# data[].attributes.headline
Mandela: The Prison Years (Timeline-WH Documentaries, 58:23min)

# data[].attributes.subject
Mandela: The Prison Years (Timeline-WH Documentaries, 58:23min)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mandela: The Prison Years | Mandela Prison | Timeline

# data[].attributes.headline
Reconstruction:  CC Black Am History #19 (13:58min)

# data[].attributes.subject
Reconstruction:  CC Black Am History #19 (13:58min)

# data[].attributes.body
Paper 3 and possibly P1 Rights and Protest.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Reconstruction: Crash Course Black American History #19

# data[].attributes.headline
Emmett Till  CC Black Am Hist #34 (11:44min)

# data[].attributes.subject
Emmett Till  CC Black Am Hist #34 (11:44min)

# data[].attributes.body
Clint Smith (author and activist) narrates. He is amazing. Met him in Davos, Switzerland.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Emmett Till: Crash Course Black American History #34

# data[].attributes.headline
A People's History of the Mexican Revolution

# data[].attributes.subject
A People's History of the Mexican Revolution

# data[].attributes.body
by Soma Raza 26:12min

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A People's History of the Mexican Revolution, La Revolución Mexicana

# data[].attributes.headline
Mexican Revolution: Bandits Turned Heroes (GWC; 31:17min)

# data[].attributes.subject
Mexican Revolution: Bandits Turned Heroes (GWC; 31:17min)

# data[].attributes.body
Great War Channel

# data[].attributes.headline
FW de Klerk made a speech 30 years ago that ended apartheid: why he did it

# data[].attributes.subject
FW de Klerk made a speech 30 years ago that ended apartheid: why he did it

# data[].attributes.body
The Conversation (Dirk Kotze

Professor in Political Science, University of South Africa; Jan 30, 2020)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
FW de Klerk, the last president of apartheid South Africa. Getty Images

Thirty years ago, on 2 February 1990, a speech was delivered by then President FW de Klerk that marked the beginning of a radically new political landscape for South Africa.

In his opening address to parliament, De Klerk unbanned the exiled liberation movements, notably the African National Congress (ANC), Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) and South African Communist Party (SACP). All had been embroiled in a fight against white minority rule. He also announced a moratorium on the death penalty, the end of the state of emergency - which had been in place for five years - and the release of political prisoners.

The speech set off a series of dramatic, and, until that point, unforeseen events. Nine days later Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27 years. Within three months the first bilateral talks between the ANC and the De Klerk government happened.

De Klerk's speech that day has often been portrayed as having happened because of a Damascene moment on his part: that is that he suddenly had a blinding insight that apartheid was bad.

My view is different: I believe that the speech was preceded by an array of developments that created an environment which either forced or encouraged him to make the epochal announcements.

Thirty years later, it is an opportune time to take stock of the historical significance of the 1990 speech. What insights can we gain from that single event, and what does it tell us about how history is made?

Apartheid was regarded as one of the most intractable international issues of the time. Hence its demise, to which De Klerk's speech helped provide the impetus, shows that even the most seemingly intractable political problems can be resolved peacefully.

Impetus for change

The demise of De Klerk's predecessor PW Botha, after suffering a stroke, on 18 January 1989, was a critical change in the dynamics. On 2 February 1989, De Klerk succeeded him as leader of the National Party (NP), which governed apartheid South Africa.

De Klerk immediately made changes to Botha's military security paradigm by down-grading the State Security Council and its local structure staffed mainly by the military and police, and restored civilian rule by cabinet.

As new party leader, he undertook an international tour after realising the extent of the international community's abandonment of National Party rule. He met then UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in 1989. She made the urgency of Nelson Mandela's release clear to him.

In the ANC too changes were underway. The liberation movement took the initiative in the form of the Harare Declaration, its framework for a democratic transition in South Africa. It publicly showed the ANC's willingness to negotiate and not to rely mainly on strategies like the "people's war" and armed struggle to bring an end to apartheid.

The ANC wanted to take the initiative in moulding a transition framework. The declaration was adopted by the Organisation of African Unity in August 1989 and later by the Commonwealth in October 1991.

Prelude to change

Other developments in the background provided impetus to De Klerk's announcements. These included talks-about-talks in three separate processes between the NP and the ANC. South Africans knew nothing about these encounters.

The first was a series of meetings between Mandela and Justice Minister Kobie Coetsee and his team. It included talks about his release as well as Mandela's views on a range of policy matters.

The second process was in the form of a number of meetings in Switzerland in the late 1980s between ANC leaders such as Thabo Mbeki, Jacob Zuma and Joe Nhlanhla, with senior officials of South Africa's National Intelligence Service.

The talks explored the ANC's thinking on important matters like the economy and the armed struggle. With these talks both sides could determine whether there would be sufficient common ground for a dialogue.

Getty images

The third process was a set of meetings in the UK between the ANC under Thabo Mbeki, and groups of Afrikaner intellectuals coordinated by the academic, Willie Esterhuyse. As a civil society grouping with direct access to the National Party government, they explored the same topics as the Swiss talks.

In hindsight, this process served to legitimise future dialogue, both for the National Party government once official dialogue was publicly announced, and for the Afrikaans community, which respected its intellectuals.

All these talks helped the leaders on both sides view one another as fellow human beings capable of working together. They also clarified their views and strengthened the credibility of dialogue as a way to break South Africa's political stalemate.

Internal turmoil, external pressure

Domestic factors also played a big role in De Klerk's decision to deliver his momentous speech.

One was that the country was under a state of emergency. First announced in 1985, the government used it to quell the growing revolt in the black townships.

But the heavy-handed approach failed to pacify the townships, leading to a stalemate that hurt both the apartheid regime and its opponents.

The other domestic development was the impact of the United Democratic Front formed in 1983, which united several anti-apartheid organisations, effectively under the banned ANC's banner.

Public disillusionment with the state of emergency - and a general realisation that the National Party government had exhausted all its options - deepened the stalemate.

De Klerk responded by meeting leaders of the then Mass Democratic Movement, which brought together the United Democratic Front and the trade union movement, led by Bishop Desmond Tutu among others, in October 1989. He also announced the release of ANC leader Walter Sisulu and all the other Rivonia trialists, except Mandela whose turn would come four months later.

A huge welcome rally was held for the Sisulu group outside Soweto. The event amounted to a de facto unbanning of the ANC. All its banned symbols were on public display. Sisulu and others' speeches were unmitigated renditions of the ANC's message.

Final push

Two international moments served as the final push for De Klerk. On 9 November 1989, the Berlin Wall fell. De Klerk later explained that this signified the end of Soviet socialism and its influence on the ANC. That meant the ANC would be less ideological and more open for negotiated compromises, making it the opportune time to negotiate.

Four months later, Namibia became independent under the leadership of the ANC's ally, Swapo. At the time of De Klerk's speech most of the negotiations for Namibia's independence had been concluded - with South Africa's support. To some degree a free Namibia was therefore a precursor to a free South Africa.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
FW de Klerk made a speech 30 years ago that ended apartheid: why he did it

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Thirty years ago, on 2 February 1990, a speech was delivered by then President FW de Klerk that marked the beginning of a radically new political landscape for South Africa. In his opening address to parliament, De Klerk unbanned the exiled liberation movements, notably the African National Congress (ANC), Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) and South African Communist Party (SACP).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Rights and Protest Case Study 2 Civil Rights US 130-221.pdf

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Rights and Protest Case Study 2 Civil Rights US 130-221.pdf

# data[].attributes.body
IB blog

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Review Causes of WWII (MTGW) and Intro WWII (Practices)

# data[].attributes.headline
Patterns of US Cold War Interventions in the 20th Cent

# data[].attributes.subject
Patterns of US Cold War Interventions in the 20th Cent

# data[].attributes.body
Comparing patterns for Korea, Cuba and Vietnam

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Pattern of US Cold War interventions | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.headline
How the Vietnam War Racheted Up under 5 US Presidents

# data[].attributes.subject
How the Vietnam War Racheted Up under 5 US Presidents

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How the Vietnam War Ratcheted Up Under 5 U.S. Presidents

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
At the end of World War II, the United States was broadly popular in Vietnam for having repelled the Japanese occupiers. Even Ho Chi Minh, the nationalist and communist revolutionary, started off pro-American. But, through the terms of five U.S. presidents, that relationship deteriorated and the United States and Vietnam found themselves at war.

# data[].attributes.body
JFK Presidential Library and Museum

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
During the early 1960s, the U.S. military presence in Vietnam escalated as corruption and internal divisions threatened the government of South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem.

After World War II, the French tried to re-establish colonial control over a region known as French Indochina-today the countries of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. Following the defeat of the French, Vietnam was partitioned by the Geneva Accord of 1954 into Communist North Vietnam and non-Communist South Vietnam. The United States supported a military government in the South and the decision of its leader, Ngo Dinh Diem, to prevent free elections, which might result in the unification of the country under the control of the Communists. Guerilla forces supported by the Communist government of the North initiated a series of attacks in South Vietnam, and the Geneva Accord began to crumble.

American foreign policy after World War II was based on the goal of containing Communism and the assumptions of the so-called "domino theory"-if one country fell to Communism, the surrounding countries would fall, like dominoes. In response to that threat, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was formed in 1955 to prevent Communist expansion, and President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent some 700 military personnel as well as military and economic aid to the government of South Vietnam. The effort was foundering when John F. Kennedy became president.

Corruption, religious differences, and mounting successes by the Vietcong guerrillas weakened the South Vietnamese government of Ngo Dinh Diem. Diem was Catholic, and public protests over the repression of Buddhists threatened the stability of his regime. Kennedy accelerated the flow of American aid and gradually increased U.S. military advisers to more than 16,000. At the same time, he pressed the Diem government to clean house and institute long-overdue political and economic reforms.

The situation did not improve. In September of 1963, President Kennedy declared in an interview, "In the final analysis, it is their war. They are the ones who have to win it or lose it. We can help them, we can give them equipment, we can send our men out there as advisers, but they have to win it, the people of Vietnam, against the Communists... But I don't agree with those who say we should withdraw. That would be a great mistake... [The United States] made this effort to defend Europe. Now Europe is quite secure. We also have to participate-we may not like it-in the defense of Asia."

A few weeks later, on November 1, 1963, the South Vietnamese government was overthrown. The coup had the tacit approval of the Kennedy administration. President Diem was assassinated, after refusing an American offer of safety if he agreed to resign.

In the final weeks of his life, President Kennedy wrestled with the future of the United States' commitment in Vietnam. Whether he would have increased military involvement or negotiated a withdrawal of military personnel still remains hotly debated among historians and officials who served in the administrations of President Kennedy and President Lyndon B. Johnson.

United States military aid to Vietnam increased during 1964. By 1965, President Johnson authorized US troops to begin military offensives and started the systematic bombing of North Vietnam. By 1968, the number of US forces surpassed 500,000. During that year's presidential campaign, Americans were deeply divided by the deteriorating military and political situation in Vietnam.

In May 1968, President Johnson announced that formal peace talks would soon begin in Paris. The talks stalled during the last eight months of Johnson's presidency, and the deadlock continued during the early years of Richard Nixon's administration. Finally, in January 1973, an agreement was reached, and President Nixon ordered an end to all US offensive actions against North Vietnam.

In January 1975, North Vietnam began massive invasions of South Vietnam. A few months later, the North Vietnamese captured the capital city of Saigon, and the last Americans were evacuated from the US embassy. The American war in Vietnam was over. More than 3 million Vietnamese and 58,000 Americans had lost their lives.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
After World War II, the French tried to re-establish colonial control over Vietnam, the most strategic of the three states of formerly French-governed Indochina (Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos). Following the defeat of the French, Vietnam was partitioned by the Geneva Accord of 1954 into Communist North Vietnam and South Vietnam, which was non-Communist, but divided on religious and political lines.

# data[].attributes.body
American Experience article

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Art by Mawhyah Milton. Source photo: Library of Congress

In May 1950, lawyer Thurgood Marshall faced a question that confronts so many activists in pursuit of a goal: Should they continue to play the long game, pressing for incremental social change, or has the time come to attempt a big leap forward, despite the risks? For Marshall, the goal was equal opportunity for Black students in America's schools. How to arrive at that end was the question that, as head of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People's Legal Defense and Education Fund, he needed to answer.

In the 1930s, Marshall's legal mentor and NAACP colleague Charles Hamilton Houston had warned the association against overreach, saying, "Don't shout too soon." Under Houston's steady leadership, the NAACP enacted a careful case-by-case, year-over-year strategy to undermine the doctrine of separate but equal established by the Supreme Court's 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision. Under this gradualist approach, the NAACP pursued litigation that could clearly demonstrate that separate educational resources for Black students were unequal to those of whites. Houston's blueprint had pushed at Plessy's edges rather than trying to overturn it, however. Association attorneys argued for equal resources rather than attempt to abolish segregation outright.

Now Houston was gone, felled by a heart attack a month earlier, in April. Other NAACP leaders felt a more aggressive approach was required, and Marshall had to decide how to proceed.

At the height of summer, he convened a meeting at the association's headquarters in New York City. Fifty-seven members-43 attorneys from the Legal Defense Fund and National Legal Committee and 14 branch and regional leaders-resolved "to end segregation once and for all." They inaugurated a new era of NAACP litigation. There would be no more nudging against Plessy and other segregationist statutes; the time had come to try to topple them completely. It was an exceedingly ambitious goal given the state of American race relations at the halfway mark of the century. And Marshall still needed a strategy for achieving it.

Thurgood Marshall gives a press conference in his role as chief counsel for the NAACP, 1955. Everett Collection Historical/Alamy Stock Photo

In the country's history, no one had ever filed a case directly challenging public school segregation. At 42, Marshall was a pragmatist with hard-won knowledge of America's judicial system. He was on the lookout for a case outside of the deep South, where NAACP lawyers had better chances for success with more open-minded judges and juries. But in the meantime there was Clarendon County, South Carolina.

The disparities between white and Black children's resources in Clarendon County's School District Number 22 were indisputable. The district served a rural community that was three-fourths African American. But where the county's white schools were brick-and-mortar structures with maintained grounds and modern facilities, Black students took classes in dilapidated wooden shacks with no indoor plumbing, forcing them to get water from a community well and use outhouses no matter the elements. Without buses, the Black children walked up to nine miles to get to school.

The one-room Oak Grove schoolhouse in Clarendon County shared its grounds with a church and a graveyard first used as a burial ground for enslaved persons, 1950. South Carolina Department of Archives and History

To Marshall, Clarendon County was a perfect opportunity to litigate for equal facilities, transportation and other resources for the county's Black children. But it would be foolhardy to push for full desegregation. Marshall knew how slim the odds were of victory in South Carolina. He also understood how dangerous bringing a legal challenge there would be for the case's plaintiffs, who would bear the full brunt of white supremacist retaliation for even daring to suggest integration.

Marshall's hand was forced, however, by the presiding judge, J. Waties Waring. Waring, a white Charlestonian, was the rarest of birds: a Southern activist jurist who supported civil rights. The two first met in 1944 when Marshall argued Duvall v. Seignous, a case about disparities in teacher salaries, before the judge's bench. Waring, past retirement age by 1950 and a pariah to much of white South Carolina for his racial views, was ready to make one last judicial strike against America's apartheid educational system.

Marshall arrived in Clarendon County to argue Briggs v. Elliott in November 1950. The suit had come to be named after its lead plaintiffs, navy veteran Harry Briggs and his wife, Eliza Briggs, who was a maid at a local motel. But Waring challenged Marshall to refile the case as a direct attack on the constitutionality of segregation. The new suit could claim that separate educational opportunities, even if materially equal, were a denial of the Briggs ' plaintiffs' 14th Amendment rights. Neither man was under any illusions that the case would succeed; losing seemed inevitable. But, Waring argued, by bringing this challenge in federal court, a loss guaranteed the case would hopscotch over the U.S. Court of Appeals and be placed directly on the Supreme Court's docket.

The stakes were immense. If the NAACP were to lose this appeal before the highest court in the land, Plessy v. Ferguson would be reaffirmed and decades of dogged, meticulous work would be lost. It might be decades more before there would be another opportunity to challenge segregation head on. Marshall was conflicted, but decided to move forward with Waring's plan. Briggs v. Elliott would now be heard before a three-judge panel including Waring.

On May 28, 1951, Black South Carolinians rose before dawn to travel to the federal courthouse in Charleston, despite the risk of reprisals that could come from merely having appeared there. Joining the hundreds of journiers were reporters who wanted front-row seats to history. The NAACP's team was performing for a packed courtroom, but also on a national stage as reporters bore witness for The New York Times, New York Post, the Associated Press and numerous other national and local publications.

At the very outset of the hearing, the school district's lawyer attempted to upend the trial with a surprise announcement: Clarendon County fully acknowledged that Black and white students' educational experiences were unequal. To rectify the situation, South Carolina planned to issue $75 million in state bonds to bring Black schools up to par. There was therefore no need, the district's lawyer reasoned, even to hear the case. Blindsided at first, Marshall recovered, arguing that the County's "statement just made has no bearing on this litigation," since the NAACP's suit maintained "segregation in and of itself is unlawful." The case proceeded, and Marshall's team sought to demonstrate the injury inflicted upon Black children by segregated education.

Marshall lost Briggs v. Elliott as expected. Two of the three judges who heard the case agreed that Clarendon County's Black students received an inferior education and called for the inequities to be corrected. But they held that the decision to segregate schools remained with the state. As Judge Waring had foreseen, however, the loss ensured a Supreme Court appeal. Ultimately, that appeal was consolidated with four other cases that, three years later, led to the landmark 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision mandating the desegregation of America's public schools.

Thurgood Marshall, NAACP Chief Counsel, is shown in front of the Supreme Court, 1958. Everett Collection Historical/Alamy Stock Photo

Back outside the Charleston Federal Courthouse on that late May day in 1951, Marshall marveled at the crowd of African Americans surrounding the building and extending down the block. Many of the attendees had made the trip from hours away to witness the unprecedented case. They had also come simply to see and hear Marshall himself, the man they called Mr. Civil Rights for his seemingly fearless crusade for racial justice.

Entering the courthouse, Marshall remarked to his NAACP deputy Robert Carter, "Bob, it's all over." Carter asked Marshall what he meant.

As the man who would become the Supreme Court's first Black justice looked around, he couldn't know the role that yet awaited him. Nor could he know that, as late as 2016-62 years after the Brown v. Board decision and 23 years after his death-the United States Justice Department would still be monitoring and enforcing nearly 200 open federal school desegregation court cases.

Turning to his deputy, Marshall said, "They're not scared anymore."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mr. Civil Rights | American Experience | PBS

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In May 1950, lawyer Thurgood Marshall faced a question that confronts so many activists in pursuit of a goal: Should they continue to play the long game, pressing for incremental social change, or has the time come to attempt a big leap forward, despite the risks?

# data[].attributes.body
Timeline World History Documentaries (50:13min)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How Mandela Changed South Africa | From Prison To President | Timeline

# data[].attributes.body
Khan 8min

# data[].attributes.body
Khan Academy 12min

# data[].attributes.body
Khan (16:35min)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.body
Taylor and Ireland presentation on propaganda techniques.

# data[].attributes.body
Khan Academy 7min

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mussolini becomes absolute dictator (Il Duce) | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.body
GWC (10:30)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The United States Declares War on Germany I THE GREAT WAR Week 141

# data[].attributes.body
Khan (4:09min)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Zimmermann Telegram | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.headline
Mexico in WWI: The Mexican Revolution (GWC, 9:33min)

# data[].attributes.subject
Mexico in WWI: The Mexican Revolution (GWC, 9:33min)

# data[].attributes.body
Concise.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mexico in WW1 - The Mexican Revolution I THE GREAT WAR Special

# data[].attributes.body
Review MAIN (matchsticks) and 1-10 steps that led to the explosion of war on August 3, 1914.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
US Entry, Domestic Policies and Treaties (LSN)

# data[].attributes.body
American Experience

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
American Experience The Nuremberg Trials

# data[].attributes.headline
President Franklin D. Roosevelt Declares War on Japan (Full Speech) | War Archives

# data[].attributes.subject
President Franklin D. Roosevelt Declares War on Japan (Full Speech) | War Archives

# data[].attributes.body
British Pathe

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
President Franklin D. Roosevelt Declares War on Japan (Full Speech) | War Archives

# data[].attributes.body
Khan Academy (17:40 min)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Vietnam War | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.body
Sen. Morse and Sen Gruening vote only two to vote NO on Tonkin Resolution.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Senator Morse was staunchly opposed to communism, even approving the use of military force to repel it when necessary. But during Eisenhower's presidency, Morse's political attacks fell both on his colleagues in the Senate for allowing engagement in conflicts of questionable merit, and on the Eisenhower administration for pursuing such an aggressive military policy. With each new intervention, Morse's fear of a major confrontation with China or Russia grew deeper. Morse's foes called for the use of military force as a "preventative" measure against the fall of countries to communist rule. This logic would pave the way to America's undeclared war in Vietnam.

The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution has become one of the most debated topics in U.S. post-war foreign policy. The resolution allowed President Johnson to engage U.S. troops without a formal declaration of war, in response to an alleged attack on a U.S. ship as it patrolled the foreign waters of the Gulf of Tonkin. The apparent attack on U.S. forces threw even the most reluctant members of Congress into a defensive position.

Nevertheless, Morse joined Senator Ernest Gruening of Alaska in voting against the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. Senator Morse formally opposed the resolution on constitutional grounds, declaring that Article I of the Constitution would be violated if Congress surrendered its authority to check the President's power. The Constitution establishes the President as commander-in-chief of the armed forces, but to balance and check this power the Constitution invests Congress with the power to declare war.

When the resolution passed, Morse declared that Congress had surrendered its authority, and therefore the authority of the people it was elected to serve. Morse also deplored the open-ended nature of the approval and condemned Congress for giving the President and the military a "blank check" which would be cashed with taxpayer's money and citizens' lives.

Throughout the war, Senator Morse took great issue with the Johnson administration's deceptive practices, including the withholding of information from the public. At a protest rally on the Yale campus, Morse declared:

"I don't think you have any idea of the power that you exercise on issues before the Congress. My plea is we've got to think of the future...your future, and we've got to come to grips with the issues that are going to confront your generation."

Morse eventually paid the political price for his outspoken dissent. Robert Packwood went on to use it in his 1968 campaign against the incumbent senator. Packwood declared that Morse's opposition to continued funding of military action in Vietnam was reckless, because such restriction would cut off military support for soldiers without ending the war or finding a solution to the conflict.

Packwood also took Senator Morse to task for letting his opposition to the war sidetrack him from the real concerns of citizens-timber exports, how much they got back in taxes, and other "bread and butter" issues. Packwood sums up these priorities during an interview in The Last Angry Man: "All politics is local. Forget [Morse's] position on Vietnam! Could he deliver for the state?" Packwood won the campaign. Morse passed away six years later on July, 22, 1974, in the midst of a campaign to recapture his Senate seat.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Senator Morse was staunchly opposed to communism, even approving the use of military force to repel it when necessary. But during Eisenhower's presidency, Morse's political attacks fell both on his colleagues in the Senate for allowing engagement in conflicts of questionable merit, and on the Eisenhower administration for pursuing such an aggressive military policy.

# data[].attributes.headline
U.S. Involvement in the Vietnam War: the Gulf of Tonkin and Escalation, 1964

# data[].attributes.subject
U.S. Involvement in the Vietnam War: the Gulf of Tonkin and Escalation, 1964

# data[].attributes.body
Tonkin Resolution

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
NOTE TO READERS
"Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations" has been retired and is no longer maintained. For more information, please see the full notice.

In early August 1964, two U.S. destroyers stationed in the Gulf of Tonkin in Vietnam radioed that they had been fired upon by North Vietnamese forces. In response to these reported incidents, President Lyndon B. Johnson requested permission from the U.S. Congress to increase the U.S. military presence in Indochina. On August 7, 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, authorizing President Johnson to take any measures he believed were necessary to retaliate and to promote the maintenance of international peace and security in southeast Asia. This resolution became the legal basis for the Johnson and Nixon Administrations prosecution of the Vietnam War.

Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara points out action in Gulf of Tonkin during a briefing at the Pentagon. (AP Photo/Bob Schutz)

After the end of the First Indochina War and the Viet Minh defeat of the French at Dien Bien Phu in 1954, the countries meeting at the Geneva Conference divided Vietnam into northern and southern halves, ruled by separate regimes, and scheduled elections to reunite the country under a unified government. The communists seemed likely to win those elections, thanks mostly to their superior organization and greater appeal in the countryside. The United States, however, was dedicated to containing the spread of communist regimes and, invoking the charter of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (1954), supported the South Vietnamese leader, Ngo Dinh Diem, when he refused to hold the elections. Diem held control of the South Vietnamese Government, but he could not halt the communist infiltration of the South. By 1959, the Viet Cong, South Vietnamese communist guerillas, and the Viet Minh, began a large scale insurgency in the South that marked the opening of the Second Indochina War.

Ngo Dinh Diem failed to capture the loyalties of the people of South Vietnam the way that Ho Chi Minh had done among the population of North Vietnam. Despite U.S. support, Diem's rural policies and ambivalent attitude toward necessary changes like land reform only bolstered support for the Viet Cong in the southern countryside. By 1963, Diem's rule had so deteriorated that he was overthrown and assassinated by several of his generals with the tacit approval of the Kennedy Administration. Three weeks later, U.S. President John F. Kennedy was also assassinated, and the war continued under new leadership in both countries. Before his death, Kennedy had increased the U.S. advisory presence in South Vietnam in the hopes that a U.S.-supported program of "nation-building" would strengthen the new South Vietnamese government. However, South Vietnam continued to experience political instability and military losses to North Vietnam.

By August, 1964, the Johnson Administration believed that escalation of the U.S. presence in Vietnam was the only solution. The post-Diem South proved no more stable than it had been before his ouster, and South Vietnamese troops were generally ineffective. In addition to supporting on-going South Vietnamese raids in the countryside and implementing a U.S. program of bombing the Lao border to disrupt supply lines, the U.S. military began backing South Vietnamese raids of the North Vietnamese coast. The U.S. Navy stationed two destroyers, the Maddox and the Turner Joy, in the Gulf of Tonkin to bolster these actions. They reported an attack by North Vietnamese patrol boats on August 2, and a second attack on August 4. Doubts later emerged as to whether or not the attack against the Turner Joy had taken place.

Immediately after reports of the second attack, Johnson asked the U.S. Congress for permission to defend U.S. forces in Southeast Asia. The Senate passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution with only two opposing votes, and the House of Representatives passed it unanimously. Congress supported the resolution with the assumption that the president would return and seek their support before engaging in additional escalations of the war.

The Gulf of Tonkin incident and the subsequent Gulf of Tonkin resolution provided the justification for further U.S. escalation of the conflict in Vietnam. Acting on the belief that Hanoi would eventually weaken when faced with stepped up bombing raids, Johnson and his advisers ordered the U.S. military to launch Operation Rolling Thunder, a bombing campaign against the North. Operation Rolling Thunder commenced on February 13, 1965 and continued through the spring of 1967. Johnson also authorized the first of many deployments of regular ground combat troops to Vietnam to fight the Viet Cong in the countryside.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Milestones: 1961-1968 - Office of the Historian

# data[].attributes.body
Read through online exhibition, War Fare, for 1914-1919.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Volunteers: Americans Join World War I examines the stories of the young men and women who transformed the meaning of volunteerism. Prompted by altruism, personal ambition, a search for adventure

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Volunteers: Americans Join World War I examines the stories of the young men and women who transformed the meaning of volunteerism. Prompted by altruism, personal ambition, a search for adventure

# data[].attributes.body
Yad Vashem

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
To view the Auschwitz Album
click here.

The Auschwitz Album is the only surviving visual evidence of the process leading to the mass murder at Auschwitz-Birkenau. It is a unique document and was donated to Yad Vashem by Lilly Jacob-Zelmanovic Meier.

The photos were taken at the end of May or beginning of June 1944, either by Ernst Hofmann or by Bernhard Walter, two SS men whose task was to take ID photos and fingerprints of the inmates (not of the Jews who were sent directly to the gas chambers). The photos show the arrival of Hungarian Jews from Carpatho-Ruthenia. Many of them came from the Berehovo Ghetto, which itself was a collecting point for Jews from several other small towns.

Early summer 1944 was the apex of the deportation of Hungarian Jewry. For this purpose a special rail line was extended from the railway station outside the camp to a ramp inside Auschwitz. Many of the photos in the album were taken on the ramp. The Jews then went through a selection process, carried out by SS doctors and wardens. Those considered fit for work were sent into the camp, where they were registered, deloused and distributed to the barracks. The rest were sent to the gas chambers. They were gassed under the guise of a harmless shower, their bodies were cremated and the ashes were strewn in a nearby swamp. The Nazis not only ruthlessly exploited the labor of those they did not kill immediately, they also looted the belongings the Jews brought with them. Even gold fillings were extracted from the mouths of the dead by a special detachment of inmates. The personal effects the Jews brought with them were sorted by inmates and stored in an area referred to by the inmates as "Canada": the ultimate land of plenty.

The photos in the album show the entire process except for the killing itself.

The purpose of the album is unclear. It was not intended for propaganda purposes, nor does it have any obvious personal use. One assumes that it was prepared as an official reference for a higher authority, as were photo albums from other concentration camps.

Lilly never hid the album and news of its existence was published many times. She was even called to present it as testimony at the Auschwitz trials in Frankfurt during the 1960s. She kept it all the years until the famous Nazi-hunter Serge Klarsfeld visited her in 1980, and convinced her to donate the album to Yad Vashem.

In 1994 the album was restored in Yad Vashem's conservation laboratory and information on each one of the photos was typed into the computerized databank of the archive. The staff of the archive was able to compare and match the pictures with aerial photos taken by the US Army Air Force on several occasions in 1944-45. In 1999 the entire album was scanned with the highest quality digital equipment.

There are 56 pages and 193 photos in the album. Some of the original pictures, presumably those given by Lilly to survivors who had identified relatives in the photographs, are missing. One of these pictures was recently donated to Yad Vashem.
Further reference:
Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, Tel-Aviv, 1990.

Gilbert, Martin, Auschwitz and the Allies, New-York, 1981.

Greif, Gideon, We Wept without Tears, Testimonies of the Jewish Sonderkommando from Auschwitz

Yale University Press and The Sue and Leonard Miller Center for Contemporary Judaic Studies, University of Miami, 2005.

Hoess, Rudolf, Commandant of Auschwitz, Cleveland, 1959.

Klarsfeld, Serge (ed.), The Auschwitz Album, Lilly Jacob's Album, New-York, 1980.

Kraus, Ota & Kulka, Erich, The Death Factory: Document on Auschwitz, New-York, 1966.

To purchase the Encyclopedia of the Holocaust from Yad Vashem Publications, click here.

To view the Auschwitz Album, click here.

This exhibition is available in ready2print format:

AUSCHWITZ - A PLACE ON EARTH. The Auschwitz Album >>>

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
To view the Auschwitz Album click here. The Auschwitz Album is the only surviving visual evidence of the process leading to the mass murder at Auschwitz-Birkenau. It is a unique document and was donated to Yad Vashem by Lilly Jacob-Zelmanovic Meier.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
world war ii reference material | world war ii database

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
World War II Reference Material | World War II Database

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
World War II Reference Material | World War II Database

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Operation 25 : 1941 - German invasion of Yugoslavia
Operation 505 : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Tuzla, Bosnia, Yugoslavia
A
Operation A-Bewegung : 1939 - German preparation for the invasion of Poland; part of Fall Weiss
Operation A-Go : 1944 - Japanese attack of the American fleet off Saipan, Mariana Islands
Fall Achse : 1943 - German response to Italian surrender to the Allies
Operation Adler : 1940 - German attacks on the British Royal Air Force, aimed to soften defenses for a future ground invasion; also known as Operation Adlerangriff
Operation Adler : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Chechivichi region of Belorussia
Operation Adler : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation on the north Dalmatian coast in Yugoslavia, with focus in the cities of Rijeka, Karlobag, and Zadar
Operation Adlerangriff : 1940 - German attacks on the British Royal Air Force, aimed to soften defenses for a future ground invasion; also known as Operation Adler [Read More]
Operation Aida : 1942 - Axis attacks in Egypt and Libya with aim on Tobruk, Libya
Operation Aktion 24 : 1945 - Aborted German suicide aerial attack on bridges over river Weichsel in attempt to disrupt Soviet supply lines
Operation AL : 1942 - Japanese invasion of the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, United States
Operation Alba : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia; also known as Operation Albia and Operation Albija
Operation Albia : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia; also known as Operation Alba and Operation Albija
Operation Albija : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia; also known as Operation Alba and Operation Albia
Operation Alfa : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in Yugoslavia
Operation Alfred : 1940 - German mining off Dover, England, Britain using surface vessels
Operation Alpenfestung : 1945 - German plan for a redoubt in the German Alps
Operation Alpenveilchen : 1941 - Aborted German intervention during the Italian invasion of Albania
Operation Altenbeken : 1940 - German attack on Adalsnes, Norway; part of Operation Weserübung
Operation Altona : 1940 - German attack on Arendal, Norway; part of Operation Weserübung
Operation Ambassador : 1940 - German commando raid on British crown dependency Bailiwick of Guernsey off the French coast
Operation Amina : 1941 - Failed German attempt to destroy oil refineries in Abadan, Iran
Operation Antimon : 1944 - German operations in Romania
Fall Anton : 1942 - German occuppation of Vichy France after Italian support in 1942
Operation Arashi : 1945 - Japanese air raid on Ulithi, Caroline Islands
Operation Arnim : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in the Fruška gora Mountains in Syrmia in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Arras : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Lipik-Novska-Okucani region in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Artus : 1941 - Irish Republican Army plan to coordinate IRA and German intelligence operations; also known as Plan Kathleen
Operation Aster : 1944 - German evacuation of Estonia
Operation Attacke : 1943 - German minelaying operation north of Corsica, France
Operation Attika : 1942 - German attack on Tuapse, Russia in the Caucasus region
Operation Attila : 1940-1942 - German occuppation of Vichy France prior to Italian support in 1942
Operation Aufbau Ost : 1940 - German preparations for Operation Barbarossa
Operation Ausladung : 1943 - German offensive near Tunis, Tunisia in conjunction with Operation Ochsenkopf
B
Operation B : 1940 - German attack on the Maginot Line on the German-French border; part of Fall Rot
Operation B : 1941 - Japanese invasion of Sarawak, Borneo
Operation B : 1942 - Japanese invasion of Burma
Operation Bamberg : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Bobruisk, Belorussia in conjunction with Operation München I
Operation Ban-Go : 1944 - Japanese defensive operation at the Irrawaddy River in Burma
Operation Barbarossa : 1941 - German invasion of the Soviet Union
Operation Beethoven : 1941-1945 - German program to develop composite aircraft
Operation Beowulf I : 1941 - Planned German offensive of the Baltic States
Operation Beowulf II : 1941 - German offensive of the Baltic States
Operation Bergwiese : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation on the Primošten Peninsula in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Bergwind : 1945 - Axis anti-partisan operation at the Moslavacka Mountains southeast of Zagreb in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Berlin : 1941 - German commerce raid in the Atlantic Ocean performed by Scharnhorst and Gneisenau
Operation Bernhard : 1940 - German mining off Dover, England, Britain
Operation Bernhard : 1941 - German plan to destablize British economy with counterfeit British banknotes
Operation Berta : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Beta : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in Yugoslavia
Operation Bettelstab : 1942 - Planned German offensive at Leningrad, Russia
Operation Biene : 1940 - German attack on Alsten Island and Sandnessjøen, Norway; part of Operation Weserübung
Operation Bienenhaus : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Moslavacka Mountains in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Bilo gora : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Bilo gora Ost : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Bilo gora Mountains in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Birke : 1944 - German plan to withdraw from northern Finland prior to the Lapland War
Operation Birkhahn : 1945 - German evacuation of Norway
Fall Blau : 1935 - German defense planning on the eastern border, in tandem with Fall Rot
Fall Blau : 1938 - German air force research; later renamed Planstudie 39
Fall Blau : 1942 - German attack against Voronezh, Russia
Operation Blaufuchs 1 : 1941 - Staging of German forces from Germany to northern Finland, part of Operation Silberfuchs
Operation Blaufuchs 2 : 1941 - Staging of German forces from Norway to northern Finland, part of Operation Silberfuchs
Operation Blei : 1944 - German operations in Romania
Operation Blitz : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Našice-Ðakovo region of Slovenia, Yugoslavia
Operation Blitzableiter : 1939-1945 - German bacteriological weapons research
Fall Blume I : 1944 - German defense plan in case of an Allied invasion of Northern France
Fall Blume II : 1944 - German defense plan in case of an Allied invasion of Southern France
Operation Blücher : 1942 - German attack on the Strait of Kerch and Rshev, Russia in the Caucasus region; part of Fall Blau
Operation Blücher II : 1942 - German attack on the Strait of Kerch in the Caucasus region in Southern Russia; part of Fall Blau
Operation Bodden : 1937-1943 - German Abwehr intelligence gathering system in Spain and Morocco
Operation Bodenplatte : 1945 - German air raid against Allied airbases in the Netherlands and Belgium in support of Wacht am Rhein
Operation Bogdanow : 1941 - German construction operation to build rail bridges between Lida and Molochtschno in Belorussia
Operation Brandfackel : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Kozara Mountains in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Brandung : 1941 - Axis attack toward El Alamein, Egypt
Fall Braun : 1940 - German attacks against the Maginot Line on the French-German border in conjunction with Fall Grün
Operation Braun : 1942 - German build-up of defenses in Tunis, Tunisia in response to Allied Operation Torch
Operation Braun : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Yugoslavia
Operation Braunschweig : 1942 - German attack toward Stalingrad and the general Caucasus region in Southern Russia; part of Fall Blau
Operation Braunschweig : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in the Istria Peninsula, Yugoslavia
Operation Bremen : 1940 - German attack in Norway; part of Operation Weserübung
Operation Brunhild : 1943 - Planned German evacuation from the Caucasus region in Southern Russia
Operation Brückenschlag : 1942 - German attempt to break the Russian envelopment of German troops in Demyansk, south of Leningrad, Russia
Operation Burdock : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Russia
Operation Bussard : 1942 - German offensive in the Caucasus region of Southern Russia
Operation Büffel : 1940 - German air operation to relieve troops in Narvik, Norway
Operation Büffel-Bewegung : 1943 - German evacuation of Rshev, Russia
C
Operation C : 1942 - Japanese reconnaissance and raid operations in the Indian Ocean
Operation Caesar : 1945 - Failed transfer of technical plans and strategic materials from Germany to Japan, using submarine U-864
Operation Cannae : 1943 - German occupation of Zagreb, Sisak, and Bjelovar in Yugoslavia
Operation Cannae : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the area between the Sava and Drava Rivers in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Capri : 1942 - Axis counterattack at Medenine, Tunisia
Operation Cardaci : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation near Cardaci in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Casanova : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia utilizing German aircraft to deceive partisan fighters
Operation Castigo : 1941 - German aerial bombing of Belgrade, Yugoslavia
Operation Christrose : 1944 - Early name for Wacht am Rhein
Operation Clausewitz : 1942 - Second phase of the German summer offensive in the Caucasus region of Southern Russia
Operation Cottbus : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Polotsk, Lepel, and Borisov in Belorussia
Operation Cyrill : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation at the Glogovnica Canal on the Casma River in the Independent State of Croatia
D
Operation D : 1942 - Japanese invasion of the Andaman Islands
Operation Dampfhamm : 1942 - Planned German third phase of the German summer offensive in the Caucasus region of Southern Russia
Operation Dan-Go : 1944 - Japanese operation after the failed Operation U-Go offensive in India
Operation Delphin : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in the Dalmatian islands in Adriatic Sea
Operation Delphin : 1943 - German withdrawal from Saaremaa, Estonia
Operation Delta : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Western Greece
Operation Derfflinger : 1942 - Canceled German pincer operation against Ostazchkov, Russia
Operation Dirschau : 1939 - German operation to safeguard the rail bridge at Tczew, Poland during the invasion
Operation Domino : 1943 - The second aborted German Arctic sortie by Scharnhorst, Prinz Eugen, and destroyers
Operation Donnerkeil : 1942 - German aircraft cover for Operation Cerberus
Operation Donnerkeil : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Yugoslavia
Operation Donnerschlag : 1942 - Planned German break-out movement from Stalingrad, Russia
Operation Donnerschlag : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation along the river Obdol in Russia
Operation Doppelkopf : 1944 - German offensive to relieve troops fighting in Latvia
Operation Doppelschlag : 1942 - German anti-shipping operation off Novaya Zemlya by Admiral Scheer and Admiral Hipper
Operation Doppelsprung : 1944 - Planned German evacuation of bridgeheads at the river Maas (Meuse) west of Arnhem, the Netherlands
Operation Dora : 1942 - German operation to disrupt British supply lines in Southern Libya
Operation Draufgänger : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Russia
Operation Draufgänger : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Montenegro, Yugoslavia and in Northern Albania
Operation Dreiecke : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Bryansk, Russia
Operation Dreznica : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Velika Kapela Mountains in the Independent State of Croatia to secure a supply route
Operation Dubrovnik : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation along the road between Zagreb and Varazdin in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Dubrovnik II : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation along the road between Zagreb and Varazdin in the Independent State of Croatia; continuation of Operation Dubrovnik
Operation Dünkirchen I : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Krašic region in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Dünkirchen II : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Krašic region in the Independent State of Croatia; continuation of Operation Dünkirchen I
E
Operation E : 1941 - Japanese invasion of Thailand and Northeast Malaya
Operation Edelwei : 1942 - Axis attack of the oil-rich Caucasus region in southern Russia; part of Operation Braunschweig
Operation Eiche : 1943 - German operation to rescue Benito Mussolini from Allied imprisonment
Operation Eilbote I : 1943 - German attacks on Allied positions at the Dorsal Mountains in Tunisia
Operation Eilbote II : 1943 - Canceled German attacks on Allied positions at the Dorsal Mountains in Tunisia following Operation Eilbote I
Operation Einhorn : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Greece
Operation Eisb : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Bryansk, Russia
Operation Eisb : 1943 - German invasion of Kos, Greece
Operation Eisen : 1940 - German commando operation to occupy the bridge over the Albert Canal in Belgium
Operation Eisenhammer : 1943 - Planned German aerial bombing operation against power generators in Moscow and Gorky, Russia
Operation Eisfjord : 1943 - German naval bombardment of Spitzbergen, Svalbard Islands, Norway
Operation Eissto : 1941 - German air raids against Russian Baltic Fleet at Kronstadt and Leningrad, Russia
Operation Elster : 1944 - German agents infiltration into the US to gather intelligence on Manhattan Project
Operation Emil : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation west of Knin in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Ernteeinbringung : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation east of Zagreb, Yugoslavia
Operation Erntefest I : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation west of Ossipovichi, Russia
Operation Erntefest II : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation near Minsk and Slutsk, Belorussia
F
Fall Falke : 1940 - German attacks against the Maginot Line on the French-German border; part of Fall Grün
Operation Falke : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Papuk Mountain and Bilo gora Mountains in the Independent State of Croatia
Fall Falke : 1944 - German defense plan in case of an Allied invasion of Norway
Operation Felix : 1940 - Planned German invasion of Gibraltar via the Iberian Peninsula
Operation Ferdinand : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in the Fruška gora Mountains in Syrmia in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Ferkel : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the mountains northeast of Tuzla in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Ferkel : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Bryansk, Russia
Operation Festung : 1940 - German paratrooper attack on the Hague, Rotterdam, Dordrecht, and Moerdijk in the Netherlands; part of Fall Gelb
Operation Feuerstein : 1943 - German defensive build-up of the Italian Alpine passes
Operation Feuerwehr : 1944 - Failed German anti-partisan operation in Macedonia, Yugoslavia
Operation Feuerzange : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in the Dalmatian islands in Adriatic Sea
Operation Feuerzauber : 1936-1939 - German transfer of weapons and personnel to Francisco Franco's forces in the Spanish Civil War [Read More]
Operation Feuerzauber : 1942 - Planned German attack on Leningrad, Russia; renamed to Operation Nordlicht
Operation Feuerzauber : 1944 - German destruction of bridges near Florence, Italy
Operation Fischfang : 1944 - German counterattack to the Allied invasion of Anzio, Italy
Operation Fischreiher : 1942 - German attack on Stalingrad and Astrakhan, Russia; part of Fall Blau
Operation Fledermaus : 1941 - German aerial bombing of British airfields
Operation Fliederblüte : 1943 - German attack of British units at the 'Banana Ridge' in Tunisia
Operation Fliegenfänger : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Memici and Osmaci in Bosnia, Yugoslavia
Operation Foca : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Forelle : 1944 - German operation to disrupt Russian supply lines on the Danube River near Budapest, Hungary
Fall Forelle I : 1944 - German defense plan in case of an Allied invasion of the Balkans via the Adriatic Sea
Fall Forelle II : 1944 - German defense plan in case of an Allied invasion of the Balkans via the Aegean Sea
Operation Franz : 1943 - German commando operation against British supply lines in Iran
Operation Fredericus I : 1942 - German attack on Kharkov, Russia
Operation Fredericus II : 1942 - German attack on Odessa, Ukraine as a follow-up operation to Operation Fredericus I
Operation Freiheit : 1945 - German destruction of a bridge on the Oder River
Operation Freischütz : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation
Operation Freischütz : 1944 - Canceled German operation to take the island of Vis off Croatia, Yugoslavia
Operation Freischütz : 1944 - German relief operation for troops trapped near Minsk, Belorussia
Operation Frieda : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation
Operation Fritz : 1941 - Planned German invasion of the Soviet Union; later abandoned in favor of Operation Barbarossa
Operation Fronttheater : 1943 - The first aborted German Arctic sortie by Scharnhorst, Prinz Eugen, and destroyers
Operation Froschlaich : 1941 - German air raids against Russian Navy at Leningrad, Russia; part of Operation Eisstoss
Operation Fruška gora : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Frühling : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in the Jura Mountains in Southern France
Operation Frühlingsanfang : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation at Primorska and Gorenjska in Slovenia, Yugoslavia
Operation Frühlingserwachen : 1945 - German counter-attack against Russian troops near Budapest, Hungary
Operation Frühlingsfest : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Lepel, Belorussia as a follow-up operation of Operation Regenschauer
Operation Frühlingssturm : 1945 - Axis anti-partisan operation along the Danube River in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Frühlingswetter : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the area between Knin and Kistanje in the Independent State of Croatia to secure a supply route
Operation Frühlungswind : 1943 - Axis attack on Faid Pass near Sidi bou Zid, Tunisia
Operation FS : 1944 - Canceled Japanese plan to isolate Australia by capturing New Caledonia, Samoa, and Fiji
Operation FU : 1941 - Japanese invasion of Indochina
Operation Fu-Go : 1944 - Japanese aerial bombing of the United States via balloons
Operation Fuchsjagd : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Ivanzcica Mountains in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Fuchsjagd III : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Kalnik Mountains in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Föhn : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation west of Banja Luka to open the road between Bosanski Novi and Prijedor in the Independent State of Croatia
G
Operation G : 1940 - German paratrooper attack on Ghent in the Netherlands; part of Fall Gelb
Operation Gamma : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Yugoslavia
Operation Gaudo : 1941 - Italian naval action against British ships north of Crete, Greece
Operation Geier : 1940 - German attack of the Maginot Line on the French-Germany border north of Kehl, Germany; part of Fall Grün
Operation Geiserich : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in Split on the coast of the Independent State of Croatia
Fall Gelb : 1940 - German invasion of the Low Countries of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg
Operation Gemsbock : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in the region near the Greek-Albanian border before Operation Einhorn
Operation Georg : 1942 - Planned German attack on Leningrad, Russia; renamed to Operation Feuerzauber
Operation Gertraud : 1945 - Planned German aerial bombing of hydropower plants east of Moscow, Russia
Operation Gertrud : 1942 - Planned German response in case of Turkey joining the Allies
Operation Gesellenprüfung : 1943 - German minelaying operation via S-Boats
Operation Gisella : 1942 - Planned German invasion of the Iberian peninsula; revised from Operation Isabella
Operation Gneisenau : 1940 - German diversionary attack on two bridges on the French-German border; part of Fall Grün
Operation Granit : 1940 - German paratrooper attack on Belgian Fort Eben-Emael
Operation Greif : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Orsha and Witebsk, Belorussia
Operation Greif : 1944 - German infiltration of Allied rear areas using Allied uniforms; part of Wacht am Rhein
Operation Großer Schlag : 1944 - Planned German mass-deployment of fighters against Allied bombers
Fall Grün : 1938 - German plan for invasion of Czechoslovakia
Fall Grün : 1940 - German attacks against the Maginot Line on the French-German border in conjunction with Fall Braun
Fall Grün : 1940 - German plan for a diversionary invasion of Ireland in support of Operation Seelöwe
Operation Grün : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Grün II : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation at the Kupa River between the Sava and the Farkašic-Kravarsko line in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Grüne Bewegung : 1940 - Planned German landing at Brighton, England, Britain; part of Operation Seelöwe
Operation Grünpfeil : 1940 - German occupation of the Channel Islands
Operation Grünspecht : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Bryansk, Russia
Operation Gustav : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Günther : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Smolensk, Russia prior to Operation Zitadelle
Operation Götz v. Berlichingen : 1941 - German air raids against Russian Navy at Leningrad, Russia; part of Operation Eissto
H
Operation H : 1942 - Japanese invasion of Celebes
Operation Ha-Go : 1944 - Japanese action to isolate and destroy Anglo-Indian forces at Arakan, Burma; precursor to Operation U-Go
Operation Habicht : 1940 - German diversionary attack on Mulhouse, France; part of Fall Grün
Operation Habicht : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation
Operation Hagen : 1943 - German operation in the Caucasus region of Southern Russia
Operation Hagen Bewegung : 1943 - German evacuation operation near Oryol, Russia
Operation Haifisch : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Trogir in Croatia, Yugoslavia
Operation Haifisch I : 1941 - German deceptive operation to hint a false invasion of Scotland and England, Britain from Norway before the start of Operation Barbarossa
Operation Haifisch II : 1941 - German deceptive operation to hint a false invasion of Scotland and England, Britain from Norway before the start of Operation Barbarossa
Operation Hamburg : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Bryansk, Russia
Fall Hanna : 1944 - German defense plan in case of an Allied invasion of Denmark
Operation Hannibal : 1941 - German invasion of the island of Lemnos, Greece
Operation Hannibal : 1941 - German operation to take the bridge over the Corinth Canal, near Corinth, Greece
Operation Hannibal : 1945 - German evacuation of East Prussia, Germany
Operation Hannover I : 1942 - German operation near Vyazma, Russia
Operation Hannover II : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in the upper Dnieper River region (Belorussia and Ukraine)
Operation Harpune : 1941 - German deceptive operation to hint a false invasion of southern England, Britain from France before the start of Operation Barbarossa
Operation Hartmut : 1940 - German submarine operations in Norwegian waters
Operation Hasenjagd : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Gomel, Belorussia
Operation Haudegen : 1944 - German intelligence gathering in Spitzbergen, Norway
Operation Hecht : 1942 - First German submarine wolfpack raid in the North Atlantic Ocean
Operation Heide : 1944 - German flooding of parts of the Netherlands to hinder Allied advance; later renamed to Operation Storch
Operation Heinrich : 1944 - German deceptive operation in support of Wacht am Rhein
Operation Herbstgewitter I : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation at Peljesac peninsula in the Croatia, Yugoslavia
Operation Herbstgewitter II : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation at Peljesac peninsula in the Croatia, Yugoslavia
Operation Herbstgewitter III : 1943 - German anti-partisan operations at the islands of Mljet, Hvar, Brac, and Solta off the coast of Croatia, Yugoslavia
Operation Herbstgewitter IV : 1943 - German anti-partisan operations at the islands of Mljet, Hvar, Brac, and Solta off the coast of Croatia, Yugoslavia
Operation Herbstlaub : 1942 - Canceled German operation in the Caucasus region of Southern Russia, near Krasnoarmeisk, Ukraine and Beketovka, Russia
Operation Herbstnebel : 1944 - Rejected German plan to withdraw German troops in Italy behind the Po River
Operation Herbstreise : 1940 - Planned German diversionary invasion of Scotland, Britain; part of Operation Seelöwe
Operation Herbstzeitlose : 1942 - Canceled German plan to advance to the Don and Volga Rivers in the Caucasus region of Southern Russia
Operation Herkules : 1942 - Canceled German airborne invasion of Malta
Operation Hermann : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Vilnius and Polotsk, Belorussia
Operation Hermann : 1945 - German attack on British air units in Belgium and the Netherlands
Operation Hermelin : 1943 - German cruiser Lützow operation in the Baltic Sea
Operation Heu-Aktion : 1944 - German enslavement of East European children between the age of 10 and 15 to work in the German armament industry
Operation Hikari : 1945 - Japanese reconnaissance of Ulithi Atoll, Caroline Islands; part of Operation Arashi
Operation Himmler : 1939 - German staged attacks in Poland to justify invasion; part of Fall Weiss
Operation Hinein : 1944 - German submarine operation against an Allied convoy in the North Atlantic Ocean
Operation Hohes Venn : 1944 - German paratrooper operation as a part of Operation Greif of Wacht am Rhein
Operation Holzauge : 1942 - German activities in Greeland
Operation Hornbläser : 1942 - Planned German attack on Alexandria harbor, Egypt
Operation Hornung : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation
Operation Horrido : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Thessaloniki, Greece
Operation Hubertus : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Pindus Mountains region of Greece
Operation Hummel : 1940 - German intelligence gathering for Operation Seelöwe
Operation Hummer : 1940-1945 - German infiltration of Britain
Operation Hundesohn : 1944 - German occupation of Sofia, Bulgaria
Operation Husar : 1943 - Canceled German anti-shipping operation in Kara Sea by Lützow
I
Operation I : 1943 - Japanese air raid against Allied advances on New Guinea and Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands
Operation Ibex : 1944 - German air raids on London and other nearby British cities
Operation Ichi-Go : 1944 - Japanese attack in Eastern China to link up Northern China and Indochina
Operation Ikarus : 1940 - Planned German invasion of Iceland in response to British Operation Fork; originally planned to launch in conjunction with Operation Seelöwe
Operation Ilona : 1942 - Planned German invasion of the Iberian peninsula; revised from Operation Isabella
Operation Iltis : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Thessaloniki, Greece
Operation Ingeborg : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation east of Karlovac and north of the Kupa River in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Insel : 1943 - German action at Hydra Island, Greece
Operation Irak : 1941 - German deployment of aircraft to Iraq
Operation Isabella : 1941 - Planned German invasion of the Iberian peninsula
Operation Istrien : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Northern Italy
Operation Ivan : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Moslavacka Mountains in the Independent State of Croatia
J
Operation J : 1942 - Japanese invasion of the Dutch East Indies
Operation Jacob : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Uzda, Belorussia
Operation Jajce : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Jajce : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Vrbas Valley in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Jajce II : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Jajce III : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Judas : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Bulgaria
Operation Juno : 1940 - German naval operation against British shipping off Narvik, Norway
Operation Juno : 1940 - German naval operation to disrupt Allied supplies to Norway
K
Operation K : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation K-1 : 1942 - Japanese reconnaissance and air raid on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, United States
Operation K-2 : 1942 - Japanese reconnaissance and air raid on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, United States
Operation Ka : 1942 - Japanese plan to destroy the American fleet and recapture Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands
Kampf um Rom : 1944 - German defense plan for the Nettuno area in Italy
Operation Kan-Go : 1944 - Japanese defensive plan in Southern Burma
Operation Karin : 1943 - German deployment of naval vessels in the English Channel
Operation Karlsbad : 1941 - German anti-partisan operation in the Berezina River region of Belorussia
Operation Karlshafen : 1940 - German attack against Kristiansand, Norway; part of Operation Weserübung
Operation Kastanie : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Prijedor-Sanski Most-Omarska area in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Kasten : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Kathleen : 1940 - Planned German invasion of Ireland
Operation Kaub : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation at the Sava River in the Independent State of Croatia, destroying all boats and ferries
Operation KE : 1943 - Japanese evacuation of Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands
Operation KE : 1943 - Japanese evacuation of Kiska, Aleutian Islands, Alaska, United States
Operation Ken : 1945 - Planned Japanese operation to use transports to land suicide troops on American airfields in the Mariana Islands
Operation Ketsu-Go : 1945 - Japanese defense plan against potential American invasion of the Japanese home islands
Operation Kiebitz : 1943 - German POW rescue operation via submarine into the St. Lawrence River in Canada
Operation Kikusui : 1945 - Japanese special attack against American ships off Okinawa, Japan
Operation Klabautermann : 1942 - German operation against Russian supply lines near Leningrad, Russia
Operation Klara : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Velika Kladuša area in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Klašnice : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Klette I : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Bryansk, Russia
Operation Kon : 1944 - Japanese defensive operation on Biak Island, New Guinea
Operation Kon-Go : 1945 - Planned Japanese offensive against American ships using manned torpedoes
Operation Konrad : 1945 - Axis attack near Budapest, Hungary to relieve the sourrnded city
Operation Konstantin : 1943 - German seizure of Italian equipment and territory upon the Italian surrender
Operation Kopenhagen : 1943 - German defensive build-up of the French and Italian Alpine passes
Operation Koralle : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in the Sporades Islands, Greece; previously named Operation Neptun
Operation Kormoran : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Minsk and Borisov, Belorussia
Operation Kornblume : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Fruška gora Mountains in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Kozara : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Krause I : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Krause II : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Kreml : 1942 - German deceptive operation in support of Operation Edelwei
Operation Kreuzotter : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Greece
Operation Kreševo : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Krimhilde Bewegung : 1943 - German evacuation of the Caucasus region in Southern Russia
Operation Kuckucksei : 1943 - Canceled German attack on British units at the Fondouk Pass, Tunisia
Operation Kugelblitz : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the area between Rogatica and Vlasenica in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Kugelblitz : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation near Vitebsk, Belarus
L
Operation L : 1942 - Japanese landing operation in Palembang, Sumatra
Operation Lachsfang : 1942 - Planned combined German and Finnish attack against Kandalaksha and Belomorsk, Russia
Operation Landbrücke : 1942 - German attempt to hold a narrow connection near Demyansk, south of Leningrad, Russia to prevent envelopment
Operation Landsturm : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Makarska in Croatia, Yugoslavia
Operation Landwirt : 1944 - German submarine operation against the Allied fleet off France during the Normandy invasion
Operation Lauffeuer : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the area south of Sid and near Ilok in Syrmia in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Laura : 1944 - Proposed German evacuation of Courland, Latvia
Operation Lawine : 1945 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Lašva Valley and Travnik the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Leander : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation across the Lika Mountains to Zadar on the coast of the Independent State of Croatia after the Italian surrender
Operation Lehrgang : 1943 - German evacuation of Sicily, Italy over the Strait fo Messina
Operation Lel : 1941 - German diversionary plan in support of Operation Beowulf II; part of Operation Nordwind
Operation Leopard : 1943 - German landings on Leros of the Dodecanese Islands, Greece
Operation Lichtermeer : 1940 - German air attack against British airfields for bombers
Operation Lichtschlag : 1942 - Canceled German attack north of Cholm, Russia near the Lovat and Kunya Rivers
Operation Lika : 1943 - Planned German anti-partisan operation against Josip Broz Tito in Yugoslavia
Operation Lila : 1942 - German attempt to capture French fleet at Toulon, France
Operation Loge : 1940 - German 65-day air offensive against London, England, Britain
Operation Luchs : 1940 - Planned German breakthrough between Breisach and Strasbourg, France; part of Fall Grün
Operation Lucie : 1940 - Planned German invasion of the Dutch island of Texel in the North Sea
Operation Ludwig : 1944 - German plan against an Allied landing at Livorno, Italy
Operation Luftparade : 1940 - German night raid against British air bases
Operation Lug : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Lupo : 1942 - Italian convoy missions to Tripoli, Libya
Operation Lüttich : 1944 - German counter-offensive at Mortain, France in response to Operation Cobra
Operation Löwe : 1940 - Planned German invasion of Britain; precursor of Operation Seelöwe
M
Operation M : 1941 - Japanese invasion of the Philippine Islands
M.43 : 1942 - Italian convoy missions to Tripoli, Libya
Operation Maibaum : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Vlasenica in Bosnia, Yugoslavia
Operation Maigewitter : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation
Operation Maigewitter : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Northern Greece
Operation Maigewitter : 1945 - German anti-partisan operation in Tuzla in Bosnia, Yugoslavia
Operation Maikäfer : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Babruysk, Belorussia
Operation Malaria : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Osipovichi, Belorussia
Operation Manjaca Mountains : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Fall Marder : 1944 - German defense plan in case of an Allied invasion of Italy; activated after Allies launched Operation Shingle
Fall Marder I : 1944 - German defense plan in case of an Allied invasion of Italy via the Ligurian Sea; part of Fall Marder
Fall Marder II : 1944 - German defense plan in case of an Allied invasion of Italy via the Adriatic Sea; part of Fall Marder
Operation Margarethe I : 1944 - German occupation of Hungary
Operation Margarethe II : 1944 - German occupation of Romania
Operation Marianne : 1940 - German motorboat action off Dover, England, Britain
Operation Marita : 1941 - German invasion of Greece
Operation Martin : 1944 - Planned German attack of the Ardennes region as proposed by Gerd von Rundstet; rejected by Adolf Hitler for being too conservative
Operation Maus : 1942 - Axis drive toward the Caucasus region in Southern Russia
Operation Merkur : 1941 - German invasion of Crete, Greece
Operation Merkur : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Krbavsko Polje plain in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Messer : 1944 - German mining of the Ligurian Sea off Northern Italy
Operation MI : 1942 - Failed Japanese invasion of Midway Island
Operation Michael : 1943 - Canceled German evacuation of Crimea
Operation Mirko : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Mitte : 1941 - German attack on Hiiumaa, an island off Estonia; part of Operation Siegfried
Operation Mitte Juli : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation
Operation Mittelmeer : 1940-1941 - German reinforcement of the Italian Regia Aeronautica in the Mediterranean Sea
Operation MO : 1942 - Aborted Japanese invasion of Port Moresby, New Guinea
Operation Mondscheinsonate : 1940 - German night raid on Coventry, England, Britain
Operation Moorbrand : 1942 - Canceled German attack near Pogostje, Russia
Operation Morgenluft : 1943 - German attack on Gafsa, Tunisia
Operation Morgenröte : 1940 - German attack on several Dutch bridges
Operation Morgenröte : 1944 - German counterattack to the Allied invasion of Anzio and Nettuno, Italy
Operation Morgenstern : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Krbavsko Polje plain in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Morgenwind I : 1944 - German landing on the island of Brac off the coast of Croatia, Yugoslavia
Operation Morgenwind II : 1944 - German landing on the island of Solta off the coast of Croatia, Yugoslavia
Operation Moslavacka gora : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation München : 1944 - German fallback to the Arno River in the Tuscany region of Italy
Operation München I : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Belorussia
Operation München II : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Radoshkovichi, Belorussia
Operation Märzfieber : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Belorussia
Operation Möwe I : 1942 - Planned German operation to sabotage aluminum factories in southern Scotland, Britain
Operation Möwe V : 1944 - Canceled German plan to land agents in Scotland, Britain
N
Operation N : 1940 - German paratrooper attack of Namur, Belgium
Operation Nachbarhilfe I : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Bryansk, Russia
Operation Nachbarhilfe II : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Mglin, Russia
Operation Napfkuchen : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Yugoslavia
Operation Nau : 1941 - German diversionary plan in support of Operation Beowulf II; part of Operation Nordwind
Operation Naumburg : 1940 - German landing at Narvik, Norway
Operation Nebelübung : 1940 - Planned German invasion of Liège, Belgium; part of Fall Gelb
Operation Nelly U : 1943 - German towing of a 3,000-ton drydock from Mariupol to Odessa, Ukraine
Operation Neptun : 1943 - German counter-offensive at Myschanko-Berg during the Battle of Stalingrad
Operation Neptun : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in the Sporades Islands, Greece; later renamed to Operation Koralle
Operation Neuland : 1942 - German submarine operation in the Caribbean Sea
Operation Nibelungenfahrt : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Krbavsko Polje plain in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Nienburg : 1940 - German action against Narvik, Norway; part of Operation Weserübung
Operation Niwi : 1940 - German troop deployment in Belgium; part of Fall Gelb
Operation Nord : 1940 - German warship Admiral Scheer's raid in the North Atlantic Ocean
Operation Nord : 1940 - Planned German invasion of Denmark and Norway; later renamed to Operation Weserübung
Operation Nordlicht : 1942 - Planned German attack on Leningrad, Russia; formerly planned as Operation Feuerzauber
Operation Nordlicht : 1944 - German withdrawal from the Kola Peninsula into Norway after Finland switched sides
Operation Nordlicht-Bewegung : 1944 - German troop deployment in Finland
Operation Nordmark : 1940 - German attacks against Allied ships convoys between Britain and Scandinavia
Operation Nordpol : 1941 - German counter-intelligence operation in the Netherlands
Operation Nordpol : 1942 - Canceled German operation east of Moscow, Russia
Operation Nordsee : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Mogilev, Belorussia
Operation Nordseetour : 1940 - The first German Atlantic operation of Admiral Hipper
Operation Nordwest : 1939 - German study for a potential invasion of Britain; parts of Operation Nordwest was integrated into Operation Seelöwe
Operation Nordwind : 1941 - German diversionary invasion of the island of Saaremaa, Estonia in support of Operation Beowulf II
Operation Nordwind : 1945 - German offensive in Alsace and Lorraine in northeastern France in conjunction with Wacht am Rhein
Operation Nussknacker : 1944 - German torpedo boat operation off Corsica, France
Operation Nürnberg : 1943 - Planned German response in case of an Allied invasion of the Iberian peninsula, centering largely around the defense of the Pyrenees passes
O
Operation Ochsenkopf : 1942 - German counterattacks in attempt to expand the Tunis, Tunisia perimeter
Operation Odysseus : 1944 - German naval deployment in the Adriatic Sea and Aegean Sea
Operation Oldenburg : 1940 - German aerial reconnaissance of Russia natural resources
Operation Oldenburg : 1940 - German attack on Oslo, Norway; part of Operation Weserübung
Operation Olivenernte : 1943 - Canceled German attack on Majaz al Bab, Tunisia
Operation Olymp : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Greece
Operation Orange : 1943 - German convoy off Temryuk, Southern Russia in the Sea of Azov
Operation Orkan : 1942 - Canceled German attack in the Belyov-Yukhnov area in Russia
Operation Orkan II : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Lublin, Poland
Operation Oskar : 1940 - German motorboat action off Dover, England, Britain
Operation Ost : 1939 - German operation in Southern Poland near the border with Czechoslovakia
Operation Ost : 1941 - German attack on Hiiumaa, an island off Estonia; part of Operation Siegfried
Generalplan Ost : 1942 - German plan for genocide throughout Europe
Operation Ostern : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Ostfront : 1943 - The final German operation of Scharnhorst to intercept convoy JW-55B
Fall Otto : 1937 - German plan to occupy Austria
Operation Otto : 1938 - German plan to establish a puppet government in Austria
Operation Otto : 1940 - German preparations for Operation Barbarossa
Operation Otto : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Grmec Mountains in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Ozren : 1941-1942 - German anti-partisan operations near Ozren, Yugoslavia
Operation Ozren : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Sunja area in the Independent State of Croatia
P
Operation Paderborn : 1943 - The third and successful German transfer of Scharnhorst and destroyers from the Baltic Sea to Narvik, Norway
Operation Panther : 1940 - German attacks on Strasbourg, France; part of Fall Braun
Operation Panther : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation at Mesovan Pass in Southeastern Croatia, Yugoslavia
Operation Panther : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Greece
Operation Panther : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation near Kursk, Russia after Operation Zitadelle
Operation Panzerfaust : 1943 - German operation to kidnap the son of Miklós Horthy's son to prevent Horthy from siding with the Allies; codename later changed to Maus
Operation Panzerfaust : 1944 - German occupation of Hungary
Operation Parnass : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Lamia, Greece
Operation Pastorious : 1942 - German plan to sabotage industrial targets at Long Island, New York, United States
Operation Paukenschlag : 1942 - German submarine campaign against shipping off the east coast of the United States; nicknamed 'Second Happy Time'
Operation Paula : 1940 - German aerial bombing of French countryside
Operation Paula : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation north of the Sava River in Serbia, Yugoslavia
Operation Petrinja : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation at the Okucani-Lipik-Banova Jaruga-Novska area in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Petrova gora I : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Petrova gora II : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Pfingstausflug : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Polotsk and Lepel, Belorussia
Operation Pfingsten : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Prnjavor-Kotor Varoš-Teslic area in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Planspiel III : 1940 - German breakthrough of the Maginot Line between Teting und Wittring, France
Planstudie 39 : 1939 - German air force research
Operation Platinfuchs : 1941 - German attack towards Murmansk, Russia from Finnish Petsamo, part of Operation Silberfuchs
Operation Polarfuchs : 1941 - German attack towards Kandalaksha, Russia from Finnish Lapland, part of Operation Silberfuchs
Operation Polarnacht : 1942 - German deployment of battleship Tirpitz from Wilhelmshaven, Germany to Trondheim, Norway
Operation Poseidon : 1943 - German operation against British troops on the Greek island of Samos; part of Operation Zwischenspiel
Operation Prijedor : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Provincia di Lubiana : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Prüfstand XII : 1944 - German program to develop submarine launched V-2 rockets
Operation Puma : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Greece
K
Plan Kathleen : 1941 - Irish Republican Army plan to coordinate IRA and German intelligence operations; also known as Operation Artus
R
Operation R : 1942 - Japanese invasion of Rabaul, New Britain and Kavieng, New Ireland
Operation Rabat : 1943 - German plan to kidnap the Pope from the Vatican City
Operation Ratweek : 1944 - German ground and air attack on partisans on the Balkan peninsula
Operation Raubtier : 1942 - Canceled German attack toward the Volkhov River near Leningrad, Russia
Operation Raubvogelkäfig : 1940 - German attack on the Maginot Line; part of Fall Grün
Operation Raureif : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in Turbe in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Regatta : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in the Smolensk-Gorky area in Russia
Operation Regatta I : 1943 - German artillery bombardment of the Strait of Kerch between the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov
Operation Regenbogen : 1942 - The failed German attack on Arctic convoy JW-51B by Admiral Hipper and Lützow
Operation Regenbogen : 1945 - Rescinded German order to scuttle German ships at the end of the war
Operation Regenschauer : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Lepel and Polozk in Belorussia
Operation Regenschirm : 1940 - German aerial bombing of Birmingham, England, Britain
Operation Regenwurm : 1945 - German plan to move V-2 rockets to avoid Allied air strikes
Operation Reinhard : 1943 - German systematic murder of Polish intelligentia; phase I of the German 'Final Solution'
Operation Reinhard : 1944 - Axis occupation of ore mines in and around Ljubija in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Renate : 1941 - German motorboat action off Dover, England, Britain
Operation Renate : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation on the Murter Peninsula in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Renntier : 1941 - German occupation of Finnish Petsamo; part of Operation Silberfuchs
Operation Renntier : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Greece
Operation Rheinübung : 1941 - The planned German attacks on Allied shipping conducted by Bismarck and Prinz Eugen
Fall Richard : 1937 - German contingency planning for Soviet takeover of Spain
Operation Richard : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation near Razboj in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Richard : 1944 - German defense plan in case of an Allied invasion of Italy; activated after Allies launched Operation Shingle
Operation Risnjak : 1942 - Italian anti-partisan operation in coastal region of Yugoslavia
Operation Ristow : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation between Bosanski Novi and Prijedor in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation RO : 1943 - Japanese defensive plan against Allied attacks on Rabaul, New Britain
Fall Rot : 1935 - German defense planning on the western border, in tandem with Fall Blau
Fall Rot : 1937 - Planned German invasion of Czechoslovakia
Fall Rot : 1939 - German bombing of Wielun, Poland; part of Fall Weiss
Fall Rot : 1940 - German invasion of France
Operation Rouen : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation at the Kalnik Mountains south of the Ludbreg-Koprivnica Line in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Rumpelkammer : 1944 - Start of the German V-1 rocket attack against London, England, Britain
Operation Rübezahl : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Montenegro, Yugoslavia
Operation Rügen : 1937 - German bombing of Guernica, Spain
Operation Röslein : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Macedonia, Yugoslavia
Operation Rösselsprung : 1942 - German naval operation to attack Arctic convoy PQ-17
Operation Rösselsprung : 1944 - German attempt to capture Josip Broz Tito
S
Operation S : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Safari : 1943 - German SS operation to disband the Danish military
Operation Salaam : 1941 - German plan to make contact with Egyptian nationalists
Operation Sandmann : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Sarajevo : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation west of the Sesvete-Varazdin road in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Schach : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Kordun and Banija regions in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Schamil : 1942 - Planned German operation to secure Caucasus oil fields in Southern Russia with paratroopers
Operation Scharnhorst : 1940 - German deceptive attack in the Saarbrücken region; part of Fall Grün
Operation Schlussjagd : 1941 - German attack at Tula, Russia during the offensive toward Moscow
Operation Schlüsselblume : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in western Slavonia in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Schnee : 1942 - German supply mission to Norway
Operation Schneegestöber : 1944 - German operation to find and capture Josip Broz Tito's headquarters in Yugoslavia
Operation Schneeman : 1945 - German offensive in the Netherlands in conjunction with Wacht am Rhein
Operation Schneeschmelze : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Zaprešic-Krapinske Toplice-Klanjec area in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Schneesturm : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Bosnia, Yugoslavia
Operation Schnepfe : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation north of Vitebsk, Belorussia in conjunction with Operation Wildente
Operation Schwarz : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in Montenegro and Herzegovina, Yugoslavia
Operation Schwarz : 1943 - German plan in the event of an Italian surrender
Operation Seehund : 1943 - German submarine mining operation
Operation Seelöwe : 1940 - Planned German invasion of Britain; Anglicized as 'Sealion'
Operation Seemöwe : 1940-1945 - German agents infiltration into Britain and Ireland
Operation Seeräuber : 1943 - Failed German landing on the island of Brac off the coast of Croatia, Yugoslavia
Operation Sho I : 1944 - Japanese attack of the American fleet off Leyte, Philippine Islands; part of Operation Sho-Go
Operation Sho II : 1944 - Japanese defense plan for Formosa and the Ryukyu Islands, Japan; part of Operation Sho-Go
Operation Sho III : 1944 - Japanese defense plan for Honshu, Japan; part of Operation Sho-Go
Operation Sho IV : 1944 - Japanese defense plan for Hokkaido, Japan; part of Operation Sho-Go
Operation Sho-Go : 1944 - Japanese defense plan against American advances toward Japan
Operation Siegfried : 1941 - German attack on Hiiumaa, an island off Estonia; part of Operation Beowulf II
Operation Siegfried : 1942 - German attack toward Stalingrad and the general Caucasus region in Southern Russia; part of Fall Blau
Operation Siegfried : 1943 - German plan to deploy Italian units to Southern France after Italian surrender
Operation Silberfuchs : 1941 - German attack on Murmansk, Russia; Anglicized as 'Silver Fox'
Operation Silberstreife : 1942 - Planned German operations against Allied convoys to Murmansk, Russia
Operation Sirio : 1942 - Italian convoy missions to Tripoli, Libya
Operation Sizilien : 1943 - German raid upon Allied occupied Spitzbergen Island, Svalbard Islands, Norway
Operation Skorpion : 1941 - Axis attack on the Halfaya Pass on the border of Libya and Egypt
Operation Skorpion : 1942 - German attack on Halfaya Pass, on the border of Libya and Egypt
Operation Sommernachtstraum : 1941 - Axis attack on British supply depots at Bir Khirreigat, Egypt
Operation Sonderaktion Krakau : 1939 - German operation to murder members of the intelligentsia at univerisites in Kraków, Poland
Operation Sonnenaufgang : 1944 - German attack on Allied units at Anzio, Ital
Operation Sonnenblume : 1940 - German response to British Operation Compass offensive in North Africa; deployment of the German Afrika Korps in North Africa
Operation Sonnenwende : 1945 - German attack of Russian troops in Choszczno, Pomerania, Germany
Operation Spark : 1940 - Planned German assassination against Adolf Hitler and coup d'état against the Nazi German government
Operation Sportpalast : 1942 - Fail German naval operation to attack Arctic convoys PQ-12 and QP-8
Operation Sportpalast : 1942 - German deployment of warships Prinz Eugen and Admiral Scheer to Norway
Operation Spätlese : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation north of Smolensk, Russia
Operation Stadthagen : 1940 - German attack on Stavanger, Norway; part of Operation Weserübung
Operation Stahl : 1940 - German commando operation to occupy a bridge near Veldwezelt, Belgium
Operation Steinadler : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Eastern Greece
Operation Steinbock : 1944 - German bombing of London and Southern England, Britain
Operation Steinschlag : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation near Otocac and Vrhovine in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Stella Polaris : 1944 - Transfer of Finnish intelligence records, equipment, and personnel to Sweden at the end of the Continuation War to avoid Soviet capture
Operation Stimmung : 1941 - German diversionary plan in support of Operation Beowulf II; part of Operation Nordwind
Operation Storch : 1944 - German flooding of parts of the Netherlands to hinder Allied advance; previously named Operation Heide
Operation Strafe : 1941 - German bombing of Belgrade, Yugoslavia; part of Operation 25
Operation Strafe : 1941 - Planned German invasion of Bulgaria
Operation Student : 1944 - German plan to restore Benito Mussolini's power in Italy
Operation Sturmflut : 1941 - German attack on Kasserine Pass, Tunisia
Operation Störfang : 1942 - German attack on Sevastopol, Ukraine
Operation Stösser : 1944 - German airborne drop behind Allied lines; part of Wacht am Rhein
Operation Sumpf : 1942 - German operation near Demyansk, south of Leningrad, Russia
Operation Sumpffieber : 1942 - German anti-partisan operation in Loknja, Ukraine
Operation Süd : 1944 - German deceptive operation at Nettuno, Italy
Operation Süd-Kroatien I : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Süd-Kroatien II : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Südwind : 1941 - German defense plan against a general uprising in occupied France
Operation Südwind : 1941 - German diversionary attack on the island of Saaremaa, Estonia in support of Operation Beowulf II
Operation Südwind : 1945 - German counter-offensive from Esztergom, Hungary
T
Operation T : 1942 - Japanese invasion of northern Sumatra
Operation Ta : 1943 - Japanese attack on Bougainville in the Solomon Islands
Operation Ta : 1944 - Japanese attack on American forces at Cape Torokina, Bougainville, Solomon Islands
Operation TA : 1944 - Japanese attacks in the Philippine Islands
Operation Taifun : 1941 - German offensive toward Moscow, Russia; part of Operation Barbarossa
Operation Take-Ichi : 1944 - Japanese convoys to the Doberai Peninsula in Western New Guinea
Operation Tan 2 : 1945 - Japanese special attack mission against the Allied anchorage at Ulithi, Caroline Islands
Operation Tanne Ost : 1944 - Failed German attempt to capture Suursaari Island, Finland in the Gulf of Finland
Operation Tanne West : 1944 - Planned German invasion of the Åland Islands in the Baltic Sea from Finland
Operation Tannenbaum : 1940 - Planned German invasion of Switzerland
Operation Tannenbaum : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the area between Bosanski Novi and Buzim in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Tannenberg : 1939 - German plan to exterminate Polish intelligentsia
Operation Tasumaki : 1944 - Planned Japanese attack on Bougainville, Solomon Islands
Operation Taube : 1940 - German mission to transport Irish Republican Army Chief of Staff Seán Russell from Germany to Ireland
Operation Taube : 1941 - German plan to support the Irish Republican Army in Ireland and Northern Ireland
Operation Taubenschlag : 1942 - Canceled German attack on Toropets, Russia
Operation Ten'ichi-Go : 1945 - Japanese naval attack against the American fleet off Okinawa, Japan; alternate name of Operation Ten-Go
Operation Ten-Go : 1945 - Japanese naval attack against the American fleet off Okinawa, Japan; alternate name of Operation Ten'ichi-Go
Operation Teslic I : 1943 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Theodor : 1943 - German convoy off Temryuk, Southern Russia in the Sea of Azov
Operation Theodora : 1940 - German intelligence gathering operation in North Africa
Operation Theseus : 1942 - Axis attack on the Allied forces in Cyrenaica, Libya and Egypt
Operation Tichwin : 1941 - German attack on Leningrad, Russia
Operation Tiger : 1940 - German attack on the northern portion of the Maginot Line; part of Fall Rot
Operation Tiger : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Greece
Operation Tintenfisch : 1942 - German seizure of Swiss exports
Operation To-Go : 1944 - Phase one of Japanese attack in Eastern China; part of Operation Ichi-Go
Operation Toni : 1943 - German convoy off Temryuk, Southern Russia in the Sea of Azov
Operation Trappenjagd : 1942 - German offensive in the Kerch Peninsula, Ukraine
Operation Trave : 1943 - German escort operations for blockade runners
Operation Travnik : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Treibjagd : 1944 - German anti-partisan operation in Yugoslavia
Operation Treuebruch : 1944 - German occupation of the Bulgarian-held Skopje region of Macedonia, Yugoslavia
Operation Trio : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in Bosnia and Croatia, Yugoslavia
Operation Trojanisches Pferd : 1940 - German operation to secure the bridge near Nijmegen in the Netherlands
Operation Trojanisches Pferd : 1944 - German occupation of Budapest, Hungary; part of Operation Margarethe I
Operation Trolist : 1944 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Zaistovec-Preseka region in the Independent State of Croatia
Operation Trondheim : 1940 - German movement across the Albert Canal against Fort Eben-Emael in Belgium
Operation Tuzla II : 1942 - Axis anti-partisan operation in the Independent State of Croatia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Operation 25 : 1941 - German invasion of YugoslaviaOperation 505 : 1943 - German anti-partisan operation in Tuzla, Bosnia, Yugoslavia A Operation A-Bewegung : 1939 - German preparation for the invasion of Poland; part of Fall WeissOperation A-Go : 1944 - Japanese attack of the American fleet off Saipan, Mariana

# data[].attributes.body
APUSH Review

# data[].attributes.headline
Containment, Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan

# data[].attributes.subject
Containment, Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan

# data[].attributes.body
APUSH Review

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
APUSH Review: Containment, The Truman Doctrine, and The Cold War

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A brief review of everything important about Containment, The Truman Doctrine, and The Marshall Plan that you need to know to succeed in APUSH. Please visit www.apushreview.com for more videos and resources.

# data[].attributes.body
PBS Newshour (10min)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How America moved on in the days after the Civil War

# data[].attributes.body
Khan Academy: 18th and 19th cent

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Japanese Imperialism | World History | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.body
Scroll to what you want to focus on with Am Revol, Nation Building, Federalists/Anti-Federalists, etc.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Native American Cultures (1491-1607) - (APUSH Period 1 / APUSH Chapter 1)

# data[].attributes.body
Richey APUSH segment

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Missouri Compromise of 1820 (APUSH Review - Period 4)

# data[].attributes.body
6 segments from Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Slavery and Missouri Compromise in early 1800s | US History | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.body
Khan Academy overview.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Holocaust  | World History | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.body
Khan. Segment does a great job in outlining how Hitler and Moose brought closer together in aiding Franco and Nationalists. Stalin aides the Republicans (Leftist Popular Front) and asks Fr/Brit/US to also aid (they don't

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Francisco Franco and the Spanish Civil War

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Francisco Franco and the Spanish Civil War

# data[].attributes.headline
The Complete History of the Second World War

# data[].attributes.subject
The Complete History of the Second World War

# data[].attributes.body
Part II

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Complete History of the Second World War | World War II Documentary | Part 2

# data[].attributes.headline
The War that Changed the Course of History

# data[].attributes.subject
The War that Changed the Course of History

# data[].attributes.body
The Great War.  Great source for Causes and Effects of WWI and addresses MAIN

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The War That Changed The Course of History | The First World War | WW1 Documentary

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
It was supposed to be the war to end all wars. This, of course, was not the case..... RIP to all those who died during WWI. ____________________________________________________________________ I would like to say a thank you to Tony Wilkins who helped hugely on this video. His knowledge and expertise in this fields is truly incredible.

# data[].attributes.body
David Lloyd George's impression of Adolf Hitler

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
After a trip to Germany in September 1936, David Lloyd George, who had been the prime minister of Britain during World War I, wrote an article titled "I Talked to Hitler" in the Daily Express newspaper. It appeared just six months after the Germans militarized the Rhineland and one month after the Olympics.

I have now seen the famous German Leader and also something of the great change he has effected.

Whatever one may think of his methods - and they are certainly not those of a parliamentary country - there can be no doubt that he has achieved a marvellous transformation in the spirit of the people, in their attitude towards each other, and in their social and economic outlook. . . .

There is for the first time since the war a general sense of security. The people are more cheerful. There is a greater sense of general gaiety of spirit throughout the land. It is a happier Germany. I saw it everywhere and Englishmen I met during my trip and who knew Germany well were very impressed with the change. . . .

As to his popularity, especially among the youth of Germany, there can be no manner of doubt. The old trust him; the young idolise him. It is not the admiration accorded to a popular Leader. It is the worship of a national hero who has saved his country from utter despondency and degradation. . . .

He is as immune from criticism as a king in a monarchical country. He is something more. He is the George Washington of Germany - the man who won for his country independence from all her oppressors. . . .

Hitler fought in the ranks throughout the war, and knows from personal experience what war means. . . .

It is now an avowed part of the Hitler policy to build up an army which will be strong enough to resist every invader from whatever quarter the attack may come. I believe he has already achieved that measure of immunity. . . .

There is no attempt to conceal these facts. Re-armament proceeds quite openly, and they vaunt it.

What does David Lloyd George admire about Hitler? Why does he call Hitler "the George Washington of Germany"? Would you agree?

How does the former British prime minister describe Hitler's achievements in Germany?

What facts must Lloyd George have either ignored or not known about in order to conclude, "There is a greater sense of general gaiety of spirit throughout the land. It is a happier Germany"? Whose perspectives does his conclusion leave out?

In this article, what is Lloyd George's tone? Does this article help to explain why Hitler was not, at this time, challenged by many European leaders? If so, how?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
After a trip to Germany in September 1936, David Lloyd George, who had been the prime minister of Britain during World War I, wrote an article titled "I Talked to Hitler" in the Daily Express newspaper. It appeared just six months after the Germans militarized the Rhineland and one month after the Olympics.

# data[].attributes.body
Facing History

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Between 1933 and 1935, Hitler focused on solidifying the Nazi Party's control of Germany and building support among its people. He also began to rebuild Germany's military, keeping it secret because he didn't know how the world would react to this apparent violation of the Versailles treaty of 1919 (see reading, Negotiating Peace in Chapter 3). By March 1935, however, it was no longer a secret, as Hitler publicly announced his intentions to rebuild the German air force, reinstate conscription (the draft), and rearm the nation. He assured other world leaders that these were not violations of the Treaty of Versailles but purely "defensive" measures. In a speech to the Reichstag, he said, "The principal effect of every war is to destroy the flower of the nation. Germany needs peace and desires peace." He promised that "the German government is ready to agree to any limitation which leads to the abolition of the heaviest arms, especially suited for aggression, such as the heaviest artillery and the heaviest tanks." And he warned, "Whoever lights the torch of war in Europe can wish for nothing but chaos."

The speech was praised both at home and abroad. The American journalist William L. Shirer, one of Hitler's earliest critics, recalled in his memoir many years later that he had "left the Reichstag that evening convinced that Hitler, despite all my reservations about him, really wanted peace and had made the West, at least, a serious offer." A German schoolteacher wrote in her diary that this was

the day that we have longed for since the disgrace of 1918. . . . We would never have experienced Versailles if such actions had always been taken, such answers always given . . . General conscription is to serve not war but the maintenance of peace. For a defenceless country in the midst of heavily armed people must necessarily be an invitation and encouragement to maltreat it as territory to march into or to plunder.

One year later, on March 7, 1936, German soldiers marched into the Rhineland as German fighter planes roared overhead. The Treaty of Versailles had set aside the Rhineland, a strip of land 31 miles wide, as a buffer zone between Germany and France. Although it was officially part of Germany, the nation was not allowed to fortify it or station troops there. Now Hitler had broken that agreement.

Most German generals had opposed the move into the Rhineland. They feared that the French would defeat their half-trained, inadequately equipped army within hours. But Hitler, always watching for reaction inside and outside of Germany, was convinced that neither France nor Britain would intervene. He was right. The French public was worried about entering into another war, and the French government feared that the German forces marching into the Rhineland were larger and stronger than they actually were. In England, the public was indifferent to the German occupation of the Rhineland, making it difficult for any British leaders who wanted to punish Germany to find support. Historian Richard Evans writes that from the perspective of the French and British, "What had happened, after all, was only a recovery of Germany's sovereignty over its own territory, and no one thought that was worth risking a general war."

Within Germany, members of the Nazi Party celebrated, while many others responded with cautious approval.

Some businessmen were admittedly pleased because they thought things would now improve for them. Most people indeed quietly approved of the remilitarization. Young people in particular were enthusiastic in some places. "It's our country, after all," declared one worker. "Why shouldn't we be allowed to have any military there?" But there were also widespread fears that the action would lead to war. Many active Nazis responded to them by pointing to Hitler's professions of pacific [peaceful] intent. Only a few boasted that they would welcome a war. People were proud of the recovery of national sovereignty, but at the same time, they were desperately worried about the dangers of a general war, about the prospect of mass bombing of German cities and about a repeat of the death and destruction of 1914-18.

In what ways did Hitler break the Treaty of Versailles? What might you expect the consequences to be? What were the actual consequences?

How did Hitler's actions attempt to reassert the power of Germany? How did he justify his actions? Why was the appearance of legality important to Hitler?

Why were so many European leaders reluctant to challenge Hitler's actions to rebuild Germany's military and occupy the Rhineland?

How did Germans respond to Hitler's plans for rearmament and remilitarization? Why would businesspeople be particularly pleased?

This reading includes quotations from four different reflections on Hitler's "actions": a diary, a memoir, a speech by Hitler, and a summary by a modern historian. How does each source help us to better understand a different aspect of the historical moment? What might be the limitations of each source?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Between 1933 and 1935, Hitler focused on solidifying the Nazi Party's control of Germany and building support among its people. He also began to rebuild Germany's military, keeping it secret because he didn't know how the world would react to this apparent violation of the Versailles treaty of 1919 (see reading, Negotiating Peace in Chapter 3).

# data[].attributes.headline
The Complete History of the Second World War

# data[].attributes.subject
The Complete History of the Second World War

# data[].attributes.body
Part I

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Complete History of the Second World War | World War II Documentary | Part 1

# data[].attributes.body
France's futile attempt after WWI to buy time in the event of a German attack, stretching from Belgium to nearly Switzerland.

# data[].attributes.body
Formula to follow

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Paper 1_  MTGW structure of the exam.pptx

# data[].attributes.body
Feb. 1920 Party Platform

# data[].attributes.body
quizlet

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
IB History: US Civil War Flashcards | Quizlet

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Start studying IB History: US Civil War. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools.

# data[].attributes.body
Accompanies notes

# data[].attributes.body
Khan

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Bay of Pigs Invasion | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.body
Khan

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Cuban Missile Crisis | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.body
Khan

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Vietnam War | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.body
Ted Ed

# data[].attributes.body
Ted Ed

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How did Hitler rise to power? - Alex Gendler and Anthony Hazard

# data[].attributes.body
Ted Ed

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The rise and fall of the Berlin Wall - Konrad H. Jarausch

# data[].attributes.body
Ted Ed (accurate and concise)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The history of the Cuban Missile Crisis - Matthew A. Jordan

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Quick APUSH Final Exam Review: Periods 6-9 (2016)

# data[].attributes.body
Civil War

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
American Pageant Chapter 16 APUSH Review

# data[].attributes.body
4 overview segments

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Fascism and Mussolini | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.body
Khan

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Fascism and Mussolini | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.body
BBC

# data[].attributes.body
BBC

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Stalin  Documentary on the Real Life and Reign of Joseph Stalin Full Documentary

# data[].attributes.body
AP US History segment

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
American Pageant Chapter 36 APUSH Review

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Review of American Pageant (Kennedy) Chapter 36, American History (Brinkley) Chapter 27, America's History (Henretta) Chapter 25-26. Download the notes: http://www.apushexplained.com/period-8-explained-1945-1980.html This video will help with the following U.S. History years: 1945-1952 Post World War II, Truman Administration, and the start of the Cold War. APUSH Redesign Period 8 http://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=...

# data[].attributes.body
Khan overview

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Korean War overview | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Communism | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.body
Khan

# data[].attributes.body
Dabs 2018

# data[].attributes.body
Overview of WWI from Khan

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Introduction to the Protestant Reformation: Setting the stage (part 1) | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
2nd sem IB His Spring Final 2018 - Google Slides.webm

# data[].attributes.body
Overview of WWII from Khan...solid and to the point!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Beginning of World War II | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.body
Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Initial rise of Hitler and the Nazis | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Cuban Missile Crisis - John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The John F. Kennedy library and museum Cuban Missile Crisis page. Access the Kennedy Library Digital Archives, which includes 300,000 scanned documents, films, and audio clips with materials such as early drafts of the John F. Kennedy inaugural address, Fidel Castro, Bay of Pigs, Missiles, Russia, Sviet Union, John f.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Castro and the Cold War | American Experience | PBS

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
For four decades, Castro purposely stood at the center of the dangerous game played for political pre-eminence in the developing world.

# data[].attributes.body
If you have to select ONE documentary to view before 5/9 P3 for Castro, it needs to be this one.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Cuban Revolution Explained: World History Review

# data[].attributes.body
To assist in Civil Rights review. Dabs recommends.

# data[].attributes.body
Start around 24min for a good recap of land reform. (wade through the propaganda USA all the way at the beginning...it really is decent)

# data[].attributes.body
Fantastic segment examining Austria and Serbia's role with the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Road to War (The End of an Empire) | Full Documentary | HDTV 2014 720p