond being, like Spanish, a Romance language.

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What Language Is to Spanish as Yiddish Is to German?

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Most people have heard of Yiddish, a Hebrew and German hybrid language. Were you aware that there is another composite language, which contains Hebrew and other Semitic languages, that is an offshoot of Spanish, called Ladino? Ladino is classified as a Judeo-Spanish Romance language. In Spanish, it's called djudeo-espanyol or ladino.

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Max Weinreich dijo una vez que "una lengua es un dialecto con un ejército y una marina". Esto es poderoso porque enfatiza cómo un idioma solo se considera un idioma debido al poder político que tiene. Esto significa que ningún dialecto o idioma es más válido que el otro. Desafortunadamente, la línea entre un idioma y un dialecto no es científica, pero es muy borrosa. En general, los idiomas son hablados por más personas mientras que los dialectos son hablados por menos personas. Los dialectos también suelen derivar de un idioma, lo que podría ser otra razón por la que se consideran dialectos en lugar de idiomas independientes.

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Language vs Dialect vs Accent: What's The Difference?

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Según este artículo, España está formada por cinco idiomas diferentes: aranés, vasco, catalán, gallego y español. El español es el idioma más popular en España con más de 45 millones de hablantes. El catalán se usa en la región noreste de Cataluña y Andorra. Es una lengua romance. El gallego se habla en la esquina noroeste de España y se considera mutaully inteligible con el portugués. El euskera es la única lengua en España que no está relacionada con las lenguas romances. El aranés es el menos común de estos idiomas probablemente porque comparte el mismo estatus con el español y el catalán en la región donde se habla.

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"Bon dia! Egun on! Bo día!" are all acceptable forms of greeting in Spain; except for the fact that they derive from different languages that can be heard and seen in their respective homelands. But if you speak fluent castellano, you are well-equipped with knowledge to engage in conversation with Spaniards in any part of the peninsula. So, how many languages are spoken in Spain and who communicates in these mostly Latin-derived languages?

How many languages do Spaniards speak?

The official language of Spain is Spanish (or rather castellano) and is understood everywhere in the country. More often than not, the people of Spain refer to their language as castellano rather than español because the latter can be any of the other languages spoken in the country. Castellano has deviated into other languages according to the cultural diversity of Spain and these regions are an important part of the Spanish cultural patrimony.

As a general rule, the peninsula is home to five different languages: Aranese, Basque, Catalan, Galician and Spanish. This does not however mean that all Spaniards speak these languages; Spain is politically divided into different regions and these languages are official and unofficial in Spanish autonomous communities.

To answer the question of how many languages are spoken in Spain, here is an overview of the most widely spoken languages in descendant order:

It is the official language of Spain with over 45 million speakers scattered across the country. The word "Castilian" is sometimes used to denote the standard form of Spanish used in Spain, as opposed to the variety of Spanish used in Latin America. Castilian can therefore be heard in all regions of Spain.

It is the official language of the northeastern region of Catalonia and Andorra. About 4,6 million people speak Catalan, including in adjoining areas in France and the Valencian Community, where it is typically referred to as Valencian. Similarly to its parent language, Catalan is a Romance language and it has inherited roughly 85% of its lexical set.

It is the official language of the region of Galicia which lies in the north-west corner of Spain. It is also a Romance language, but differs from other Spanish languages in that it is mutually intelligible with Portuguese, because Galicia and Portugal were united during medieval times. Galician is the mother tongue of 2.6 million people in the autonomous community of Galicia.

It is the official language of the Basque Country, which is the area located in the northern border of Spain. It is sometimes referred to as Euskara and is the only language in Spain that does not have any ties with Romance languages. In fact, Euskara has no generic relation to any other language and is one of the oldest in Europe, even more ancient than Latin. Basque is estimated to be the mother tongue of around 900,000 people.

It is spoken in the Val d'Aran region in the northeast of Spain and derives from the Gascon dialect of Occitan. It is known that Aranese has a co-official status with Spanish and Catalan in the region and can be understood by 90% of the inhabitants and spoken by 65% of them.

Conclusions

The Spanish language has a rich heritage that dates back to thousands of years when several previously independent kingdoms were all merged into the Kingdom of Spain. It has also received influences from neighbouring Romance languages as well as Arabic during the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. The multidimensional culture of Spain is truly reflected by the linguistic diversity that the country celebrates.

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How many languages are spoken in Spain? - Pangeanic

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"Bon dia! Egun on! Bo día!" are all acceptable forms of greeting in Spain; except for the fact that they derive from different languages that can be heard and seen in their respective homelands. But if you speak fluent castellano, you are well-equipped with knowledge to engage in conversation with Spaniards in any part of the peninsula.

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Las cuatro relaciones semánticas principales cubiertas en esta presentación de diapositivas que quiero enfatizar son sinonimia, antonimia, polisemia y hiponimia. La sinonimia se utiliza para describir dos o más palabras que tienen exactamente, o casi exactamente, la misma definición. Un ejemplo de esto es "amable" y "agradable". Antonio es lo opuesto a la sinonimia. Se utiliza para describir dos o más palabras que tienen definiciones opuestas, como "amable" y "antipatico". La polisemia es cuando una palabra tiene varios significados. La palabra "bueno" es un ejemplo perfecto de polisemia porque tiene un significado diferente, pero similar, en las dos frases "Es un buen hombre". y "Es un buen pintor". Por último, la hiponimia se utiliza para describir palabras que se relacionan entre sí en una categoría general. Un ejemplo de esto es "violeta" y "lavanda", que existen en la categoría "morada".

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13. semantics (synonym, antonym, homonym, hyponym, polyseme, idioms)

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Hay varios roles semánticos, por lo que solo discutiré algunos de los más importantes. El primer papel semántico y el más básico es el agente. El agente es la persona que realiza la acción. Por ejemplo, en la oración "Yo como pizza", la palabra "yo" es el agente. Otro papel semántico imperativo es el paciente. Este es el objeto sobre el que actúa el ajent. En el ejemplo anterior, la palabra "pizza" es el paciente porque el agente ("yo") actúa sobre ella. Por último, otro papel semántico importante es el destinatario. Éste es similar al paciente, excepto que siempre es un ser vivo, y el receptor siempre recibe algo en lugar de que se actúe sobre él. Un ejemplo de esto es "Me enviaron una carta".

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When we talk about grammar, we mostly discuss language from the point of view of its internal characteristics.

We can say that steered in the following example has a grammatical form, namely verb. More specificallty, we say that it is a verb in the past tense.

We might also say that John is the Subject and the boat is the Direct Object of the clause (or sentence in this case). The terms Subject and Object are called functions: they explain the grammatical role played by a particular element in the clause.

Semantic roles are rather different. They concern the roles that people and things play externally, in the real world.

These people and things are referred to by the parts of the clause in a way that tells us what their roles are.

The most obvious semantic role is called the agent.

The agent is the 'doer' of an action described by a 'doing' verb. So John is the agent in the following example:

Who or what is the agent in the following clause?

The boat was steered by John.

The answer is still John. Although we have changed an active clause into a passive one, and the boat is now the Subject, nothing has changed in the real world.

Semantic roles indicate the parts played by participants in 'a state of affairs' or 'a situation'.

The same situation might be described in a number of different ways. So looking at semantic roles is useful in thinking about alternative ways to describe the same situation.

Another important semantic role is patient. This is the role of being acted upon by an agent. It is sometimes called undergoer. It doesn't refer to a patient in the medical sense (although it is a bit like the role of a medical patient having tests and treatments done to them by others).

So the patient role applies to the person or thing who has the action of a 'doing' verb done to them. Do we have a patient in these examples?

John steered the boat.

The boat was steered by John.

Yes, in both these examples the boat is the patient, because it is acted on by John. It has the steering done to it. So the role of patient can be expressed in different ways in different clause structures.

English also has a semantic role of recipient which indicates the 'receiver' in a situation. Can you identify the recipient in this example? What other roles can you find?

The children sent Ahmed a postcard.

Here we have:

Ahmed as the recipient, as he is the receiver of the postcard

The children as the agent, the ones doing the sending

a postcard as the patient, the thing being acted on (sent)

The recipient role can also be expressed in other ways. Compare:

The children sent Ahmed a postcard.

The children sent a postcard to Ahmed.

Ahmed was sent a postcard by the children.

Ahmed has the same role of recipient in all these examples. Using a different verb, we could also have:

Ahmed received a postcard from the children.

Ahmed got a postcard from the children. (more informal)

We've looked at three of the most important semantic roles: agent, patient and recipient.

There are a number of further semantic roles. Here we'll just take a quick look at a couple of others.

What about the role of the highlighted noun phrases in these examples?

His friends felt very sad about his news.

The passengers heard a strange noise.

These noun phrases do not have the role of agent, but rather the role of experiencer: the individuals identified by these phrases are experiencing feelings or sensations.

What about the highlighted noun phrase in the next example? What kind of role in the situation does it express?

Here the pen is not an agent or a patient: it is not acting itself or being acted on by an agent. (Abstractly, we could say it is acted on by the force of gravity, but that is not expressed in the sentence.) This kind of neutral role is sometimes called theme.

The same neutral role of theme can be applied to a strange noise in The passengers heard a strange noise. It is not a patient because the passengers are not really acting on the noise, just experiencing it.

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When we talk about grammar, we mostly discuss language from the point of view of its internal characteristics. We can say that steered in the following example has a grammatical form, namely verb. More specificallty, we say that it is a verb in the past tense.

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Deixis son palabras y frases que no se pueden entender completamente sin información contextual adicional. Hay tres tipos importantes de deixis: personal, espacial y temporal. La deixis personal se refiere a pronombres personales: yo, tú, él, ella, ellos. En la oración "Hice compras en el centro comercial", la palabra "hice" se refiere a mí, Brandon. Sin embargo, si dijera la oración, "hice" ahora se referirá a usted. Esto cambiaría la comprensión de la oración en función del contexto. La deixis espacial se refiere a la ubicación del hablante. Por ejemplo, la oración "Estoy aquí", la palabra "aquí" se refiere a mi ubicación actual (dormitorio). Ahora, basado en el contexto, podría decir "Estoy en mi dormitorio", y las dos oraciones tendrían el mismo significado. El significado de esto cambiaría para cualquiera que no se encuentre actualmente en mi dormitorio. Finalmente, la deixis temporal se refiere al momento exacto en que se pronuncia un enunciado.

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When speaking or writing you are constantly using deixis, but what is deixis? Wikipedia defines deixis as "words and phrases... that cannot be fully understood without additional contextual information." In this article I hope to explain the main kinds of deixis: person, place, time, and discourse deixis.

What is Deixis?

Deixis is a "speaker-centric notion." That is, a speaker uses deixis and deictic elements while producing language. These deictic elements' meaning comes from the speaker and his or her location, time of speaking the utterance, and position of the utterance in the discourse.

Deictic words' meaning changes depending on the speaker or writer.

Person Deixis

Person deixis refers to to personal pronouns such as I, you, he, and they. When a speaker produces the word I that pronoun refers to that specific speaker. For example, if I, Josh, produce the utterance "I went shopping yesterday," the meaning of the word I is "Josh." We can rephrase the sentence to "Josh went shopping yesterday" and the sentence's meaning will remain the same. However, if you were to say the sentence "I went shopping yesterday," the I in the sentence would refer to your name.

All personal pronouns work like this with the most obvious pronouns being I and you,

Place Deixis

Place deixis refers to where the speaker is. If I said "I am here," the word here refers to my current location, which as I write this is in my office. Again we can replace here with what it is referring to be "I am in my office."

Place deixis is also useful for verbs such as come and go. If I say the word come, I am referring to pointing to a direction towards my current location. This is similar to the word go,

Time Deixis

Time deixis refers to the current time in when the utterance is spoken. If we go back to the previous example of "I went shopping yesterday," the word yesterday refers to September 11, 2019, the day before the day I am currently writing this article.

Discourse Deixis

Discourse deixis is often found in written text. For example, when reading an essay you may come across a sentence like "At this point I would like to discuss, X, Z, and Y." The phrase at this point is an example of discourse deixis. The notion of this point can only be obtained by knowing where this point is.

Conclusion

Deixis is an important aspect when it comes to meaning in semantics and pragmatics. Deictic elements are often used and in order to fully understand the meaning of deictic elements, you will need to know more information than what is in the utterance alone.

What to read next:

If you are interested in semantics, you may be interested in reading about circularity in semantics.

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What is Deixis? (Definition with examples) - Linguistics Study Guide

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When speaking or writing you are constantly using deixis, but what is deixis? Wikipedia defines deixis as "words and phrases... that cannot be fully understood without additional contextual information." In this article I hope to explain the main kinds of deixis: person, place, time, and discourse deixis. Deixis is a "speaker-centric notion."

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Este vídeo divide la historia de España en varios períodos. El primer período es el pre-romano. Los grupos que vivieron aquí fueron los celtas y los iberos y, finalmente, los griegos / fenicios y keynecios. El segundo período es el período romano. Fue entonces cuando los romanos conquistaron toda España. El siguiente período es el período visigodo que se produjo después de la caída de roma. Los visigodos obtuvieron la mayor parte de la península mientras que los suevos vivían en el noreste. Fue en este período que el catolicismo se convirtió en la religión oficial de la península. El siguiente período es el período musulmán que comenzó cuando los morres del norte de África conquistaron la península en 711 y la llamaron "Al-Andalus". La resistencia se formó en el norte que formó el reino de Asturias. El período de la Reconquista fue cuando el catolicismo volvió a ser popular y el Islam cayó. Este período resultó en muchos reinos nuevos. El siguiente período tiene un título interesante de "Los Reyes Católicos". Fue entonces cuando Isabel de Castilla y Fernando de Aragón se casaron y conquistaron Granada que finalmente unificó la península. El siguiente período es el descubrimiento de las américas durante el cual Hernán Cortés y Francisco Pizarro expandieron el dominio español en varias partes de las américas. Hay incluso más períodos que han afectado la forma en que el idioma español ha evolucionado y se ha extendido por el mundo, sin embargo, creo que estos son algunos de los más influyentes en términos de vocabulario, fonética y gramática.

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#1. THE PRE-ROMAN PERIOD VII a.C - II a.C

In Hispania before the Romans, the Spanish peninsula was inhabited by several tribes which were divided between Celts and Iberos.

The Fenitians and Greeks started to arrive and founded Gades and Ampurias. By the way, the name of Iberia was given by the Greeks because of the river Ebro, which in Greek is Iber. After them came the Cartaginenses from Africa and founded Cartagena.

#2. THE ROMAN PERIOD II a.C - V d.C

The Romans arrived in Ampurias in 218 b.C., and finished conquering the peninsula in 19 b.C. under the leadership of the emperor Augustus. The Romans founded several cities such as Emerita Augusta, Italica and Tarraco and expanded their culture during almost seven centuries.

#3. THE VISIGOTH PERIOD V - VII

But Rome ended up collapsing and in the V century hordes of visigoth warriors from the north invaded Spain. The Swabians settled in the north east. The Visigoths dominated the Iberian peninsula for more than 200 hundred years and established the capital in Toledo. In 589 Recaredo made Catholicism the official religion of the peninsula.

#4. THE MUSLIM PERIOD (AL-ANDALUS) VIII - XV

In the year 711, Muslims from the north of Africa conquered the peninsula and called it Al-Andalus. Resistance formed in the north and the kingdom of Asturias was founded. The Muslims stayed for seven centuries and left two great monuments: the mosque in Cordoba and the Alhambra in Granada.

#5. THE RECONQUEST VIII - XV

The Christians started the reconquest in 722 when don Pelayo, an Asturian nobleman defeated the Muslims and from this moment they started to gain terrain and the kingdoms of Leon, Navarra, Aragon, Castilla and Portugal were founded.

In the year 1212 in the decisive battle of Navas de Tolosa, the Muslims were defeated by the Christians and for the rest of the century the reconquest advanced quickly. In the end only the kingdom of Granada remained in the south.

#6. THE CATHOLIC KINGS XV

In 1469 Isabel of Castilla and Ferdinand of Aragon got married and unified both crowns, conquering Granada in 1492 and unifying the peninsula.

#7. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA XV - XIX

In 1492 Columbus first left for the Indias, discovering America on the 12th of October. During the 16th century conquerers like Hernan Cortes or Francisco Pizarro expanded the Spanish dominions all over America.

#8. THE AUSTRIAN DYNASTY XVI - XVII

Spain became the main European power under the reign of Charles the 1st of Spain and 5th of Germany, who started the Austrian dynasty. His son Philip the 2nd was crowned king of Portugal in 1580 and therefore the whole peninsula was unified for 60 years.

#9. THE BOURBON DYNASTY XVII - XIX

In 1701 the Austrian dynasty ended and the war of succession started and would end in 1714 with Philippe of Anjou as king, establishing the bourbon dynasty.

In 1805 Spain was defeated in the battle of Trafalgar by the British and in 1808 it was finally invaded by the French and the war of independence against napoleon´s army started. This finished in victory for the Spanish six years later.

#10. THE XIX CENTURY

It was during the war of independence against the French that the first constitution was proclaimed in Cadiz in 1812.

The XIX century was very problematic, with the Carlista wars between the liberal supporters of Isabel II and the traditionalists with prince Carlos.

Finally in 1875 the bourbon monarchy was restored with alfonso XII.

In the "disaster" of 1898, Spain lost its last colonies, namely Cuba and the Philippines, after a war with the united states.

#11. THE CIVIL WAR AND FRANCO XX

In 1923 Primo de Rivera established a dictatorship which ended up with the declaration of the II republic.

After the military insurrection of 1936 against the republic, a civil war started which would end in 1939 with a military dictatorship under the rule of Franco.

#12. DEMOCRATIC SPAIN XX - XXI

In 1975 after the death of Franco, the transition to democracy started and in 1978 the current Spanish constitution was passed.

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1. THE PRE-ROMAN PERIOD VII a.C - II a.C In Hispania before the Romans, the Spanish peninsula was inhabited by several tribes which were divided between Celts and Iberos. The Fenitians and Greeks started to arrive and founded Gades and Ampurias. By the way, the name of Iberia was given by the Greeks because [...]

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"Latín vulgar" es un término utilizado para describir sociolectos coloquiales que se hablaban principalmente en las provincias occidentales del Imperio Romano (hasta que esos dialectos divergieron y evolucionaron hacia las lenguas romances). Uno de los primeros textos escritos que incluyen el latín vulgar es el "Probi. Apéndice ", que indica los errores ortográficos y fonológicos junto con sus correcciones en latín. Esto mostró los tipos de cambios que experimentaron las lenguas vernáculas latinas vulgares en evolución. Algunas características del latín vulgar incluyen elementos anteriores a la conquista romana, mientras que otras se basan en la influencia del latín. Una característica importante del latín vulgar es la pérdida de vocales largas y cortas, que es la piedra angular del latín. Este es solo un trampolín de cómo el latín se convirtió en el idioma español.

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Vulgar Latin, spoken form of non-Classical Latin from which originated the Romance group of languages.

Later Latin (from the 3rd century ce onward) is often called Vulgar Latin-a confusing term in that it can designate the popular Latin of all periods and is sometimes also used for so-called Proto-Romance ( roman commun), a theoretical construct based on consistent similarities among all or most Romance languages. All three senses of the term Vulgar Latin in fact share common features but, given their different theoretical status, can hardly be called identical or even comparable. When Christianity was officially adopted by the Roman Empire (4th century), Vulgar Latin elements were diffused through certain religious texts. Its "vulgarisms" often called forth apologies from Christian authors, whose false humility seems akin to pride in that they did not succumb to the frivolities of pagan literary style.

Aside from the numerous inscriptions found throughout the empire, there is no shortage of texts in Vulgar Latin. One of the first is the so-called Appendix Probi (3rd-4th centuries ce; "Appendix to Probus['s Grammar]"), which lists correct and incorrect forms of 227 words, probably as an orthographic aid to scribes. That work illustrates some phonological changes that may have already occurred in the spoken language (e.g., loss of unstressed penultimate syllables and loss of final m). The Vulgate, St. Jerome's translation of the Bible (385-404 ce), and some of the works of St. Augustine (354-430 ce) are among Christian works written in Vulgar Latin. Particularly amusing and also linguistically instructive is the so-called Peregrinatio Etheriae ("Pilgrimage of Etheria"), also called Itinerarum Egeriae ("Travel of Egeria"), written probably in the 4th century by a Spanish nun, describing her visit to the Holy Land. Medical and grammatical works also abound from approximately 400 ce to the 7th century (among the writers were the provincials Cosentius, from Gaul; Virgilius Maro, from southern Gaul; and St. Isidore of Sevilla, from Spain).

Some of the characteristics of Vulgar Latin recall popular features of classical and preclassical times and foreshadow Romance developments. In vocabulary, especially, many of the sober classical words are rejected in favour of more colourful popular terms, especially derivatives and diminutives: thus, portare 'to carry' (French porter, Italian portare, etc.) is preferred to ferre; cantare 'to sing again and again' (French chanter Spanish and Portuguese cantar, etc.) to canere; vetulus 'little old man' (Romanian vechi, Italian vecchio, French vieux, etc.) to vetus. In grammar, synthetic constructions typical of Classical Latin are often replaced by analytic; thus, the use of prepositions often makes case endings superfluous. Ad regem for regi 'to the king,' for instance, or anomalous morphological forms are simplified and rationalized (e.g., plus, or magis, sanus for sanior 'healthier'). Shorter, simpler sentences are preferred, and word order tends to become less flexible.

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The most copious evidence for Vulgar Latin is in the realm of phonology, though interpretation of the evidence is often open to dispute, consisting as it does of the confused descriptions of grammarians and the misspellings of bewildered scribes. Much of the evidence points to a strengthening of stress accent during the Late period, leading to the shortening and swallowing of unaccented syllables: thus, viridem 'green' becomes virdem ( verde in several Romance languages); vinea 'vine' becomes vinia (French vigne, Spanish viña 'vineyard,' etc.).

Among other phonological features of Vulgar Latin, probably the most striking is the loss of the system of long and short vowels. On the whole, long vowels became tense and short vowels lax, resulting in a wholesale change in the rhythm of the language. In the texts there is evidence of the confusion of ĭ and ē and of ŭ and ō that has occurred in the western Romance languages. It is to be remembered that even popular Latin verse used measures of vowel length, and there is no evidence to suggest that vowel-length distinctions were lost in vulgar preclassical speech.

An archaic feature that does recur in Vulgar Latin is the loss of word-final m, of which virtually no trace remains in Romance languages. It is possible, however, that the written letter of Classical Latin was no more than an orthographic convention for a nasal twang: in scanning Latin verse, the - m is always run in (elided) before an initial vowel. Reduction of the diphthongs /ae/ (to /ɛ/) and /au/ (to /ɔ/) seems also to be a popular and dialectal feature reflected in Vulgar Latin texts; in the latter case, however, the Romance languages do not support the hypothesis that the diphthong was reduced early, for it remains in Old Provençal and in Romanian and, probably, in early Old French.

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Vulgar Latin, spoken form of non-Classical Latin from which originated the Romance group of languages. Later Latin (from the 3rd century ce onward) is often called Vulgar Latin-a confusing term in that it can designate the popular Latin of all periods and is sometimes also used for so-called

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El español es el segundo idioma más hablado del mundo, por lo que no es de extrañar que haya muchas variaciones sobre cómo pronunciar ciertas palabras o decir frases certianas. En el mundo hispanohablante existen nombres para cada tipo de dialecto/ acento. "Distinción" es un tipo de dialecto. Se llama así porque quienes lo hablan hacen una distinción entre los sonidos [θ] y [s]. El dialecto de "seseo" no distingue entre estos dos fonemas. Por ejemplo, las palabras "casa" y "caza" serían pronunciadas de la misma manera por alguien que hablara de esta manera. Este dialecto se suele asociar con Latinoamérica y las islas Canarias. Por último, el dialecto "ceceo" pronuncia todo [z] y [s] como [θ]. Esto hace que la pronunciación de "ceceo" se parezca más a "thetheo".

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The other day I was having a drink with a group of friends when one shared a story that the Spanish accent (you know, the one that pronounces "Barcelona" like Barthelona) developed over 500 years ago from a Spanish king who had a lisp. Because of this, the Spaniards across the country decided to imitate him as a form of respect - leading to the accent we hear today. I was astounded and skeptical in equal measure: How would this Spanish dialect have trickled down to the majority of Spain - in a single king's lifetime - during a period when there was no mass media?

After not much research, I confirmed the theory was a myth. Historians and linguists argued there was no evidence that King Ferdinand (the specific king in question) had a lisp. In fact, the only Spanish king recorded as having a lisp is Pedro of Castile, and the "Castilian lisp" didn't develop until 200 years after Pedro died. But perhaps the most surprising piece of information will be that the [th] sound you hear in Castilian Spanish speakers is actually not a lisp at all.

This got me thinking: What are the some of the distinguishing factors of Spanish dialects across the globe? Here are some of the biggest differences (although it is by no means an exhaustive list!).
Illustration by Victoria Fernandez
Pronunciation And Accent

The Spanish language is derived from a dialect of Vulgar Latin that formed in the north-central part of the Iberian Peninsula after the fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century. The language then expanded south to the Mediterranean Sea and eventually to the Spanish colonial empire - most recognizably, the Americas.

From there, there are three distinct categories used to describe the differences in Spanish dialects and accents, all of which happen to rebut the idea of a "lisp." If you look up what it means to have a lisp, you'll find that it's pronouncing the sibilants [s] and [z] imperfectly, but this is not what's happening in these dialects:

1. Distinción is a dialect that makes a distinction between the sounds [θ] and [s], (where θ represents the Greek letter theta and can be compared to the English [th] sound). In these dialects, the words casa (house) and caza (hunt) are pronounced differently. Distinción is found in most Spanish dialects in Spain.

doesn't make a distinction between the way casa and caza are pronounced and will sound the words with an English [s] sound. Seseo is generally associated with Spanish dialects spoken in Latin America and the Canary Islands.

also doesn't make a distinction between casa and caza, however, this dialect typically pronounces all instances of S and Z with a θ sound, and the same goes for C when it comes before E or an I. This means that the pronunciation of ceceo is something like [thetheo]. This dialect is found mostly in Andalusia in the south of Spain.

Additionally, some dialects of Spanish, like Uruguayan and types of Argentinian, pronounce the LL combination as a [sh] sound. That's right, they would say , , lluvia (rain) as [shuvia] malla (bathing suit) as [masha] rodilla (knee) as [rodisha], and so on.

Grammatical Differences Between Spanish Dialects

A couple of notable differences arise when looking at Spanish spoken in Spain compared to Spanish in Latin America. In Spain, Spanish speakers tend to use present perfect tense while Latin Americans are more likely to use the simple past (much like the divide with the past tense in British versus American English). This practically looks something like:

There are also differences when it comes to personal pronouns. In Spain, a Spanish speaker will use vosotros to refer to the plural "you" informally, while in Latin America, this is never used. Instead, they will say ustedes to refer to both the formal and informal plural "you."

Of course, there are some exceptions to this divide, as language can also be country-specific. In some countries, speakers say instead of to refer to "you" in the singular. This practice is called voseo, and it has different functions in different countries. In Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay, where it's very common to use vos, they even conjugate the verb differently from pretty much everyone else in the Spanish-speaking world.

Dialect-Specific Spanish Slang

A trap for new learners is almost always vocabulary. Generally speaking, Latin American Spanish uses more words that derive from English because of its proximity to North America. Not so many that you won't get stuck, though. Because in Spanish, many words or phrases often have a completely different meaning.

Here are just a few of the more awkward variations to help you avoid confused faces:

Of course, there are hundreds, so simply remember to be open and take some reactions with a grain of salt, as you could be talking absolute absurdity to another Spanish speaker.

Influence Of Other Languages On Spanish Dialects

During the Spanish colonial period, it probably goes without reminding anyone that Spaniards claimed land that was already inhabited by indigenous people. For this reason, many Spanish dialects in South and Central America were heavily influenced by the local, native languages.

For example, Paraguayan Spanish is strongly influenced by Guaraní, the language of the indigenous people of the region. Guaraní is actually one of the few native languages that survived colonization and is the second official language of Paraguay. In fact, most of the population of Paraguay is bilingual and both languages are taught in schools. Some classic examples of this influence are in words like ñembo (it's a bit like saying "kind of") or Gua'u, which is a word used to show disbelief about something. Listen here:

Similarly, modern Mexico was built on the ruins of the Aztec empire, so many Nahuatl (the larger Aztecan language family) words entered the Mexican Spanish dialect. This is evident in many landmark names, as well as local phrases. It's safe to say that wherever you learn in Spanish in Latin America, you can be sure that it was influenced by another language and culture before the Spaniards arrived.

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The Nuances Of Spanish Dialects Around The Globe

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The other day I was having a drink with a group of friends when one shared a story that the Spanish accent (you know, the one that pronounces "Barcelona" like Barthelona) developed over 500 years ago from a Spanish king who had a lisp.

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Hay muchos procesos de cambios fonéticos. ¡Este sitio web interactivo es una excelente manera de aprender algunos de los más importantes! Incluye fenómenos de adición (adiciónes de sonidos), fenómenos de supresión (pérdidas de sonidos) y fenómenos de cambio. Los tres fenómenos de adición son prótesis, epítesis y paragoge (epítesis). Aquí es donde se agrega un fonema al principio, en medio o al final de una palabra, respectivamente. Los tres fenómenos de supresión son aféresis, síncopa y apócope. Aquí es donde se quita un fonema del principio, el medio o el final de una palabra, respectivamente. Finalmente, los fenómenos del cambio. El primero es la asimilación. Es una evolución fonética que facilita la pronunciación como: semente> semilla. Otro tipo de cambio fonético en esta categoría es la disimilación que es la sustitución de un fonema por otro como: anma> alma. El último de los fenómenos de cambio fonético es la metátesis. Se trata de una reordenación del orden de los sonidos dentro de una palabra. Un ejemplo de esto es veneris> viernes.

¿Cuál de estos es un ejemplo de disimilación?:
A. anma> alma
B. está> tá
C. semente> simiente
D. veneris> viernes

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¡Felicidades! Has llegado a la parte final de este objeto. En esta última actividad repasarás todos los fenómenos fonéticos que intervinieron en el proceso evolutivo y verás cómo, paso por paso, estas palabras fueron cambiando hasta llegar a la forma en que las conocemos ahora. ¡Cuidado! Este ejercicio es más difícil, porque las siguientes palabras lograron su evolución ¡con dos o más fenómenos fonéticos! Pero no te espantes, te daremos algunas pistas...

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¡Felicidades! Has llegado a la parte final de este objeto. En esta última actividad repasarás todos los fenómenos fonéticos que intervinieron en el proceso evolutivo y verás cómo, paso por paso, estas palabras fueron cambiando hasta llegar a la forma en que las conocemos ahora. ¡Cuidado!

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Las cláusulas transitivas tienen objetos directos. Estos tipos de cláusulas usan verbos que tienen un objeto para recibir la acción. (ej: Escribí un libro.) Las cláusulas intransitivas, por otro lado, no tienen un objeto directo. Solo contienen un sujeto y un verbo intransitivo. (ej: Me reí.) Las cláusulas ditransitivas son las más complejas porque, como las cláusulas transitivas, contienen un objeto directo, pero también contienen un objeto indirecto. (ej: Su amigo le dio un regalo.) Cada una de estas cláusulas está categorizada por su tipo de predicado. Este artículo también incluye una nueva palabra llamada "ambitransitivo", que significa que el tipo de cláusula puede cambiar según la forma en que se utilice el preidcado.

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Este artículo define una sintagma como: una palabra o un grupo de palabras que se articula en torno a un núcleo y que tiene función sintáctica. Los diferentes tipos de sintagmas incluyen: sintagma verbal (ej: Quiero comer temprano), sintagma nominal (ej: María le descripción todo.), Sintagma adjetival (ej: Esta receta es fácil de cocinar.), Sintagma pronomial (ej: ¿Quién vino a la entrevista?), sintagma adverbial (ej: Estoy parado frente a la plaza.), sintagma prepositional (ej: Hacia dónde va ese camino.), sintagma conjuntivo (ej: María y Ricardo) y sintagma interjectivo (ej: ¡Ay de mí!). Cada sintagma se define por su núcleo sintáctico porque determina sus características, función y cómo se organiza el sintagma.

¿Cuál de los siguientes es un sintagma interjectivo?
A. ¿Quién vino a la entrevista?
B. ¡Ay de mí!
C. Esta receta es fácil de cocinar.
D. María y Ricardo

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Qué es un Sintagma:

Un sintagma, en gramática, es una palabra o un grupo de palabras que se articula en torno a un núcleo y que tiene función sintáctica.

La palabra sintagma, como tal, proviene del francés syntagme, y esta a su vez procede del griego σύνταγμα (sintagma), que significa 'agrupación ordenada', 'conjunto', 'tropa' o 'elemento sintáctico'.

El sintagma está compuesto por un núcleo, denominado núcleo sintáctico, alrededor del cual se organizan otros elementos.

El núcleo sintáctico es la parte más importante del sintagma, el elemento de mayor jerarquía, pues es el que determina las características, la función y la forma en que los elementos se ordenarán alrededor del sintagma.

Por ejemplo, un sintagma nominal tiene en su núcleo un sustantivo alrededor del cual se organizan otros elementos que pueden o no estar presentes.

Así, un sintagma nominal, aparte de un nombre, que es el núcleo sintáctico, puede también estar compuesto por un determinante, un adjetivo y una aposición. Por ejemplo, en el sintagma "El río rápido de ancho cauce". Río es el núcleo del sintagma; el es un determinante; rápido un adjetivo; y de ancho cauce, una aposición.

Dependiendo de la función que cumplan dentro de la oración, los sintagmas pueden clasificarse en verbales, nominales, adjetivales, pronominales, adverbiales, preposicionales, conjuntivos e interjectivos.

Vea también Sintaxis.

Tipos de sintagmas

Sintagma verbal

El sintagma verbal es aquel que tiene como núcleo un verbo. En las siguientes oraciones, por ejemplo, el sintagma verbal es indicado en negritas: Hace mucho frío afuera; Quiero comer temprano; No he dormido ni un minuto.

Sintagma nominal

El sintagma nominal es aquel en cuyo núcleo hay un nombre o sustantivo. En las oraciones a continuación, por ejemplo, los sintagmas nominales son destacados con negritas: María le explicó todo; Las ciudades grandes no me gustan.

Sintagma adjetival o adjetivo

El sintagma adjetival es aquel cuyo núcleo está constituido por un adjetivo. Por ejemplo, en las siguientes frases el sintagma adjetivo es señalado con negritas: Es muy bonito el libro; Esta receta es fácil de cocinar.

Sintagma pronominal

Como sintagma pronominal se llama aquel cuyo núcleo es formado por un pronombre. Por ejemplo, el sintagma pronominal es señalado en las siguientes oraciones: ¿ Quién vino a la entrevista?; ¡ Le gusta mucho comer!; Él no habla español.

Sintagma adverbial

Un sintagma adverbial se caracteriza por tener en su núcleo un adverbio. En las siguientes oraciones, el sintagma adverbial es destacado por negritas: Fueron rápidamente a ver qué pasaba; Caminaba muy despacio; Estoy parado frente a la plaza.

Sintagma preposicional o prepositivo

Los sintagmas preposicionales o prepositivos son aquellos que tienen una preposición en su núcleo o que están encabezados por una. Así, por ejemplo, en los siguientes enunciados, los sintagmas preposicionales son indicados por las negritas: La vi desde mi casa; Hacia dónde va ese camino.

Vea también Preposición.

Sintagma conjuntivo

El sintagma conjuntivo es aquel que tiene como núcleo una conjunción. Por ejemplo, en las siguientes expresiones señalaremos en negritas el sintagma conjuntivo: María y Ricardo; Matías es más rápido que todos los demás; Me gusta el azul así como el rojo.

Sintagma interjectivo

Como sintagma interjectivo se denomina aquel cuyo núcleo está formado por una interjección. En las siguientes frases, por ejemplo, los sintagmas interjectivos serán marcados en negritas: ¡ Ay de mí! ¡ Uy, qué rápido llegaste!

Fecha de actualización: 27/11/2017. Cómo citar: "Sintagma". En: Significados.com. Disponible en: https://www.significados.com/sintagma/ Consultado:

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Un sintagma, en gramática, es una palabra o un grupo de palabras que se articula en torno a un núcleo y que tiene función sintáctica. La palabra sintagma, como tal, proviene del francés syntagme, y esta a su vez procede del griego σύνταγμα (sintagma), que significa 'agrupación ordenada', 'conjunto', 'tropa' o 'elemento sintáctico'.

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Este artículo explica siete formas diferentes de usar la palabra "se" en español. "Se" es un pronombre personal. Primero, está el "se" reflexivo. Cuando se usa de esta manera, la acción recae sobre el mismo sujeto que realiza la acción. El siguiente es el recíproco "se". Cuando se usa de esta manera, significa que dos cosas realizan una acción al mismo tiempo o entre sí. El tercero es el "se" (les / le). Este "se" se usa para reemplazar los pronombres personales "les / le" cuando es necesario. El "se" impersonal se utiliza para hacer observaciones generales de lo que la gente hace en general. El "se" pasivo se usa para hablar de alguien (o algo) que realiza una acción sin indicar específicamente quién lo hizo. Sólo los verbos transitivos se utilizan con este "se". Los verbos pronominales "se" se relacionan con el pronombre, por lo que estos verbos deben tener un pronombre reflexivo. Finalmente, el intensificador "se" se utiliza para enfatizar una acción o darle un sentido más fuerte. Hay muchos más usos de la palabra "se" que en este artículo, lo que significa que es un pronombre personal muy generalizado.

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I will be honest, Spanish is a complex language.

I say this because of it Se one of the most used, but most difficult words to use.

On this occasion, I will try to clarify the uses of the Se with an easy definition and with examples so that you know all the uses that it has.

Many of the Spanish speakers do not know these rules, but you should know them if you are learning Spanish.

Do you want to know everything about "Se"?

But first..

SE is a personal pronoun, that is, it is used to call people, things or animals without naming them.

In Spanish they have no gender, so you can use it for men or women. It also has no "number", that is, you can use it for the plural (Ella, Él, Esos, Esas).

There are many rules to use this pronoun, but I decided to summarize the most important and the most used by any Latin American.

The Se reflexivo is the one in which the action falls on the same subject.

That is, the personal pronoun is always used before a reflexive verb.

Examples:

The Se Reflexivo is a bit confusing and it seems a bit Se Reciproco.

The difference is that reciprocal is used to indicate that two people, animals or things do an action at the same time.

Examples:

In this case, the se is used to replace another personal pronoun (Le or Les).

Les or le are used to replace him or her.

That is, in theory, there are phrases in which we can use him or her, but in certain cases, it is better to use Se.

Examples:

Se Impersonal is used not to say which is the subject of the action.

Examples:

It is very common to find it in sales announcements.

Examples:

There are certain verbs in Spanish, in what you should use Se.

Verbos Pronominales: arrepentirse, abrazar, besar, casarse, comer, irse, etc.

It is also a bit confusing, but it is used to give a stronger sense to an action.

Examples:

¡Se bebió dos cafés! (He drank two coffees!)

¡Se fue a la playa! (She went to the beach!)

¡Se comió dos tacos! (He ate two tacos!)

In this case, it can be used for her and for him.

As I said at the beginning, it is a complicated word, but listen to a lot of Spanish. It will give you the necessary knowledge to know the different uses of Se in Spanish

To confuse with the word I know, this word with an accent means to know, but it is used only for the first person (yo)

Yo sé que no regresará (I know he won't come back)
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Did you like the article?

Maybe you want to read: Por and Para in Spanish

Do you want more examples of this pronoun?

I love reading your opinion.

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7 Uses of the Pronoun Se in Spanish - Blania

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I will be honest, Spanish is a complex language. I say this because of it Se one of the most used, but most difficult words to use. On this occasion, I will try to clarify the uses of the Se with an easy definition and with examples so that you know all the uses that it has.

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This article describes a plethora of different sentence types. Because there are so many, I will only describe a few.

Las oraciones en español pueden ser personales (contiene un sujeto y un verbo) o impersonales (solo contiene un verbo que siempre está conjugado en tercera persona). Estos dos tipos de oraciones se pueden dividir en cuatro categorías: declarativas (ej: Me llamo Brandon.), Interrogativas (ej: ¿Cómo estás?), Exclamativas (ej: ¡Qué hambre tengo!) e imperativas (ej: Haz tu tarea.). Otra forma de dividir oraciones es entre simples y compuestas. Las oraciones simples tienen un sujeto y un predicado, mientras que las oraciones compuestas tienen dos cláusulas juntas por coordinación o subordinación.

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How do you construct declarative sentences, negation, and questions in Spanish? How do you connect clauses using conjunctions, and shorten dependent clauses? What do we need to pay attention to in relative clauses, conditional clauses, and indirect speech? In these pages we'll explain everything you need to know about constructing Spanish sentences.

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Los diminutivos en español terminan agregados a los sustantivos después de quitar la "-o" o la "-a" para mostrar la pequeñez o la poca importancia de algo o para mostrar afecto. Un ejemplo es de "mesa" a "mesita" o de "abuela" a "abuelita". A veces requieren cambios de ortografía como de "chica" a "chicuita". Los aumentativos españoles pueden mostrar que algo es grande o indeseable. Un ejemplo de aumentativo se encuentra en la novela moderna "Don Quijote" de Miguel de Cervantes. El "-ote" al final del nombre del protagonista agrega sátira a la novela antes de la primera página.

¿Cuál de estos es un ejemplo de diminutivo?
a. mesita
b. chiquita
c. mosquito
d. dos de los anteriores
e. tres de los anteriores

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Spanish Diminutives

In English we will occasionally alter words to indicate smallness or show affection. This is known as a "diminutive" and we typically do it by adding a "-y" (or something similar) to end of the word. For example: dog → doggy, blanket → blanky, dear → dearie, etc.

Note: Don't confuse diminutive endings with the "-ito" endings of some irregular past participles: escrito, frito, etc.

Diminutives are much more common in Spanish than they are in English. Different regions have their own unique ways of creating diminutives, but the most common one is a form of "-ito." To create a diminutive, drop the "-o" or "-a" from just about any noun and add "-ito" or "-ita." Add "-cito" or "-cita" to words not ending in "-o" or "-a":

el niño → el niñito
la mesa → la mesita
el avión → el avioncito

Note: The diminutive of agua is agüita.

Note: The diminutive of mano is manita (because it's a feminine word).

Some words will require spelling changes:

el lago → el laguito
la chica → la chiquita
el pedazo → el pedacito

Using Spanish Diminutives

So why would we use the diminutive in Spanish?

To indicate something is small or perhaps unimportant:

Tengo una casita en la ciudad.
I have a little house in the city.

Enseñaba historia en una escuelita.
He taught history in a small school.

...or to indicate something is beloved or endearing:

Mi abuelita se llama Marta.
My dear grandma is named Marta.

...or to strike a friendly or pleading tone in a conversation:

Espera un momentito, señor.
Wait just a moment, sir.

¿Puedo tener un vasito de agua?
Could I get a (little) glass of water?

...or to talk to (or talk like) children:

¡Mira el pajarito y el osito!
Look at the birdy and the (little) bear!

¿Cuántos deditos tienes?
How many (little) fingers do you have?

Note: It's also possible to have diminutives of diminutives: chiquito → chiquitito, poquito → poquitito.

We aren't limited to nouns, we can also use diminutives to strengthen certain adverbs:

¡Lo necesito ahorita!
I need it right now!

...and to make subtle changes to certain adjectives:

Other Spanish Diminutives

There are also many other diminutive endings used in various places throughout the Spanish-speaking world:

-ete/-eta, -cete/-ceta
amiguete (buddy), juguete (toy), patinete (scooter)

-illo/-illa, -cillo/-cilla
bolsillo (pocket), pancillo (bread roll), tortilla

-uelo/-uela, -zuelo/-zuela
Venezuela (Little Venice)

Note: Costa Ricans are so fond of "-ico" endings, they are known as "Ticos."

-ico/–ica, -cico/-cica
momentico (short moment), platico (small plate)

Spanish Augmentatives

Unlike English, we can augment words in Spanish. Augmented words indicate either that something is large or that it is undesirable. Some examples:

-azo/-aza
exitazo (great success), perrazo (big, mean dog)

-ón/-ona
mujerona (large woman), ricachón (filthy rich), sillón (big chair)

-ote/-ota
grandote (enormous), papelote (worthless bit of paper)

-ucho/-ucha, -acho/-acha
abogaducho (awful lawyer), poblacho (delapidated town)

-udo/-uda
cabezudo (big head), peludo (hairy)

Other Spanish Suffixes and Endings

The following suffixes ( sufijos) aren't really diminutive or augmentative but they do change the meaning of the words they are added to.

Spanish Prefixes

Some places in the Spanish-speaking world also allow for the use of prefixes ( prefijos) to words. Adding the prefixes "re-" and "requete-" is like adding the word "very." You should already know how to handle the prefix "super-."

La comida allí es rebuena.
The food there is very good.

MI tía es requeteloca.
My aunt is very crazy.

¡El examen fue superdifícil!
The test was super hard!

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Spanish Diminutives, Augmentatives, and More - Spanish411

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In English we will occasionally alter words to indicate smallness or show affection. This is known as a "diminutive" and we typically do it by adding a "-y" (or something similar) to end of the word. For example: dog → doggy, blanket → blanky, dear → dearie, etc.

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Nominalizar significa "deshacerse del sustantivo". La razón para eliminar el sustantivo en una oración es no repetirlo demasiadas veces. Un buen ejemplo de este video es "Hay dos abogados en la sala. La abogada alta es de México, y el abogado bajo es de Costa Rica". La palabra "abogado" se dijo tres veces dentro de esa breve frase. Con nominalización, podemos eliminar los sujetos redundantes. Esto se convertiría en "Hay dos abogados en la sala. La alta es de México, y el bajo es de Costa Rica". No es como el inglés, donde la palabra "uno" se usaría para reemplazar los sustantivos nominalizados porque está implícita.

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Nominalization - Spanish Grammar - Getting Rid of the Noun

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Accidentes gramaticales de los verbos españoles:

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Accidentes gramaticales de los verbos españoles:

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Hay seis accidentes en el idioma español: tiempo, modo, número, persona, voz y aspecto. El accidente verbal de la persona se puede dividir en primera persona, segunda persona y tercera persona. Esto es básicamente en qué persona se conjuga el verbo. El accidente numérico se refiere al número de personas que hacen el verbo. Un ejemplo de este sitio web es "ella maneja, ellas manejan". El accidente de tiempo se trata de cuándo tiene lugar el verbo: pasado, presente o futuro. El modo representa la actitud menatl del hablante. Esto incluye indicativo (real), subjuntivo (hipotético) e imperativo (implica un mandato). El accidente de voz es activo o pasivo-activo cuando el sujeto realiza la acción y pasivo cuando la acción se le realiza al sujeto. Finalmente, el aspecto accidente es cuando una acción se completa (perfecta) o cuando una acción está en curso o inacabada (imperfecta).

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Un morfema flexional es un morfema que es independiente. Hay dos tipos: nominal y verbal. Los morfemas de inflexión nominal incluyen el género "perro, perra" y el número "perro, perros". Los morfemas de inflexión verbal incluyen los aspectos antes mencionados.

Se agrega un morfema derivado a un lexema o raíz para cambiar el significado de la palabra. Esto incluye prefijos, interfijos y sufijos. El morfema flexional no varía la gramática como lo hace el morfema derivado.

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Un morfema flexivo es un morfema no dependiente, es decir, se añade al final de una palabra para aportar información gramatical en forma de desinencia. Dicho esto, debe quedar claro que encontramos dos tipos de morfemas flexivos, los nominales y los verbales. Veamos en qué consisten:
Morfema flexivo nominal
Incluye al morfema de género y número:

Morfema flexivo nominal de género: perro / perra

Morfema flexivo nominal de número: perro / perros

Morfema flexivo verbal
Aporta información del verbo:

Marchamos / marchó / marchando...

Por su parte, el morfema derivativo se añade a una raíz o lexema para incluir cambios en el significado. Es decir, acaban constituyendo palabras con nuevos significados. El morfema derivativo no puede constituir palabras por sí mismo, por lo que necesita el añadido de elementos, que suelen afectar a su gramática.

Así pues, también en este caso encontramos tipos diferentes de morfemas derivativos:

Morfema derivativo prefijo, que es el que va delante de la raíz o lexema: contra-tiempo.

Morfema derivativo interfijo, que se ubica en medio: café-t-eria.

Morfema derivativo sufijo: va al final del lexema o raíz: play-era.

En este vídeo de unPROFESOR encontrarás una lección sobre los tipos de morfemas derivativos.
El morfema flexivo es regular
Una forma de distinguir un morfema flexivo se relaciona con su regularidad. Es decir, es fácil imaginar su significado. Así pues, se vuelven predecibles. Una a suele significar género femenino, una o es para el género masculino, una s significa plural, etc.

Por otro lado, el morfema derivativo es mucho menos predecible. Como hemos visto en el ejemplo, contra-tiempo es un problema, pero contra-seña es una clave.
El morfema flexivo es más rico
Se puede decir también que el morfema flexivo es muy rico. Es decir, hay cantidad de palabras en el castellano con distinto género, o con plural. Como vimos en el ejemplo, podemos decir perro, perra, perros, perras... Así, con muchas más, especialmente nombres. Gato, gata, gatas, gatos...

Por otro lado, el morfema derivativo es mucho más restringido. O sea, y retornando al ejemplo, contra no se puede añadir a gran cantidad de palabras: contratiempo, contraseña, contrarreloj... Hay más, pero no muchas más.
El morfema flexivo expresa significado
Normalmente, muchos morfemas derivativos se pueden expresar con expresiones diversas. Por ejemplo, una contraseña puede ser un número secreto. Pero con el morfema flexivo no ocurre lo mismo. Su significado no admite rodeos.
El morfema flexivo no varía la gramática
Un morfema flexivo jamás varía la gramática de una palabra. Sin embargo, sí es algo que puede suceder con el morfema derivativo. Volviendo a nuestro ejemplo, contra es una preposición, pero contratiempo pasa a ser un sustantivo.

Desde unPROFESOR deseamos que os haya quedado mucho más clara la diferencia entre morfema flexivo y derivativo. Con un poco de cuidado, y si nos fijamos bien, observamos que no es complejo saber cuál es uno y cuál es el otro. ¡Suerte, chicos!

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Diferencia entre morfema flexivo y derivativo

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Un morfema flexivo es un morfema no dependiente, es decir, se añade al final de una palabra para aportar información gramatical en forma de desinencia. Dicho esto, debe quedar claro que encontramos dos tipos de morfemas flexivos, los nominales y los verbales.

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Este artículo explica información muy útil en relación con las vocales mientras se aprende un nuevo idioma con el uso de una tabla de vocales. Dondequiera que se coloque la vocal en la tabla es la misma posición que la lengua debe estar (arriba o abajo y adelante o atrás). Describe la importancia de ser consciente de la posición de la lengua al hablar para escuchar el sonido de manera adecuada. Esto debería permitirle reconocer más el sonido en el nuevo idioma. La única cosa que este artículo no menciona y creo que debería, es cómo la apertura de la mandíbula afecta el sonido de las vocales.

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Vowel Height

When you lower your tongue towards your lower jaw, you are making a more OPEN vowel sound

When you raise your tongue toward the roof of your mouth, you are making a more CLOSED vowel sound

Use the vowel chart to alternate back and forth between the /a/ and /u/ vowels as I do in the audio below and try to develop an awareness of height change.

Be sure to keep your lower jaw completely still so that it forces you to isolate just your tongue.

/u/ - Close Vowel
/a/ - Open Vowel

When you move from /u/ -> /a/, you are LOWERING your tongue for a more OPEN vowel.

When you move from /a/ -> /u/, you are RAISING your tongue for a more CLOSED vowel.

Vowel Backness

When you extend your tongue forward towards your teeth, you are making a more FRONT vowel sound.

When you retract your tongue backward towards your throat, you are making a more BACK vowel sound.

Use the vowel chart to alternate back and forth between the /i/ and /u/ vowels as I do in the audio below, and try to develop an awareness of backness.

/i/ - Front Vowel
/u/ - Back Vowel

When you move from /i/ -> /u/, you are retracting your tongue backward for a more BACK sound

When you move from /u/ -> /i/, you are extending your tongue forward from a more FRONT sound

Vowel Tuning

Every language has its own set of vowels, and each of these vowels has its own tongue position.
When you learn a new language, you will need to tune your articulation to a new set of vowels.
This can be challenging for adults since we develop strong hearing and speaking habits in our own native language. But this is where vowel charts come in handy.
Once you know where the target-language vowel is in relation to your closest native-language vowel on the chart, you can see the direction you need to move your tongue for the correct sound.
Take the Spanish /o/ vowel for example. As you can see from the chart below, the Spanish /o/ is more open than the English /o/, but still not as open as the /ɔ/ sound from the English word "awe".

So as a native English speaker, I know that I must move tongue slightly down from the /o/ vowel, but not so much that I start making an /ɔ/ sound:

Order: English /o/, Spanish /o̞/, then /ɔ/

This difference between English /o/ and Spanish /o̞/ is more a question of speaking with an authentic accent. Whether you change it or not, a Spanish speaker will understand you either way.
Vowel tuning is also extremely important for differentiating words in a foreign language.
For example, a Spanish speaker learning English will have a difficult time hearing and saying the English /ɪ/ vowel from words like "sit" and "chick."

Instead, they would hear and articulate the /i/ sound - the closest vowel in Spanish - and say the words "seat" and "cheek."

A quick look at the vowel chart shows that the Native Spanish speaker would have to lower his tongue and OPEN his /i/ vowel to get the /ɪ/ vowel.

It's important to note that at first, you will NOT be able to accurately perceive foreign sounds.
During your childhood, you started to lose sensitivity to sounds that were not relevant to your native language.

As a result, foreign sounds get absorbed into the sounds you are already familiar with, the way the /ɪ/ vowel gets absorbed into the /i/ for adult native Spanish speakers.
The good news: you CAN learn to hear and speak these new sounds with practice.
Don't ever let anyone convince you otherwise. I often hear people make arguments about how adults can't learn new things.

It's easy to believe that when you start learning something new. And it's easy to believe that when you're stuck at the steepest part of the learning curve.

There's no doubt that forcing your brain open to hear new sounds can be challenging, so we have to be clever about it.

The ability to use a vowel chart and adjust your tongue position is a huge help in this process, but ultimately it's just a means to an end.

It's not enough to know where a vowel is in theory, you gotta really feel it.

When it comes to vowel tuning, the way to feel it is through musical rhymes...

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Vowel Chart | Language Pronunciation E-Course | The Mimic Method

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When you lower your tongue towards your lower jaw, you are making a more OPEN vowel sound When you raise your tongue toward the roof of your mouth, you are making a more CLOSED vowel sound Use the vowel chart to alternate back and forth between the /a/ and /u/ vowels as I do in the audio below and try to develop an awareness of height change.

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Según este artículo, un alófono es una variante contextual de una oclusiva sonora y su fricativa correspondiente. Básicamente, esto significa que un fonema se puede dividir en otros sonidos. Estos se llaman "alófonos". Algunos ejemplos de esto serían [b] y [β], [d] y [ð], y [g] y [ɣ]. Los dos primeros pertenecen al fonema / b /, el segundo al fonema / d / y el tercero al fonema / g /. Lo que hace que un alófono sea diferente de su alófono relacionado es que se pronuncian de manera diferente aunque comparten el mismo origen de sonido.

¿Cuáles de estos son alófonos ?:
a. [b] y [β]
b. [d] y [ð]
c. [g] y [ɣ]
d. Todas las anteriores

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Este sitio web facilita el aprendizaje de la silabificación en español dividiéndola en cuatro reglas.

Las cuatro reglas:
- Regla 1: la silabificación ocurre entre dos vocales fuertes consecutivas (por ejemplo: fe-o)
- Regla 2: la silabificación se produce entre dos vocales consecutivas cuando una está acentuada (ej .: dí-a)
- Regla 3: la silabificación ocurre entre dos consonantes consecutivas (ej: es-tar) * Esta regla se rompe cuando la segunda consonante es una "L" o una "R". En este caso, la sílaba se rompe antes de ellos (ej: a-trás) *
- Regla 4: cuando hay tres consonantes consecutivas, la silabificación suele producirse entre la primera y la segunda consonantes (ej: in-glés)

La mejor información que provida este artículo es que las palabras en español tienen el mismo número de sílabas que diptongos + vocales, con la excepción de la "U" muda.

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Silabeo

Spanish words are divided into syllables according to fairly simple rules.

Number of syllables

Spanish words have the same number of syllables as they have diphthongs + vowels, with the exception of the silent U. Here are some examples:

Spanish Word Division

Spanish syllables are divided as follows:

1. Between two consecutive strong vowels: fe-o

2. Between two consecutive vowels when one is accented: dí-a

3. Between two consecutive consonants: es-tar

a) except when the second one is L or R, in which case the syllable breaks before them: a-trás

4. When there are three consecutive consonants, the syllable usually breaks between the first and second: in-glés

Please note that this lesson is only a guideline for the Spanish that I know, which is Castilian Spanish. There are many regional variations in Spanish pronunciation.

Related lessons

Lawless Spanish Files: B2 - Upper-Intermediate Spanish

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Spanish words are divided into syllables according to fairly simple rules. Spanish words have the same number of syllables as they have diphthongs + vowels, with the exception of the silent U. Here are some examples: Spanish syllables are divided as follows: 1. Between two consecutive strong vowels: fe-o 2.

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Este video trata sobre las diferencias entre las pronunciaciones de consonantes en inglés y español. Una diferencia que se menciona es que las palabras en inglés a menudo tienen un soplo de aire al pronunciar ciertas consonantes que el español no tiene. (por ejemplo: "paz" versus "pipí" y "una llave" versus "aquí")
Este video no solo ayuda a los hispanohablantes no nativos a comprender la ubicación del idioma para nuevas consonantes como [β], [ɲ] y [r], sino que también nos ayuda a comprender cómo controlar la cantidad de aire que usamos según la ubicación de la lengua mientras hablamos.

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European Spanish Pronunciation, Video 1: Spanish Phonetics and Spelling

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Este artículo explica por qué los acentos son necesarios en el idioma español. Menciona las dos reglas principales que, si se rompen, exigen el uso de marcas de acento. La primera regla es que si alguna palabra termina en vocal, "n", o "s", se debe enfatizar la penúltima sílaba. La segunda es que las palabras que terminan en consonantes (además de "n" y "s") deben tener énfasis en la última sílaba. Cualquier desviación de estas reglas indicaría un acento.

Ejemplos que rompen la regla 1:
1. jamás
2. inglés

Ejemplos que rompen la regla 2:
1. árbol
2. débil

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There it was, a big red strike through my handwritten "el exámen " on my Spanish vocab test.

As a visual learner, I clearly remembered having seen that word with an accent mark before, I just knew it. Ah, here it was: "Los exámenes. " Certain there'd been a mistake while correcting my test, I went up to ask my teacher about it.

"There's only an accent when it's plural," she told me. What?! How confusing! Not only do I have to remember which words have accents, but now you're telling me it can change between when a noun is singular and plural?

I was frustrated, and Spanish accents continued to perplex me until a few years later when a glorious teacher finally revealed the amazing fact that Spanish accent marks follow rules! That was a marvelous day, a true a-ha moment.

Once you learn two simple rules, all of the accents you see while immersing yourself in Spanish-on Twitter, the news, and everything in between-will make sense. How wonderful is that?

Download: This blog post is available as a convenient and portable PDF that you can take anywhere.Click here to get a copy. (Download)

Spanish Accents

First let's cover our basics. Spanish accents (tildes) can only be written over the five vowels (a, e, i, o, u), and the accent is written from lower left to upper right: á, é, í, ó, ú.

Spanish Stress Rules

There are two basic rules in Spanish that tell us where to put the stress of a word. Stress is important, as it can sometimes be the only way to distinguish two words. It's the difference between "insult" (IN-sult), as in "I couldn't think of a good insult," and "insult" (in-SULT), as in "She's going to in sult me now, I just know it."

If you're new to the idea of stressing syllables, try this listening/speaking exercise to practice hearing the stress in various Spanish words.

To hear words and accents in use by native Spanish speakers, use FluentU. FluentU takes real-world videos-like music videos, movie trailers, news and inspiring talks-and turns them into personalized language learning lessons.

The large collection of authentic videos is a great way to listen to pronunciation, see it matched up to the written word with interactive subtitles and really drill those accents and accent marks into your memory.

Got that refresher on what accented syllables sound like? Great! Let's move on.

It's only when these two rules are broken that we need to add an accent for emphasis. So let's get on with the rules, shall we?

1. Words ending in a vowel, n, or s.

For words that end in a vowel, the letter n, or the letter s, the stress is on the next to last syllable.

Examples:

2. Words ending in a consonant (not n, s)

For words that end in all other consonants (not n or s), the stress falls on the last syllable.

Examples:

el profesor (pro-fe-sor) the professor/teacher

And that's it! Think you can remember those two rules?

(For those interested in Spanish syllable breaks, but not interested enough to learn all of the rules behind the splits just yet, you can use this handy tool to break any Spanish word into its correct syllables.)

When to Add Spanish Accent Marks

We add accent marks to Spanish words when the stress breaks either of those two rules.

Rather, the word keeps the same stress as its singular form, on what is now the third to last syllable, so we add an accent mark: exámenes (e-xa-me-nes). That's it!

Examples of words that break rule #1

Here are some examples of Spanish words with accent marks that break rule #1. You'll notice none of the stresses fall on the second to last syllable, as they normally would.

la canción (can-cion) song

los crímenes (cri-me-nes) crimes

está (es-ta) is, third person singular of the verb estar - to be

Examples of words that break rule #2

And here are examples of words that break the second rule. These are words that end in a consonant (not "n" or "s"), but whose accent does not fall on the final syllable.

Spanish Homonyms: Same Pronunciation, Different Meaning

Accent marks are also used in Spanish to differentiate between words that are pronounced (and therefore spelled) the same but that have different meanings: homonyms.

Here are some examples of common Spanish homonyms:

de (preposition: of, from)
dé (third-person singular subjunctive form of dar - to give)

Accents on Spanish Question Words

Spanish accents are also found on all interrogative words when used in a question, indirect question or embedded question.

¿Qué? (What? / Which?)

¿Dónde? (Where?)

¿Cuándo? (When?)

¿Por qué? (Why?)

¿Cuál? (Which?)

¿Cuánto? (How much/many?)

Regular questions are fairly basic and easy to spot, but let's take a look at a few of these words in details, along with some examples of indirect and embedded questions.

Indirect and embedded questions carry accents

Whenever the word "cuánto" means "how much/many," it carries an accent:

No sé cuántos hay. (I don't know how many there are.)

When the word "" translates to "how," it carries an accent - no matter where it falls in the sentence. (Without the accent, " como " means "like" or "as".)

No entiendo cómo lo hace. (I don't understand how he does it.)

Likewise, when "qué" means an interrogative "what," it must carry an accent.

No sé qué hacer. (I don't know what to do.)

Question words used as pronouns do not have accents

When these words are not used in a question or indirect question, but rather as a pronoun, there is no accent mark. Here are three example sentences of this situation:

El chico que dijo eso es mentiroso. (The boy who said that is a liar.)

Es el parque donde conocí a tu madre. (It's the park where I met your mother.)

Demonstrative Pronouns

Finally, Spanish accents are used in feminine and masculine demonstrative pronouns (this one, that one) to differentiate them from the demonstrative adjectives (this -, that -), which are identical except that they don't carry an accent mark.*

Remember, pronouns take the place of a noun, while adjectives describe nouns. The example sentences below the following lists of pronouns will help clarify this distinction if you're a bit rusty on grammar terminology.

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Example sentences:

No quiero comprar este coche; mi novia prefiere ése.
(I don't want to buy this car; my girlfriend prefers that one.)

The first " este", without an accent, is an adjective describing " coche": Which car? That car. The " ése" at the end of the sentence is a demonstrative pronoun, "that one," taking the place of the car. Again, it's these demonstrative pronouns that carry the accent marks (though not the neuter pronouns: esto, eso, aquello.)

Se me olvidó estudiar ayer. Por eso estoy nerviosa para el examen.
(I forgot to study yesterday. Because of this, I'm nervous for the exam).

Este libro es tan interesante como ése.
(This book is as interesting as that one.)

Soy editora de estas revistas, pero no de aquéllas.
(I'm an editor of these magazines, but not those over there.)

* Officially, the Real Academia Española revised the spelling rules in 1959, making the written accent on demonstrative pronouns unnecessary except in cases with ambiguity. However, most grammar sources and many publications (including the Madrid-based newspaper El País) still follow the old format and use the accented pronouns in all instances, which is why it's included here.

How to Type Spanish Accent Marks

Writing accent marks is easy enough, but how do you type them?

Whether you use a PC or a Mac, the simplest way is to change your keyboard settings to "US - International".

Mac: How to change keyboard settings

For Mac users, go into your system preferences and select "Keyboard." Then click "Input Sources" at the menu across the top. If "US - International" is not in your current list, click the + sign, select "US - International" and then click "Add."

I recommend selecting the checkbox next to "Show input menu in menu bar." This will add a small icon to the menu bar across the top of the screen (by the date and time). You can click this icon to quickly change between keyboards any time, without going into your system preferences.

Another option that doesn't involve changing your keyboard is to press and hold letters to see variants with different accent marks, and then choose what you need from there. This is great for the occasional accent mark, but if you're doing a lot of typing in Spanish, it might be better to change the keyboard.

PC: How to change keyboard settings

If you're using a PC, head to your start menu and type "intl.cpl" into the search field. Open the result, and click on the third tab, "Keyboards and Languages." Next click "Change Keyboards," then the "Add..." button, select "United States - International" and finally click "OK."

If you'll be using the international keyboard a lot, select it as your default keyboard from the drop down menu while the keyboard menu is still open. You can also have a small keyboard icon stay on the menu bar at the bottom of the screen. From here you can quickly change between keyboards, without going into keyboard settings.

Typing Spanish accents with the international keyboard

To type a Spanish accent over a vowel, simply press the quotation key ("/ ') that's next to the return key, and then the vowel. It's really easy!

If you want to accent a capital letter, just press the quotation key before you type the capital vowel as you normally would, holding down the shift key and then typing the letter.

If you want a single or double quotation mark before an unaccented vowel, press the quotation key and then the space bar, and it will leave your vowel alone.

The ñ is also simple to type with the international keyboard. Press shift, followed by the (~/`) key located to the left of "1/!" and you'll see a floating tilde: ˜. You can let go of the keys right away, and then type "n" to produce a wonderful ñ.

Type Spanish accents with a website

If you aren't used to typing on a keyboard and you feel confused, you can always use this website with buttons for each accent to type in Spanish. Type in the field, click the correct button when you need an accent, and when you're finished, copy and paste the text to wherever you need it.

Now you're ready to both write and type Spanish accents correctly whenever you may need them - but remember, never on the word " examen"!

Rebecca Thering is a freelance writer and editor who has lived abroad teaching ESL in Spain and South Korea. Valuing education and things that aren't things, she inspires and helps others by writing about her experiences abroad, cultural insights and self-improvement pursuits at her personal blog, Rebe With a Clause.

Download: This blog post is available as a convenient and portable PDF that you can take anywhere.Click here to get a copy. (Download)

And One More Thing...

If you like learning useful Spanish lessons like these, then you'll love FluentU.

FluentU takes real-world videos like music videos, commercials, news, and inspiring talks and turns them into Spanish learning experiences.

Other sites use scripted content. FluentU uses a natural approach that helps you ease into the Spanish language and culture over time. You'll learn Spanish as it's actually spoken by real people.

FluentU has a wide variety of videos-topics like soccer, TV shows, business, movies and even magical realism, as you can see here:

FluentU brings native videos within reach with interactive transcripts. You can tap on any word to look it up instantly. Every definition has examples that have been written to help you understand how the word is used. If you see an interesting word you don't know, you can add it to a vocab list.

Learn all the vocabulary in any video with FluentU's Learn Mode. Swipe left or right to see more examples of the word you're on.

The best part is that FluentU keeps track of the vocabulary that you're learning, and it recommends you examples and videos based on the words you've already learned. Every learner has a truly personalized experience, even if they're learning the same video.

Start using FluentU on the website with your computer or tablet or, better yet, download the FluentU app from the iTunes or Google Play store for iOS and Android devices.

If you liked this post, something tells me that you'll love FluentU, the best way to learn Spanish with real-world videos.
Experience Spanish immersion online!

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The Complete Guide to Spanish Accent Marks

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There it was, a big red strike through my handwritten "el exámen" on my Spanish vocab test. As a visual learner, I clearly remembered having seen that word with an accent mark before, I just knew it. Ah, here it was: "Los exámenes."

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Este artículo hace referencia a muchos temas neurolingüísticos. Habla tanto de la adquisición del lenguaje como de la capacidad de olvidar o perder el conocimiento que uno tiene . Otras partes mencionan las discapacidades con las que uno nace o que potencialmente puede obtener. Algunos de estos incluyen: afasia, dislexia, tartamudeo y otros impedimentos del habla. Además, toca temas neurolingüísticos previos que están siendo cuestionados. Esto incluye ideas de creencias anteriores como el área de Broca y el área de Wernicke, que describen el lenguaje como compartimentado en el cerebro en lugar de como una red en todo.

¿Cuáles son algunos trastornos neurológicos relacionados con el lenguaje?:
A. Afasia
B. Tartamudeo
C. Ninguna de las anteriores
D. Todas las anteriores

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by Lise Menn

Neurolinguistics is the study of how language is represented in the brain: that is, how and where our brains store our knowledge of the language (or languages) that we speak, understand, read, and write, what happens in our brains as we acquire that knowledge, and what happens as we use it in our everyday lives. Neurolinguists try to answer questions like these: What about our brains makes human language possible - why is our communication system so elaborate and so different from that of other animals? Does language use the same kind of neural computation as other cognitive systems, such as music or mathematics? Where in your brain is a word that you've learned? How does a word 'come to mind' when you need it (and why does it sometimes not come to you?)

If you know two languages, how do you switch between them and how do you keep them from interfering with each other? If you learn two languages from birth, how is your brain different from the brain of someone who speaks only one language, and why? Is the left side of your brain really 'the language side'? If you lose the ability to talk or to read because of a stroke or other brain injury, how well can you learn to talk again? What kinds of therapy are known to help, and what new kinds of language therapy look promising? Do people who read languages written from left to right (like English or Spanish) have language in a different place from people who read languages written from right to left (like Hebrew and Arabic)? What about if you read a language that is written using some other kind of symbols instead of an alphabet, like Chinese or Japanese? If you're dyslexic, in what way is your brain different from the brain of someone who has no trouble reading? How about if you stutter?

As you can see, neurolinguistics is deeply entwined with psycholinguistics, which is the study of the language processing steps that are required for speaking and understanding words and sentences, learning first and later languages, and also of language processing in disorders of speech, language, and reading. Information about these disorders is available from the American Speech-Language Hearing Association (ASHA), at http://www.asha.org/public/.

How our brains work

Our brains store information in networks of brain cells (neurons and glial cells). These neural networks are ultimately connected to the parts of the brain that control our movements (including those needed to produce speech) and our internal and external sensations (sounds, sights, touch, and those that come from our own movements). The connections within these networks may be strong or weak, and the information that a cell sends out may increase the activity of some of its neighbors and inhibit the activity of others. Each time a connection is used, it gets stronger. Densely connected neighborhoods of brain cells carry out computations that are integrated with information coming from other neighborhoods, often involving feedback loops. Many computations are carried out simultaneously (the brain is a massively parallel information processor).

Learning information or a skill happens by establishing new connections and/or changing the strengths of existing connections. These local and long-distance networks of connected brain cells show plasticity http://merzenich.positscience.com/?page_id=143 - that is, they can keep changing throughout our lives, allowing us to learn and to recover (to some extent) from brain injuries. For people with aphasia http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/Aphasia.htm (language loss due to brain damage), depending on how serious the damage is, intense therapy and practice, perhaps in combination with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), may bring about major improvements in language as well as in movement control; see the Aphasia section below, and the links posted there. Computer-based methods for enabling such intense language practice under the supervision of a speech-language pathologist are becoming available.

Where is language in the brain?

This question is hard to answer, because brain activity is like the activity of a huge city. A city is organized so that people who live in it can get what they need to live on, but you can't say that a complex activity, like manufacturing a product, is 'in' one place. Raw materials have to arrive at the right times, subcontractors are needed, the product must be shipped out in various directions. It's the same with our brains. We can't say that language is 'in' a particular part of the brain. It's not even true that a particular word is 'in' one place in a person's brain; the information that comes together when we understand or say a word arrives from many places, depending on what the word means. For example, when we understand or say a word like 'apple', we are likely to use information about what apples look, feel, smell, and taste like, even though we aren't aware of doing this. So listening, understanding, talking, and reading involve activities in many parts of the brain. However, some parts of the brain are more involved in language than other parts.

Most of the parts of your brain that are crucial for both spoken and written language are in the left side of the cortex of your brain (the left hemisphere), regardless of what language you read and how it is written. We know this because aphasia is almost always caused by left hemisphere injury, not by right hemisphere injury, no matter what language you speak or read, or whether you can read at all. (This is true for about 95% of right-handed people and about half of left-handed people.) A large part of the brain (the 'white matter') consists of fibers that connect different areas to one another, because using language (and thinking) requires the rapid integration of information that is stored and/or processed in many different brain regions.

Areas in the right side are essential for communicating effectively and for understanding the point of what people are saying. If you are bilingual but didn't learn both languages from birth, your right hemisphere may be somewhat more involved in your second language than it is in your first language. Our brains are somewhat plastic - that is, their organization depends on our experiences as well as on our genetic endowment. For example, many of the 'auditory' areas of the brain, which are involved with understanding spoken language in people with normal hearing, are used in (visually) understanding signed language by people who are deaf from birth or who became deaf early (and do not have cochlear implants). And blind people use the 'visual' areas of their brains in processing words written in Braille, even though Braille is read by touch. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-reading-region

Bilingual speakers develop special skills in controlling which language to use and whether it is appropriate for them to mix their languages, depending on whom they are speaking to. These skills may be useful for other tasks as well. http://www.nih.gov/researchmatters/may2012/05072012bilingual.htm

Aphasia

What is aphasia like? Is losing language after brain damage the reverse of learning it? People who have difficulties speaking or understanding language because of brain damage are not like children. Using language involves many kinds of knowledge and skill. People with aphasia have different combinations of things that they can still do in an adult-like way and things that they now do clumsily or not at all. In fact, we can see different patterns of profiles of spared and impaired linguistic abilities across different people with aphasia.

Therapy can help aphasic people to improve on or regain lost skills and make the best use of remaining abilities. Adults who have had brain damage and become aphasic recover more slowly than children who have had the same kind of damage, but they continue to improve slowly over decades if they have good language stimulation and do not have additional strokes or other brain injuries. For more information, consult ASHA ( http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/Aphasia.htm), the National Aphasia Association ( http://aphasia.org/), Aphasia Hope ( http://www.aphasiahope.org/), or the Academy of Aphasia ( http://www.academyofaphasia.org/ClinicalServices/)

Dyslexia and stuttering

What about dyslexia, and children who have trouble learning to talk even though they can hear normally? Why do people have reading difficulties? Research suggests that dyslexics have trouble processing the sounds of language and have difficulty relating the printed word to sounds. Genetic differences and genetically-based brain differences have been found in families with dyslexia and developmental language disorders, and research in this area is helping us understand how genes act in setting up the initial 'wiring' of all of our brains. There is solid evidence that appropriate language-based therapy is effective for children with developmental disorders of reading and language, including stuttering. ASHA provides helpful information about both of these disorders: see http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/lbld.htm.

How neurolinguistic ideas have changed

Many established ideas about neurolinguistics - in particular, roles of the traditional 'language areas' (Broca's area, Wernicke's area) in the left hemisphere of the brain - have been challenged and in some cases overturned by recent evidence. Probably the most important recent findings are 1) that extensive networks involving areas remote from the traditional language areas are deeply involved in language use, 2) that the language areas are also involved in the processing of non-language information, such as some aspects of music http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZgKFeuzGEns, and 3) that the correlations of particular areas of the brain with particular language impairments are much poorer than had been thought. This new information has become available because of major improvements in our ability to see what is happening in the brain when people speak or listen, and from the accumulation and analysis of many years of detailed aphasia test data.

How neurolinguistic research has changed

For over a hundred years, research in neurolinguistics was almost completely dependent on the study of language comprehension and production by people with aphasia. These studies of their language ability were augmented by relatively crude information about where the injury was located in the brain. Neurologists had to deduce that information, such as it was, by considering what other abilities were lost, and by autopsy information, which was not often available. A few patients who were about to undergo surgery to relieve severe epilepsy or tumors could be studied by direct brain stimulation, when it was medically needed to guide the surgeon away from areas essential for the patient's use of language.

Early-generation computerized x-ray studies (CAT scans, CT scans) and radiographic cerebral blood-flow studies (angiograms) began to augment experimental and observational studies of aphasia in the 1970s, but they gave very crude information about where the damaged part of the brain was located. These early brain-imaging techniques could only see what parts of the brain had serious damage or restricted blood flow. They could not give information about the actual activity that was taking place in the brain, so they could not follow what was happening during language processing in normal or aphasic speakers. Studies of normal speakers in that period mostly looked at which side of the brain was most involved in processing written or spoken language, because this information could be gotten from laboratory tasks involving reading or listening under difficult conditions, such as listening to different kinds of information presented to the two ears at the same time (dichotic listening).

Since the 1990s, there has been an enormous shift in the field of neurolinguistics. With modern technology, researchers can study how the brains of normal speakers process language, and how a damaged brain processes and compensates for injury. This new technology allows us to track the brain activity that is going on while people are reading, listening, and speaking, and also to get very fine spatial resolution of the location of damaged areas of the brain. Fine spatial resolution comes from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which gives exquisite pictures showing which brain areas are damaged; the resolution of CT scans has also improved immensely. Tracking the brain's ongoing activity can be done in several ways. For some purposes, the best method is detecting the electrical and magnetic signals that neurons send to one another by using sensors outside the skull (functional magnetic resonance imaging, fMRI; electro-enecephalography, EEG; magnetoencephalography, MEG; and event-related potentials, ERP). Another method is observing the event-related optical signal, EROS; this involves detecting rapid changes in the way that neural tissue scatters infra-red light, which can penetrate the skull and see about an inch into the brain. A third family of methods involves tracking the changes in the flow of blood to different areas in the brain by looking at oxygen concentrations (BOLD) or at changes the way in which the blood absorbs near-infrared light (near-infrared spectroscopy, NIRS). Brain activity can also be changed temporarily by transcranial magnetic stimulation (stimulation from outside the skull, TMS), so researchers can see the effects of this stimulation on how well people speak, read, and understand language. NIRS, EROS, ERP, and EEG techniques are risk-free, so they can ethically be used for research on normal speakers, as well as on people with aphasia who would not particularly benefit by being in a research study. TMS also appears to be safe.

It is very complicated to figure out the details of how the information from different parts of the brain might combine in real time, so another kind of advance has come from the development of ways to use computers to simulate parts of what the brain might be doing during speaking or reading.

Investigations of exactly what people with aphasia and other language disorders can and cannot do also continue to contribute to our understanding of the relationships between brain and language. For example, comparing how people with aphasia perform on tests of syntax, combined with detailed imaging of their brains, has shown that there are important individual differences in the parts of the brain involved in using grammar. Also, comparing people with aphasia across languages shows that the various types of aphasia have somewhat different symptoms in different languages, depending on the kinds of opportunities for error that each language provides. For example, in languages that have different forms for masculine and feminine pronouns or masculine and feminine adjectives, people with aphasia may make gender errors in speaking, but in languages that don't have different forms for different genders, that particular problem can't show up.

by: Lise Menn

Acknowledgements

Many thanks to LSA members Sheila E. Blumstein, David Caplan, Gary Dell, Nina Dronkers, and Matt Goldrick for very helpful feedback and suggestions.

Suggested Reading (*) and References

Caplan, David, Gloria Waters, Gayle DeDe, Jennifer Michaud, & Amanda Reddy 2007. A study of syntactic processing in aphasia I: Behavioral (psycholinguistic) aspects. Brain and Language 101, 103-150.

Caplan, David, Gloria Waters, David Kennedy, Nathanial Alpert, Nikos Makris, Gayle DeDe, Jennifer Michaud, & Amanda Reddy. 2007. A study of syntactic processing in aphasia II: Neurological aspects. Brain and Language 101, 151-177.

*Dehaene, Stanislaus. 2009. Reading in the Brain. Viking Press.

*Dronkers, Nina, & Berndt, Rita S. Aphasia. Oxford International Encyclopedia of Linguistics (2nd ed.), Vol. 16. Oxford University Press.

*Gardner, Howard. 1975. The Shattered Mind: The Person After Brain Damage. Vintage Books.

*Goodglass, Harold. 1993. Understanding Aphasia. Academic Press.

Hickok, Greg. 2009. The functional neuroanatomy of language. Physics of Life Reviews, 6, 121-143.

January, D., Trueswell, J.C., & Thompson-Schill, S.L. (2009). Co-localization of Stroop and Syntactic Ambiguity Resolution in Broca's Area: Implications for the Neural Basis of Sentence Processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21(12), 2434-2444. PMID: 19199402.

*Menn, Lise. 2011. Chapter 2, How Brains Work, and Chapter 6, Analyzing Aphasic Speech and Communication, in Psycholinguistics: Introduction and Applications. Plural Publishing.

Novick, J.M., Trueswell, J.C., & Thomspon-Schill, S.L. (2010). Broca's Area and Language Processing: Evidence for the Cognitive Control Connection. Language and Linguistics Compass.

*Patel, Aniruddh D. 2008. Music, Language, and the Brain. Oxford University Press.

Ramus, Franck. 2006. Genes, brains and cognition: A roadmap for the cognitive scientist. Cognition 101, 247-269.

Schwartz, Myrna F., Dell, Gary S., Martin, Nadine, Gahl, Susanne, & Sobel. P. (2006). A case-series test of the interactive two-step model of lexical access: Evidence from picture naming. Journal of Memory and Language, 54, 228-264.

Tse, C.-Y., Lee, C.-L., Sullivan, J., Garnsey, S.M., Dell, G.S., Fabiani, M., & Gratton, G. (2007). Imaging cortical dynamics of language processing with the event-related optical signal. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104, 17157-17162.

Turken, A.U. & Dronkers, N.F. The neural architecture of the language comprehension network: converging evidence from lesion and connectivity analyses. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 2011, 5, 1-20

Modeling aphasic language: http://langprod.cogsci.illinois.edu/cgi-bin/webfit.cgi

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by Lise Menn Neurolinguistics is the study of how language is represented in the brain: that is, how and where our brains store our knowledge of the language (or languages) that we speak, understand, read, and write, what happens in our brains as we acquire that knowledge, and what happens as we use it in our everyday lives.

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Hay dos formas de dividir la gramática: prescriptiva y descriptiva. Este artículo describe la manera que los gramáticos descriptivos se enfocan en el uso practical de un idioma, mientras que los gramáticos prescriptivos se enfocan en cómo debería ser un idioma. Ambos estudian el impacto que tienen. Un ejemplo que demuestra la diferencia entre los dos sería el uso de dobles negativos. Los gramáticos descriptivos creen que el uso común de dobles negativos en inglés demuestra su gramaticalidad, mientras que los gramáticos prescriptivos argumentan que viola la lógica. Quizás se pregunte "¿quién tiene la razón?". Pues, eso depende de quién tenga más poder.

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by Edward Finegan

Should road signs read 'Drive Slow' or 'Drive Slowly'? Which is grammatically correct: They don't have none or They don't have any? Given 'books' as the plural of 'book' and 'they' as the plural for 'she' and 'he', what's wrong with 'y'all' and 'yous' as plurals for 'you'? Are 'between you and I' and 'between you and me' both right, and who decides what's right and wrong in language, anyway? And who put 'ain't' in the dictionary? Is English going to the dogs, and is that what the fuss is all about?

Languages often have alternative expressions for the same thing ('car' and 'auto'), and a given word can carry different senses ('river bank' vs. 'savings bank') or function as different parts of speech ('to steal'-verb; 'a steal'-noun). Because languages naturally adapt to their situations of use and also reflect the social identities of their speakers, linguistic variation is inevitable and natural. But given diverse forms, meanings, and uses, dictionary makers and grammarians must choose what to include in their works-whose language to represent and for use in which kinds of situations? In some nations, language academies have been established to settle such matters, as with the French Academy, formed nearly four hundred years ago, but to date English speakers have repudiated suggestions of a regulating body for their language. Instead, entrepreneurs like Noah Webster have earned their living by writing dictionaries and grammars, usually with a mix of description and prescription. Increasingly, though, scholarly grammars and dictionaries are exclusively descriptive.

Descriptive vs. Prescriptive Grammar

Descriptive grammarians ask the question, "What is English (or another language) like-what are its forms and how do they function in various situations?" By contrast, prescriptive grammarians ask "What should English be like-what forms should people use and what functions should they serve?" Prescriptivists follow the tradition of the classical grammars of Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, which aimed to preserve earlier forms of those languages so that readers in subsequent generations could understand sacred texts and historical documents. Modern grammarians aim to describe rather than prescribe linguistic forms and their uses. Dictionary makers also strive for descriptive accuracy in reporting which words are in use and which senses they carry.

In order to write accurate descriptions, grammarians must identify which expressions are actually in use. Investigating 'slow' and 'slowly', they would find that both forms function as adverbs, and they might uncover situational or social-group correlates for them. By contrast, prescriptive grammarians would argue that 'go slowly' is the only correct grammatical form on the grounds that it is useful to distinguish the forms of adverbs and adjectives, and 'slow' is the only adjective form (a slow train), so 'slowly' should serve as the sole adverb form. Descriptivists would point out that English has made no distinction between the adjective and adverb forms of 'fast' for over five hundred years, but prescriptivists are not concerned about that. As to "They don't have none' or 'any', descriptivists would observe both forms in common use, thereby demonstrating their grammaticality. Descriptivists might also note that different social groups favor one expression or the other in conversation, while only the latter appears in published writing. Prescriptivists have argued that such "double negatives" violate logic, where two negatives make a positive; thus, according to this logic, "They don't have none" should mean "They do have some" (which, descriptivists note, it clearly does not mean). On logical grounds, then, prescriptivists would condemn "They don't have none," while descriptivists would emphasize the conventional character of ways in which meaning is expressed.

About 'ain't', if lexicographers find it in use in the varieties of English they aim to represent, they give it a dictionary entry and describe its use. Prescriptivists who judge 'ain't' wrong or inelegant might exclude it altogether or give it an entry with a prohibition. Likewise, 'y'all' is frequently heard in the American South and 'yous' among working-class northeastern urban residents of the United States, as well as elsewhere in the English-speaking world. In those communities, a distinct word for plural you has proven useful. (Most prescriptivists would condemn 'yous' because it is an innovation, disregarding the argument that distinct singular and plural forms are desirable.) As to 'between you and me' and 'between you and I', descriptivists would note that both are used by educated speakers, though the latter seldom appears in edited writing. Prescriptivists would argue that, despite educated usage, pronouns should have objective forms after prepositions ("Give it to me/us/them"); thus, only 'between you and me' is correct.

Who's Right?

So what is right and wrong in language, and who decides? Some observers claim that the real issue about linguistic right and wrong is one of deciding who wields power and who doesn't. Viewing language as a form of cultural capital, they note that stigmatized forms are typically those used by social groups other than the educated middle classes-professional people, including those in law, medicine, and publishing. Linguists generally would argue that the language of educated middle-class speakers is not better (or worse) than the language of other social groups, any more than Spanish, say, is better or worse than French, Navaho better or worse than Comanche, or Japanese better or worse than Chinese. They would acknowledge that some standardization of form is useful for the variety of a language used, especially in print. They would also insist, however, that expressions appearing in dictionaries and grammars are not the only grammatical forms and may not be suitable for use in all circumstances. They are merely the ones designated for use in circumstances of wider communication.

Is English falling apart, then, as some prescriptivists claimed in their efforts to help mend it? Well, the descriptivists' answer is that English is indeed changing, as it must, but that such change is not debilitating. In fact, English is now changing in exactly the same ways that have contributed to making it the rich, flexible, and adaptable language so popular throughout the world today. Living languages must change, must adapt, must grow. Shakespeare could not have understood Chaucer without study, nor Chaucer the Beowulf poet. Whether change is good or bad is not the question, descriptivists say, for change is inevitable. The only languages no longer in flux are those no longer in use. The job of grammarians is to describe language as it exists in real use. This includes describing the positive and negative values attached to different ways of speaking.

Suggested Readings

Andersson, Lars G., and Peter Trudgill. 1990. Bad language. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Baron, Dennis. 1994. Guide to home language repair. Champaign, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Cameron, Deborah. 1995. Verbal hygiene. London and New York: Routledge.

Finegan, Edward. 1980. Attitudes toward language usage. New York: Teachers College Press.

Milroy, James, and Lesley Milroy. 1991. Authority in language. London and New York: Routledge. 2nd edn.

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by Edward Finegan Should road signs read 'Drive Slow' or 'Drive Slowly'? Which is grammatically correct: They don't have none or They don't have any? Given 'books' as the plural of 'book' and 'they' as the plural for 'she' and 'he', what's wrong with 'y'all' and 'yous' as plurals for 'you'?

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El efecto de un entorno bilingüe en la cognición de los bebés:

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El efecto de un entorno bilingüe en la cognición de los bebés:

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Hay muchos estudios sobre cómo el lenguaje afecta la mente de los bebés. En el experimento descrito en este artículo, podemos ver cómo los bebés que no pueden hablar en absoluto son afectados por un entorno bilingüe. Usando este experimento, se dedujo que los bebés de esta edad pueden comenzar a tener un mejor enfoque y atención que los bebés que no están expuestos a más de un idioma. También menciona la capacidad de los adultos bilingües para resolver mejor los nuevos conflictos que los adultos monolingües.

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The advantages of growing up in a bilingual home can start as early as six months of age, according to new research led by York University's Faculty of Health. In the study, infants who are exposed to more than one language show better attentional control than infants who are exposed to only one language. This means that exposure to bilingual environments should be considered a significant factor in the early development of attention in infancy, the researchers say, and could set the stage for lifelong cognitive benefits.

The research was conducted by Ellen Bialystok, Distinguished Research Professor of Psychology and Walter Gordon Research Chair of Lifespan Cognitive Development at York University and Scott Adler, associate professor in York's Department of Psychology and the Centre for Vision Research, along with lead author Kyle J. Comishen, a former Master's student in their lab. It will be published January 30, 2019 in Developmental Science.

The researchers conducted two separate studies in which infants' eye movements were measured to assess attention and learning. Half of the infants who were studied were being raised in monolingual environments while others were being raised in environments in which they heard two languages spoken approximately half of the time each. The infants were shown images as they lay in a crib equipped with a camera and screen, and their eye movements were tracked and recorded as they watched pictures appear above them, in different areas of the screen. The tracking was conducted 60 times for each infant.

"By studying infants -- a population that does not yet speak any language -- we discovered that the real difference between monolingual and bilingual individuals later in life is not in the language itself, but rather, in the attention system used to focus on language," says Bialystok, co-senior author of the study. "This study tells us that from the very earliest stage of development, the networks that are the basis for developing attention are forming differently in infants who are being raised in a bilingual environment. Why is that important? It's because attention is the basis for all cognition."

In the first study, the infants saw one of two images in the centre of the screen followed by another image appearing on either the left or right side of the screen. The babies learned to expect that if, for example, a pink and white image appears in the centre of the screen, it would be followed by an attractive target image on the left; If a blue and yellow image appeared in the centre, then the target would appear on the right. All the infants could learn these rules.

In the second study, which began in the same way, researchers switched the rule halfway through the experiment. When they tracked the babies' eye movements, they found that infants who were exposed to a bilingual environment were better at learning the new rule and at anticipating where the target image would appear. This is difficult because they needed to learn a new association and replace a successful response with a new contrasting one.

"Infants only know which way to look if they can discriminate between the two pictures that appear in the centre," said Adler, co-senior author of the study. "They will eventually anticipate the picture appearing on the right, for example, by making an eye movement even before that picture appears on the right. What we found was that the infants who were raised in bilingual environments were able to do this better after the rule is switched than those raised in a monolingual environment."

Anything that comes through the brain's processing system interacts with this attentional mechanism, says Adler. Therefore, language as well as visual information can influence the development of the attentional system.

Researchers say the experience of attending to a complex environment in which infants simultaneously process and contrast two languages may account for why infants raised in bilingual environments have greater attentional control than those raised in monolingual environments.

In previous research, bilingual children and adults outperformed monolinguals on some cognitive tasks that require them to switch responses or deal with conflict. The reason for those differences were thought to follow from the ongoing need for bilinguals to select which language to speak. This new study pushes back the explanation to a time before individuals are actively using languages and switching between them.

"What is so ground-breaking about these results, is that they look at infants who are not bilingual yet and who are only hearing the bilingual environment. This is what's having the impact on cognitive performance," says Adler.

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language acquisition; child development; infant and preschool learning; learning disorders; parenting; child psychology; intelligence; perception

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Babies who hear two languages at home develop advantages in attention: Six-month-old babies who are brought up hearing more than one language show advantages in early development of attention

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In the study, infants who are exposed to more than one language show better attentional control than infants who are exposed to only one language. This means that exposure to bilingual environments should be considered a significant factor in the early development of attention in infancy, the researchers say, and could set the stage for lifelong cognitive benefits.

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La pragmática es el estudio de la relación entre las palabras y cómo se usan en contexto. Este video explica cuatro dimensiones de la pragmática. El primero es el significado del hablante. Así es como el oyente cuestiona lo que dice el hablante. La segunda dimensión tiene que ver con el significado contextual. Así es como el contexto influye en el significado. La siguiente dimensión es que se comunica más de lo que realmente se dice. Esto significa que el oyente debe usar su comprensión del hablante o del entorno para comprender completamente por qué el hablante dijo lo que dijo. La última dimensión es que la pragmática es el estudio de la expresión de la distancia relativa. Un ejemplo de esto sería si alguien dijera "toma esto". Solo las personas lo suficientemente cercanas como para ver qué es "esto" tendrían una comprensión de a qué se refiere exactamente.

¿Cuántas dimensiones de la pragmática explica el video?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4