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A sweet recipe

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He's a dancer

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https://elt.oup.com/student/englishfile/intermediate3/grammar/file01/nef_int_grammar01_a01?cc=it&selLanguage=it

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Few subjects have caused more controversy within medicine, education and wider society over the past half century than dyslexia - and yet still experts and advocates seem unable to agree on a precise definition.

And if no one can agree on what dyslexia is, how are parents worried that their child may be missing key learning milestones at school expected to spot the signs, secure a solid diagnosis, and establish an effective intervention plan?

A problem of definition

Dyslexia has variously been used to describe the minority of the population who, despite normal cognitive abilities, experience literacy difficulties throughout their lives.

10% of the population are dyslexic; 4% severely so. Yet ask the average person in the street and chances are they'll talk vaguely about 'reading problems', citing celebrities such as Jamie Oliver and Richard Branson who have prevailed, despite being diagnosed with the condition.

The Virgin billionaire has described his dyslexia as a 'massive advantage'. Charity the British Dyslexia Association (BDA) notes that people with dyslexia also have strengths in other areas, such as design, problem-solving, and creative, interactive and oral skills.

However, some have even refuted its existence. In the controversial 2014 book The Dyslexia Debate, Professor Julian Elliot of Durham University and Elena Grigorenko argued that dyslexia was a clinically meaningless term with a limited scientific basis.

Advocates such as Sue Flohr MBE, head of policy at the BDA, note that such research has been largely discredited and that dyslexia is included within the definition of disability for the Equality Act 2010.

In his influential 2009 report on Identifying and Teaching Children and Young People with Dyslexia and Literacy Difficulties, Sir Jim Rose described dyslexia as: "A learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling."

He described the characteristic features of dyslexia as difficulties in phonological awareness (the sounds of words), verbal memory and verbal processing speed.

Someone with dyslexia may also struggle with motor co-ordination, mental calculation, concentration and personal organisation, but these are not, by themselves, markers of dyslexia.

Symptoms and diagnosis

The BDA believes that, supported by extensive research, dyslexia is a distinctive learning difficulty in that there is something specific stopping a person from achieving their potential.

Generally, people have deficits in working memory or processing speed which impact on their performance.

Literacy difficulties

"The most noticeable symptoms are generally felt to be literacy difficulties and this can impact on children's behaviour in different ways," explains Flohr. "A child's academic performance can be hindered as poor literacy skills may affect their engagement with the subject matter. They can misinterpret information or be restricted from interpreting it at all."

Acting distracted

"For example, they will have to work harder than their contemporaries to achieve a good outcome and this can demotivate a child - they can become easily distracted, switch off and distract others."

Social struggles

"On the other hand, they can become vulnerable targets when others notice their weakness and develop poor self-esteem," Flohr reveals. "Social interaction can be affected, in that if they have a poor working memory they may not always absorb what is said and may not respond and/or appear insolent. Or they may misinterpret what is said and similarly appear naughty. Their vocabulary can also be limited because of limited exposure."

While a dyslexia diagnosis can be made before school using a different set of tests, a more accurate diagnosis is only possible once a child reaches school age, when additional literacy tests are introduced.

"Before the age of seven, it is not possible to state that a child is below the expected level for literacy," Flohr confirms. "After seven a clearer picture can be gained."

What can I do if my child has dyslexia?

Dyslexia is not a medical condition, meaning medication is not appropriate. Nor is it recognised as a health issue, meaning that in the UK help is not available from the NHS.

"However, parents can check out any co-occurring difficulties that could be contributory factors," advises Flohr. "For example, ear, nose and throat problems and glue ear; vision and dominant eye difficulties; speech and language problems; and difficulties with co-ordination."

Flohr recommends that parents get proactive when it comes to assessing local schools' special educational needs (SEN) provision and how they can best support their child's studies at home.

"Parents should look at the school's Information Report, which should give information about how the school can help," she says. "These can usually be found on a school's website or made available from the school secretary.

"If an assessment is not forthcoming from the school, they could obtain an independent one to inform themselves of the extent of the difficulty. They could establish what the curriculum is for the following term and reinforce it out of school."

The BDA advocates using a specialist multi-sensory structured programme with teaching from a qualified specialist teacher.

"Parents of children can find help from their class teacher, the school special educational needs co-ordinator (SENCo), or their local dyslexia association," says Flohr. "But more funding for CPD is needed to help teachers to be able to identify and support people with dyslexia in the classroom."

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Does my child have dyslexia | How to tell if children are dyslexic

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As many as one in every 10 to 20 people in the UK may have some degree of dyslexia, which can cause problems with reading, writing and spelling. How can parents ensure their child is correctly diagnosed and fulfils their potential at school?

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Vaccinations

If you're off to university, you're strongly advised to get the Men ACWY jab to protect you against meningitis. It is available free on the NHS to under-25s.

Also, consider having the annual flu jab, which you're entitled to if you have certain conditions such as asthma. Did you miss either or both doses of the MMR (measles, mumps and rubella) vaccines during childhood? Now you can get them on the NHS at any age.

Ideally, get your jabs before you go to uni because your risk is highest during the first few weeks of term when you're in contact with lots of new people.

Condoms and contraception

Regardless of what contraception you use, you'll also need to use condoms to protect yourself from sexually transmitted infections (STIs) if you're not in an exclusive relationship where both of you have been tested. Condoms are available free from contraception and sexual health clinics, as well as some GPs' surgeries.

Many areas also have a C-Card scheme for under-25s, making access to sexual health advice and free condoms even easier. You can register for a C-Card at most student health services or sexual health clinics, and then collect the condoms you want from various distribution points including pharmacies. Some services also provide free condoms online or by post.

Prescriptions

There are no prescription charges in Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland, but in England the full charge is £8.60. Being a student doesn't automatically entitle you to free prescriptions, but you may be able to access them free or at a reduced rate through the NHS Low Income Scheme.

You need to fill in an HC1 form, which you can get from the NHS Business Services Authority, students' union advice centres, and NHS hospitals as well as some pharmacies, dentists, opticians or GPs' surgeries.

You can also check if you qualify for free prescriptions for other reasons. If you don't qualify and you know you're going to need more than three prescriptions in three months, you can get a discount with a pre-payment certificate for £29.10, or for £104 for a year if you think you'll need more than 12 prescriptions over that period

Mental health

The prospect of making new friends and starting a new chapter in your life is often very exciting. But moving away from home, coping with your studies and not knowing anyone when you start can be stressful. If you find yourself feeling low, losing motivation to go out or study, or feeling more anxious than usual, you may be suffering from anxiety or depression.

Most universities will have free counselling services available, run by mental health professionals such as trained counsellors and therapists. Check your university's website for details, or speak to the mental health advisor who can help you get the support you need.

You can also visit Student Minds for more help and advice. If you've been suffering for more than a couple of weeks, make an appointment with your GP as you may need medication as well as counselling.

Dental treatment

Being a student doesn't entitle you to free dental care either, though check-ups are free in Scotland for everyone and free to under-25s in Wales. Otherwise, you may qualify through the NHS Low Income Scheme.

If your university has a dental hospital you may be able to get free care there, but you need to be happy about being treated by supervised dental undergraduates. If you can't get free treatment, your best bet is to find an NHS dentist, which will cost a lot less than going private.

Eye care

Again, being a student doesn't give you access to free eye care, but you may be able to get a free sight test and NHS vouchers towards the cost of glasses and contact lenses via the NHS Low Income Scheme. In Scotland, sight tests are free for everyone.

If you have any specific eye problems or certain other conditions such as diabetes, you are entitled to free sight tests and vouchers. Find out if you qualify here.

Some companies also offer free sight tests, so it's worth asking in store or checking websites such as Save the Student - an impartial site offering money advice for students.

Deals and discounts

Many health and fitness companies offer great discounts for students on everything from contact lenses to gym memberships and sports gear. Find out more via the National Union of Students, Student Beans, and UniDays.

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What health benefits do students get? | Student Finance

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If you're off to university, you're strongly advised to get the Men ACWY jab to protect you against meningitis. It is available free on the NHS to under-25s. Also, consider having the annual flu jab, which you're entitled to if you have certain conditions such as asthma.

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How to feel better

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https://goo.gl/forms/7QpehYkDCZZ1URpG3

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https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1511ur-UQqecazH5tEbFCVeeVwjJUqWogJ9TT1swNNn4/edit#responses