# data[].attributes.headline
Theory Research Articles and Notes to Support Each Topic

# data[].attributes.subject
Theory Research Articles and Notes to Support Each Topic

# data[].attributes.headline
Lesson Plans - Four Theoretically Based Lesson Models/With Reflection

# data[].attributes.subject
Lesson Plans - Four Theoretically Based Lesson Models/With Reflection

# data[].attributes.headline
Group Presentation on Theory and Brain Research

# data[].attributes.subject
Group Presentation on Theory and Brain Research

# data[].attributes.headline
Interview/Action Research on How Learning Happens

# data[].attributes.subject
Interview/Action Research on How Learning Happens

# data[].attributes.headline
Information Processing Theory and Part 1 of Understanding How We Learn

# data[].attributes.subject
Information Processing Theory and Part 1 of Understanding How We Learn

# data[].attributes.headline
Behavioral Theory and Primacy/Recency, Stress Related Behavior Issues and Part 2 of Understanding How We Learn/Research Articles

# data[].attributes.subject
Behavioral Theory and Primacy/Recency, Stress Related Behavior Issues and Part 2 of Understanding How We Learn/Research Articles

# data[].attributes.headline
Constructivist Theory and Transfer of Learning and Part 3 of Understanding How We Learn/Research Articles

# data[].attributes.subject
Constructivist Theory and Transfer of Learning and Part 3 of Understanding How We Learn/Research Articles

# data[].attributes.headline
Social Learning and Social Emotional Theory, Toxic Stress in Children and Part 4 of Understanding How We Learn/Research Articles

# data[].attributes.subject
Social Learning and Social Emotional Theory, Toxic Stress in Children and Part 4 of Understanding How We Learn/Research Articles

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Big Ideas and Links to Theories Overview F 09 (6)

# data[].attributes.headline
Ten Cornerstones of Cognitive Learning Sciences

# data[].attributes.subject
Ten Cornerstones of Cognitive Learning Sciences

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ten Cornerstones of Cognitive Learning Sciences 19 (2)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Behaviorism is a branch of psychology, which, as its name indicates, is based on the observation of the conduct and the analysis of it. Behaviorism emerged as a counterposition to psychoanalysis and aimed to provide a scientific, demonstrable, and measurable basis for Psychology. Pioneers such as Watson and Pavlov began to experiment with several animals that laid the foundations for Behaviorism and conditioning.

A few years later, psychologist Burrhus Frederic Skinner (B. F. Skinner) added a great discovery to this branch of psychology: operant conditioning. Do you want to learn B. F. Skinner's theory about Behaviorism and conditioning? Then we recommend you continue reading this psychology article.

B. F. Skinner's Behavioral Theory

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) was an American psychologist, inventor, and writer recognized worldwide for bringing scientific rigor to Psychology. In 1938 he wrote his first study called "the behavior of organisms: an experimental analysis," and he wrote on paper everything he studied until, in 1974, he summed up his work in a famous work called " On Behaviorism."

In this book, Skinner explains the fundamentals of behavioral analysis and how his animal experiments can be extrapolated to human psychological therapy. The author explains how psychology can be understood from an operant point of view and how our behavior affects our thoughts.

Classical conditioning of Watson and Pavlov

As we discussed earlier, Behavioral Psychology was born years before Skinner published his studies. Two great pioneers of this branch of psychology with John Watson and Ivan Pavlov studied what we know today as Classical conditioning.

Classical conditioning is a procedure by which we can induce a reflex or response to an animal (and in some cases, to a person). With experiments such as Pavlov's dogs or the induction of a phobia to a Watson child, it was intended to demonstrate that the human mind could be measured, observed, and modified through conduct.

Behavioral Psychology

The four basic principles of behavioral psychology are:

Psychology is a science, therefore it will use an empirical and demonstrable experimental methodology.

This methodology is characterized by using variables that can be measured (example: measuring anxiety by the number of beats Per Minute)

The results of laboratory experiments can be extrapolated to real life.

Behavior is learned, there is no form of innatism (total rejection of other branches of psychology)

The contribution of Skinner's conditioning to this discipline is very important, he added the principle of reinforcement, the concept of reward, and defined operant conditioning, all through experiments such as Skinner's famous box.
In the following image, we can observe the process of classical conditioning, where a salivation response is induced to a dog (Pavlov experiment).
The Box Of Skinner

Officially called "operant conditioning chamber," Skinner's box is one of the most well-known inventions in the history of psychology. It was created with the aim of demonstrating that an animal's behavior (first, using a rat) could be induced and modified by external stimuli. The box is one of the pillars on which is based the known as behaviorism of Skinner.
Parts Of The Box
The box had the following elements:

Two lights

Speaker

Button

Electrified ground (in some cases)

Food dispenser

Operation of Skinner's box

1. A rat was introduced inside the box (normally it was deprived of food before so that its motivation to feed was greater)

2. The rat experimented in his new environment until he discovered the button and pressed it. Automatically a food unit (pellet) left the dispenser after the button was pressed

3. The rat, motivated to get more food, modified its behavior, and quickly learned to press the button to receive food (behavior Association-encouragement and positive reinforcement).)

4. Conditioning could also occur by the omission of a negative stimulus (negative reinforcement). In this case, the rat was inserted into the box with the electrified floor, if he pressed the button, the current stopped passing through the floor. In this way, the rat learned to push the button to stop feeling pain.

Skinner And Operant Conditioning

As we have seen, operant conditioning is somewhat more complicated than the Classical conditioning of Watson and Pavlov. In this case, the association is not between a stimulus and a reflection but between a stimulus, a behavior, and a reinforcement.

In other words, in the case of operant conditioning, learning about what happens after the behavior is required. For example, in the case of Skinner's box, the rat learns that after pressing the button, it receives a prize.

Positive And Negative Reinforcement

As the behaviorism is based on measuring behaviors, everything that happens in the conditioning of Skinner is thoroughly analyzed and categorized. Therefore, we can distinguish two types of reinforcements in the theory of B. F. Skinner on behaviorism and operant conditioning:

Positive reinforcement, an element that acts as a reward, usually meets some basic needs or generates a pleasurable response.

Negative reinforcement, an element that generates a response of pain, displeasure or discomfort, acts as a punishment.

We can find examples of operant conditioning in our day. For example, we strive to study because we have learned to receive a reward later (good grades and recognition) or, we take medicine to avoid a headache, just as the rat presses a button to avoid the pain of the electrified ground.

Criticism Of Skinner's Behavior

Despite being a model that is measurable and empirical, the theory of B. F. Skinner on behaviorism and conditioning it is quite reductionist to speak of the human mind.

The main criticism of Behaviorism is the lack of internal vision and the simplicity of its model, it is not credible that the human psyche can be measured and understood through experiments carried out on other animals.

Thousands of psychology articles made by professionals. Psychology, neuroscience, education, business, relationships and inspiration.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
B. F. Skinner Theory: Behaviorism And Operant Conditioning - Psychologypedia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Behaviorism is a branch of psychology, which, as its name indicates, is based on the observation of the conduct and the analysis of it. Behaviorism emerged as a counterposition to psychoanalysis and aimed to provide a scientific, demonstrable, and measurable basis for Psychology. Pioneers such as Watson and Pavlov began to experiment with several animals ...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Behaviorism, also known as behavioral learning theory, is a theoretical perspective in psychology that emphasizes the role of learning and observable behaviors in understanding human and animal actions.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Constructivism Learning Theory & Philosophy of Education

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Constructivism is a learning theory that emphasizes the active role of learners in building their own understanding. Rather than passively receiving information, learners reflect on their experiences, create mental representations, and incorporate new knowledge into

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the information given".

As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to discover principles by themselves. The instructor and student should engage in an active dialog (i.e., socratic learning). The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned.

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (1) predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information.

In his more recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990, 1996) has expanded his theoretical framework to encompass the social and cultural aspects of learning as well as the practice of law.

Application

Bruner's constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the study of cognition. Much of the theory is linked to child development research (especially Piaget ). The ideas outlined in Bruner (1960) originated from a conference focused on science and math learning. Bruner illustrated his theory in the context of mathematics and social science programs for young children (see Bruner, 1973). The original development of the framework for reasoning processes is described in Bruner, Goodnow & Austin (1951). Bruner (1983) focuses on language learning in young children.

Note that Constructivism is a very broad conceptual framework in philosophy and science and Bruner's theory represents one particular perspective.

Example

This example is taken from Bruner (1973):

"The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the child, through construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out in a single file or in an incomplete row-column design in which there is always one extra or one too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from this step to the recognition that a multiple table , so called, is a record sheet of quantities in completed mutiple rows and columns. Here is factoring, multiplication and primes in a construction that can be visualized."

Principles

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).

2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization).

3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).

References

Bruner, J. (1960). The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J. (1973). Going Beyond the Information Given. New York: Norton.

Bruner, J. (1983). Child's Talk: Learning to Use Language. New York: Norton.

Bruner, J. (1986). Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J. (1996). The Culture of Education, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J., Goodnow, J., & Austin, A. (1956). A Study of Thinking. New York: Wiley.

Related Websites

More about Bruner can be found at:
http://www.infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so.

# data[].attributes.headline
Personal Philosophical Metaphoric Model 

# data[].attributes.subject
Personal Philosophical Metaphoric Model 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Web Theory Research and Theories Project 20(1) (4)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Your brain likes to generalize. It makes generalizations out of individual examples, similar to fitting together the pieces of a puzzle. This is more or less how concepts are formed-by grouping together things, ideas and events with shared characteristics so you can classify them. It's an efficient way to give meaning to your world.

For example, when you first saw a comic strip you most likely didn't know the concept of "comics." But over time, you learned that certain styles of line drawings formatted in a sequence were referred to as comics. Once you formed this concept, it became easier to classify other examples of line drawings as comics or non-comics.

Examples or instances seem to be crucial for helping a learner form accurate concepts. Otherwise, according to educational researchers, the learner can overgeneralize, under-generalize or form misconceptions. Here are six ways to help learners acquire concepts.

Rule #1: Use examples in which the irrelevant attributes vary widely.

As LX designers, we can help by providing the right types of examples. Just any old examples won't do. The attributes of the examples should vary widely, particularly on irrelevant characteristics, so learners get the right idea.

In a course on sexual harassment, if your examples only demonstrate a person harassing an individual of the opposite sex, a learner might erroneously generalize that sexual harassment cannot occur between people of the same gender. This, of course, is not true.

By varying the less relevant attributes of your examples, learners get a more refined understanding of a concept. If examples of a concept don't vary widely on irrelevant attributes, learners may form generalizations that are too limited (2).

Rule #2: Progress from simple to difficult examples.

It's also important to start with simple examples at first, but then be sure to progress to more complex ones later. Research shows that if a learner only sees simple instances of a concept, he or she will be less likely to classify the more difficult instances. This causes under-generalization (3).

Imagine a radiologist learning about bone fractures. If the radiologist only learns how to identify the most obvious instances, in which the fragments separate completely, he or she will undergeneralize about fractures. Upon coming upon a fracture in which the bone fragments are still partially joined, the radiologist could make a false diagnosis.

Rule #3: Present instances of a concept in rapid sequence or allow all instances to be viewed simultaneously.

Display examples close together in time. This enables them to be active in working memory all at once, facilitating the process of generalization. If there is a time gap between the presentation of examples, the learner might not generalize from them. So present examples in rapid sequence or leave several on the screen at one time (1).

Rule#4: Use matched examples and non-examples for concepts with related attributes.

Your brain also likes to discriminate. Discrimination restricts the range of examples used to form a concept, which can be promoted by presenting nonexamples. Nonexamples are an instance that is specifically not an example of the concept being learned. Nonexamples should vary in one attribute from the example with which it is paired.

Some research points to the fact that concepts with clearly distinguishable attributes (like texture versus color) are better taught with examples only. The learner only needs to generalize in order to acquire the concepts. But concepts that have common attributes, such as the statistical concepts of mean, median and mode, require discrimination skills and thus need matched examples and nonexamples (4). Matched examples and non-examples should be present in working memory simultaneously.

Back on the comics theme mentioned earlier, it's difficult to fully define the concept of comics. So a paired example and nonexample can help, because discrimination is required. The pair below demonstrates that the intent of the artist is one attribute for defining comics. The example on the left was intended to be read as a comic book. Roy Lichtenstein's comic-based painting on the right was intended as an artwork that provided commentary on the mass media.

Rule #5: Provide opportunities for learners to generate their own examples of a concept.

If you're working in a setting that allows learners to communicate with you and each other, ask them to generate their own examples of a concept. Promoting reflection and response in this way will reinforce well-formed concepts and correct misunderstandings. It may also illuminate the blurry areas, because not all concepts can be neatly defined.

In the sexual harassment course mentioned earlier, a learner might come up with an example that asking a co-worker for a date is harassment. Others in the discussion would probably respond that this is not harassment, but that repeatedly asking the same co-worker for a date after multiple refusals could be considered harassment. This feedback corrects the misconception.

Rule #6: Expose learners to a wide range of examples and nonexamples and allow them to discover the concept.

We have been discovering concepts on our own since childhood. It's a natural occurrence for a pattern-seeking brain. It's not surprising then that an effective way to learn concepts is to discover them from interacting with a set of examples and non-examples.

Using this inquiry strategy in eLearning isn't quite as easy as in a live classroom, but it can be done. It involves presenting multiple examples to the learner and inquiring about shared characteristics of the examples. Through exploration and discovery (interactive activities), learners can acquire the concept. Then use questions and context-sensitive feedback, to correct any misconceptions.

In a synchronous setting, concept formation can emerge from structured online discussions. Research seems to point to the fact that discovery learning is most effective when learners already have a developed knowledge base.
References:

1. Gagne, Ellen. The Cognitive Psychology of School Learning.

2. Merrill, M. D., & Tennyson, R. D. (1977). Concept teaching.An instructional design guide. Educational Technology.

3. Merrill, M. D., & Tennyson,R . D. (1978). Concept classification and classification errors as a function of relationships between examples and non-examples. Improving Human Performance, 7, 351-364.

4. Tennyson, R.D. and Cocchiarella, M.J. (1986). An Empirically Based Instructional Design Theory for Teaching Concepts. Review of Educational Research, Vol. 56, No. 1.

Get smarter about online learning with articles, tips and resources delivered to your Inbox once a month.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Six Ways to Use Examples And Nonexamples To Teach Concepts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Your brain likes to generalize. It makes generalizations out of individual examples, similar to fitting together the pieces of a puzzle. This is more or less how concepts are formed-by grouping together things, ideas and events with shared characteristics so you can classify them. It's an efficient way to give meaning to your world.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Your destination for news, pictures, facts, and videos about mammals.