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The Birth of the Field of Curriculum: 1918-1949

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The Birth of the Field of Curriculum: 1918-1949

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Bobbitt and Charters: Efficiency in eliminating small classes and increasing the student to teacher ratio while reducing teachers' salaries

Advocated the behaviorist approach for effeciency

Objectives derive from student needs and society

Learning experiences relate to objectives

Activities organized by the teacher should be integrated into the subject matter

Instructional outcomes should be evaluated

Kilpatrick: Student self expression and freedom are important. Allow students to respond according to their interests.

The Twenty-sixth Yearbook

Criticized traditional education and its emphasis on subject matter, rote learning, drill, and mental discipline.

Offered a synthesis of progressive practices and programs

Rugg and Caswell - Focus on integration of history, geography civics, and economics. Envisioned curriculum making as a means of helping teachers coordinate their instructional activities with subject matter and students' needs and interests.

Eight-Year Study
Launched by the Progressive Education Association, the study proved that experimental/progressive students following the traditional tests and college-admission requirements could do as well or better on cognitive, social, and psychological measures.

Tyler: Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction covers the basics for anyone involved in planning or writing a curriculum for any subject or grade level

1. What educational goals should a school seek to accomplish?

2. What educational experiences are likely to lead to these goals?

3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?

4.  How can we determine whether a school's goals are being accomplished?

Goodlad: Schools should help individuals fulfill their potential but should also promote society's goals
Pinar: Defined the reconceptualist movement to determine a path forward into the 21st century. This is important as education becomes internationalized.

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19th Century European Educators
Pestalozzi: General and special method focusing on students emotional security and affection in addition to auditory and visual senses
Froebel: Development of Kindergarten, centered around play and individual group interests and activities
Herbart: Education vital in shaping moral character (misconduct is the product of inadequate knowledge or inferior education)
Spencer: Constructed a curriculum based on human survival and progress

The Rise of Universal Education 1820-1900
Monitorial Schools - Teacher taught lesson to monitors (high achieving students) who passed it to lower level ones
Common Schools - Established as a result of the first school boards in Massachusetts, common schools led to the foundation of the American public school system
Elementary Schools - Continually added content to the curriculum from the 1820s through the 20th century.
Secondary Schools - Tax supported and locally controlled education developed into the US high school system
Academies - Developed in the 19th century, academies offered a range of curricula designed to provide practical training for students
High Schools - Became a major US institution after 1874. High schools stressed college preparatory programs

The Transitional Period: 1893-1918
Vocational Education
Education related to agriculture, home economics and the trades
Flexner: Early 20th century, argued that educators should update the curriculum and justify content and subject matter
Dewey: Prioritized science and rational inquiry
Judd: Investigated how content enhanced students' ability to promote thinking and solve problems
Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education

Diversify areas of study based on common culture, ideas and principles for a democratic society

High schools combine academic programs with nonacademic ones

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Chapter 3 - Historical Foundations of Curriculum

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Chapter 3 - Historical Foundations of Curriculum

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The Colonial Period: 1942-1776

Essentially founded by Puritans in Massachusetts

Reading, writing and spelling essential to education

Literacy important for understanding issues in civics and religion

Colonial Schools

Small percentage of children attended schools

Town Schools - Predominantly in the New England colonies, a locally controlled public elementary school. Typically a one room structure attended by children from age 5 to early teens. Attended by boys and girls.

Parochial and Private Schools - Started by missionary societies and various religious and ethnic groups. These elementary schools were established for their own children and focused on reading, writing, and religious sermons. In the south, upper-class children attended private schools. Education also included arithmetic.
Latin Grammar Schools - First established in Boston in 1635 as preparation for college. These schools catered to those entering the professions of medicine, law, teaching and the ministry.
Academies - Based on Benjamin Franklin's ideas to offer schooling for those not planning to attend college, these were established in 1751 and administered a diversified curriculum of English grammar, classics, composition, rhetoric, and public speaking.
Colleges - Attended mostly by students from Latin Grammar Schools. Included Harvard and Yale. Based on Puritan view that ministers needed to be soundly educated in the classics and scriptures.

The National Period: 1776-1820
Revolutionary education linked to free public schooling and the ideas of popular government and political freedom.
By 1800, secular forced reduced religious influence over elementary and secondary schools
Rush: Emphasized science over classical studies
Jefferson: Formal education should not be restricted based on social class
Webster: Reshape English and move away from the British systems; developed The American Dictionary helping create a national identity
McGuffey: Readers praised patriotism, heroism, hard work, diligence, and virtuous living

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Aligning the school curriculum to the Common Core State Standards

Teacher works with supervisors and administrators

Develop methods, blend theory with practice, align curriculum with standards, become a change agent.

Be open to new curriculum trends

Changing Professional Roles: Standards and Testing

State and federal government trends in reducing curriculum decision making at the local or school district level

High stakes testing requires teachers to be instrumental in curriculum planning

Educators and professionals should refrain from teaching to the test

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Lack of consensus in terms of curriculum domains
Development and Design

Theoretical and Technical Aspects

Curriculum Development

How curriculum is planned, implemented, and evaluated

Open or closed systems - Open systems are dynamic and evolutionary while closed are static and unable to accommodate change

Curriculum Design

Refers to the way we conceptualize the curriculum and arrange its major components

Provide a basic frame of reference

Influenced by writer's curriculum approach

System of managing people and organizing procedures

Curriculum Certification

Most states lack certification of curriculum

School administrators often lack certification requirements to lead in curriculum planning

Leads state policy makers and legislators to develop and design the school curriculum

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Commonly accepted foundations are philosophical, historical, psychological, and social.

Globalization and technology change the way people live and work.

Globalization has lead to innovations in education including MOOC, flipped classrooms, digital literacy skills, online testing, and high-speed internet access

Both globalization and technology are distinctly foundational to education

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1. Defined as a plan for achieving goals

Linear view involving a sequence of steps

2. Dealing with the learner's experiences

Virtually everything in and outside of schools included

3. A field of study with its own foundations, knowledge domains, research, theory, principles, and specialists.

Curriculum discussed in theoretical rather than practical terms

4. Subject matter (math, science, English, history, etc.)

Content and facts in terms of subject areas

The Challenges of Definition
Planned vs. Hidden Curriculum - Formal curriculum includes planned academic, goal oriented and objective subject matter while unplanned includes informal sociopsychological interaction among students and teachers including feelings, attitudes, and behaviors.
Background Issues for Defining the Field

Are there principles of curriculum that apply to all subject areas?

Who determines how curriculum should be organized?

What are the roles and responsibilities of researchers and practitioners in curriculum making?

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Approaches to Curriculum

1. Behavioral Approach - Applied to all subjects since the early 1920s. It relies on technical and scientific principles and includes paradigms, models and step-by-step strategies for formulating curriculum.
2. Managerial Approach - Considers the school as a social system in which students, teachers, curriculum specialists, and administrators interact. Educators using this approach plan the curriculum in terms of programs, schedules, space, resources and equipment, and personnel.
3. Systems Approach - Includes the processes by which engineers, such as superintendents, directors, coordinators, and principals, plan the curriculum in addition to its stages and structures.
4. Academic Approach - Popular from the 1930s through the 1950s, attempts to analyze and synthesize major positions, trends, and concepts of curriculum. Tends to be historical or philosophical and, to a lesser extent, social or practical.
5. Humanistic Approach - Paired with humanistic psychology in the 1940s and 1950s, this approach focuses on life based experiences, group games, group projects, artistic endeavors, dramatizations, field trips, social enterprises, learning and interest centers, and homework and tutoring stations. It emphasizes socialization and life adjustment for students.
6. Postmodern Approach - Focuses on education's larger ideological issues through the investigation of influence on society's social, economic, and political institutions.