# data[].attributes.body
In October of 1956 protests demanding a more democratic government, free of Soviet oppression, became rampant in Hungary. The people demanded the Soviet military leave Hungary, and that a free multi-party system be established. In response to this protest the Communist Party appointed Imre Nagy. He had previously criticized Stalin’s policies, now he ordered the Soviet troops to stand down. This was successful. However, following this he tried to abolish one-party rule, and attempted to leave the Warsaw Pact. On November 4th Nikita Khrushchev ordered soviet troops to invade Hungary and abolish the national government which had become independent. Nagy was executed, and the Soviets re-established their control, placing János Kádár in power. President Eisenhower made speeches of sympathy. However, no issue of aid was made. Despite previous declarations insinuating if a country needed help fighting communism the US would support them, nothing was given. Many Hungarians fled the country as the borders were closed, and the people were repressed.

# data[].attributes.body
The Congo prior to its independence in 1960 was a Belgian territory. Therefore, the establishment of a new government was required upon its liberation, and the US hoped that the West would be a guide for the Congo administration. Patrice Lumumba, was placed in power as the Prime Minister. However, his job was not easy as Belgian troops invaded the Congo in response to the murder of dozens of European Nationals from tribal groups who were vying for power. The purpose of the troops was to escort Belgian citizens out of the country, but they had entered without permission or warning. Therefore the Congo administration reported this to the UN, who sent in troops, and ordered the removal of the Belgian military. On top of this the Lumumba refused Western aid, but accepted advice and weaponry from the Soviets which concerned the US. He had also been leaning towards communism as he eliminated vying parties, by jailing their leaders. Both Joseph Kasavubu and John F. Kennedy knew that their respective countries had vast uranium reserves in the Congo which may be compromised if the other controlled the Congo administration. Therefore the US planned a coup, aiding the Belgians and Mobutu administration in overthrowing Lumumba. Following this he was promptly executed, and aid was given to Mobutu as they took power.

# data[].attributes.body
In 1954 the CIA intervened in the Guatemalan government, per the orders of President Eisenhower, leading a coup against Jacobo Arbenz, the elected President. The US claimed this was to thwart communism, as Arbenez was “soft” on it, and may be susceptible to Soviet influence. However, the main reason was because a US fruit company  had lost land due to the administration's attempts at land reform. Castillo Armas took power with US support and the United Food’s land was restored to them. However, his reign was one of terror as suspected communists were brutally executed, and labor unions were crushed. Armas was assassinated in ‘57, but Guatemala has since been in a series of governmental disarray as there were constant coups against the  government.

# data[].attributes.body
Somoza the leader of Nicaragua in 1956 swore to be an ally against communism. Ten years later a large earthquake in Nicaragua resulted in the  Nixon administration's aid, this solidified the US’s support of the Somoza administration. However, resistance groups such as the communist Sandinistas began to rise, and the Soviet Union backed them. The conservatives and middle class joined in with the lower class in support of the Sandinistas, after a major newspaper journalist was murdered by Somoza’s squadren. In ‘79 Carter began withdrawing support from the Somoza leadership as US citizens and legislators  began  protesting Somoza’s dictatorship. Therefore the US began supporting the Contras, a guerilla group, in order to maintain conflict with the comunist rebels. However, their immoral actions resulted in a signing of the Boland amendment, withdrawing US support, while the Sandinistas took power. The Regan administration, despite the Boland amendment, continued secretly providing arms for the contras to fight against the Sandinistas. Therefore tens of thousands were killed, as the US and USSR used the Contras and Sandinistas respectively to fight their battle of democracy vs. communism, in Nicaragua.

# data[].attributes.body
During the period of détente there was a coup against the Portuguese government in which a new government was put in place. Three organizations in Angola requested the country's independence from Portugal, which was granted. The three liberation organizations the MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA formed a government in which they all played a part. However, this soon led to civil war in which the US backed the FNLA & UNITA with weapons while Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev (the Soviet Union) supported the MPLA with arms. The MPLA quickly regained power, and the FNLA & UNITA failed in their  attempts to overthrow them. Fidel Castro came to the aid of the MPLA, so the other two groups were forced to withdraw.  Due to this loss of power, the  Ford’s administration was heavily judged, and his request for further Angolan assistance denied. This event was also a discouragement to the American people of the potential success of détente.

# data[].attributes.body
Both the US and the USSR wanted to gain control of Afghanistan. At first they sought to do this by means of investment and infrastructure. However with the overthrow of King Zahir by the former Prime Minister Mohammed Daoud in 1973, who declared allyship with the USSR military, military control of Afghanistan became the desire. With the Saur Revolution and overthrow of Daoud Khan the US began backing resistance groups to the new marxist government, and an agreement with the Soviet military and Afghan government was signed to ensure military backing in case the mujahidin got out of control. This ultimately resulted in the USSR invasion of Afghanistan in December of 1979. The mujahidin, insurgents, used guerilla tactics with US guns, and US anti-aircraft missiles to resist the USSR invasion and Carter withdrew the Salt II treaty. The USSR began to withdraw, and the soviet leader Gorbachev left office by 1988. This invasion marked the end of détente.

# data[].attributes.body
After WWII, Algeria had been a part of France. However, in 1963 Algeria gained independence with the support of President John F. Kennedy. After becoming independent, the national liberation front founded the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic (GPRA), which was mainly nationalist. Separate from the government and the independence movement was the Algerian Communist Party, which had some—but not all—goals in common with the independence movement. However, they were viewed as working “outside” or even “counter to” the revolution. Algeria at the time was mainly focused on gaining recognition as an independent state from other countries, regardless of their Cold War. This included appealing to the United Nations and establishing a “working relationship” with the United States. However, they also sought to gain support from the Communist Bloc and can be considered part of the Soviet camp. One meeting  occurred in Cuba in 1961 between GPRA envoys and communist leaders Fidel Castro and Che Guevara.

# data[].attributes.body
Between 1975 and 1979, the communist Khmer Rouge regime ruled Cambodia, leading to the Cambodian Genocide, in which upwards of 2 million people were killed. The Khmer Rouge began by taking over the capital city of Phnom Penh in 1975 and deposing the prime minister Lon Nol, who had been receiving covert support from Richard Nixon. The Khmer Rouge’s brutal leader, Pol Pot, aimed to create a Marxist, secular, “agrarian utopia.” He executed many Cambodians who had ties to the previous government, as well as intellectuals and Buddhist leaders. The Khmer Rouge also abolished private property and relocated much of the country’s urban population to the rural countryside, where they were placed on farming communes. Many died due to overwork, famine, and disease. The Khmer Rouge regime finally ended in 1979, when Soviet-backed North Vietnamese forces swept in and overthrew Pol Pot. Though the Vietnamese ended the brutality of Pol Pot, they continued to occupy Cambodia for the next decade, leading to resentment from the Cambodian people. In this way, the Vietnamese took on a similar role in Cambodia as the the US had taken on in the Vietnam war. After the Khmer Rouge, Cambodia established a constitutional monarchy.

# data[].attributes.body
The White Revolution comprised a series of economic and social reforms implemented under the Iranian Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, between 1963 and 1979. Due to Iran’s abundant oil reserves and strategic location, both the Soviet Union and the United States wanted to form a strong relationship with Iran. Under the Shah, the reforms led to modernization, westernization, and closer ties with the U.S.. The Shah relied heavily on U.S. support during this time, and the U.S. sought to keep communist influence out of Iran. This occurred under ​​President Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon, Ford, and Carter. During this time period, the U.S. provided the Shah with weaponry in order to bolster his military power. The White Revolution reforms led to improvements in per-capita income, infrastructure, literacy, women’s rights, and economic growth. One major tenet of the new policies was land distribution, which was somewhat successful. When the Shah was overthrown in the Islamic Revolution of 1979, this soured the country’s relationship with the United States. Though the US lost their power over Iran, the Soviets also failed to gain a foothold despite their invasion of neighboring Afghanistan in 1979.

# data[].attributes.body
The Vietnam War occurred simultaneously with much of the Cold War and can be considered a “proxy war,” or an indirect conflict between the U.S. and the USSR. The war was between North and South Vietnam, with the North advocating for a communist state similar to that of China and the Soviet Union and the South backed by the U.S.. The North—known as the Viet Minh or the Democratic Republic of Vietnam—was led by Ho Chi Minh, while the South was led by the French and US-backed Emperor Bao. The war resulted in millions of casualties, many of them Vietnamese civilians. The war escalated the Cold War conflict because the U.S. mainly got involved to stop the spread of communism in Southeast Asia, thereby weakening the Soviet Union (based on the ideology developed  by diplomat George Kennan). U.S. involvement in the war began under Truman,  and then the conflict continued under Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon. The war was very unpopular in the U.S. and the draft was met with resistance, especially among young Americans. In 1973, President Nixon signed the Paris Peace Accords, and ended U.S. involvement. North Vietnamese forces took over the city of Saigon.

# data[].attributes.body
The Non-Alignment Movement emerged in 1961, led by Ghana’s president Kwame Nkrumah, along with several other world leaders such as Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Jawaharlal Nehru of India, and Sukarno of Indonesia. The movement spanned over 100 countries that were considered developing countries. The goal of the movement was to avoid allying with either side of the Cold War (the U.S. or the Soviet Union) and instead focus on resisting colonialism and imperialism and empowering developing nations. The movement was partially founded as a result of post-World War II decolonization, and many of the countries involved were African and Asian. The movement continues to meet in the modern day and now focuses on addressing economic inequity, representation, and international cooperation.

# data[].attributes.body
The Solidarity Movement in Poland advocated for civil rights and workers rights against an authoritarian government and ultimately led to the decline of Communism in Poland, which had been a satellite state of the Soviet Union at the time. It was founded in 1980, and its origins are in a workers’ strike at the Lenin Shipyards. The goal of the strike and later the movement was to protect workers rights like the right to legal and medical aid and freedom of expression. The movement was widespread with roughly 10 million Polish workers. However, the Soviet Union urged the Polish government to suppress the movement. Finally, in 1989, the government legally recognized the movement, and the Solidarity Movement won many of the elections.

Leaders in power: USSR - Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Andropov, Konstantin Chernenko, Mikhail Gorbachev

# data[].attributes.body
The guerrilla movement was kept alive by Cold War politics 10 years longer since its loss of power in 1979. They were overthrown by the invading Vietnam army in 1979, but the Khmer Rouge kept Cambodia's seat in the United Nations. China, who was sided with the Khmer Rouge, retaliated against the Vietnamese by invading them for a brief time. The U.S. and other democratic countries sided with the Khmer Rouge and its ‘anti-communist policies’. While the U.N. has denied any claim of them helping the Khmer Rouge, it is thought that they did intervene. This ramped up the cold war as it caused infighting and Civil War in Cambodia for almost a decade until the Cold War ended.

# data[].attributes.body
Agrarian reform was a construct of the Cold War to counter communist land reform. Its policy urged governments to redistribute land and wealth, as well as support other rural development measures, such as the improvement of farming. This was mostly positive, but the danger with this was that it may discourage governments from doing anything until they can do everything.

# data[].attributes.body
JUNE 1950-JULY 1953
Escalation: Considered a proxy war, the Korean War (between South and North Korea) was officially entered by the US on June 27, 1950 when President Harry Truman announced his support for the Southern side of Korea, and lasted until the 27th of July 1953 when the US-led troops were pushed back and an armistice was called. This was an escalation of the Cold War tensions, as it put the Southern/US side versus the Northern/USSR side and was caused by an invasion of the North across the border. It was seen as an ideological attack as well: the United States feared that it was a communist movement intended to spread across the world.

Leaders: US President Truman and USSR Joseph Stalin

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
During the opening ceremonies in Moscow, the hammer and sickle symbol and a face of Lenin were displayed (https://tinyurl.com/yyun2pje)

# data[].attributes.body
U.S. President Jimmy Carter pushed for the U.S. to boycott the Olympics that were being held in the Soviet Union after Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan in December 1979. The Cold War made for decades of tense Olympic battles between the United States and the Soviet Union. The amount of tension between the countries caused the olympics to hold rivalries that went just beyond sport competition, and went further beyond into a war between countries at the olympic games. These games caused the cold war to escalate, and the U.S. boycotting also affected the matter.

# data[].attributes.body
The Cold War intensified the Horn of Africa’s zero-sum brand of ethnic politics from 1977-1985, and the end of the Cold War in Africa ended led to their collapse in 1991. The ethnic cleansing that took place in Ethiopia also made the cold war much worse, and caused a famine and rebellion.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Photo of the Soviet's invasion in Prague on August 21, 1968. (https://www.britannica.com/event/Prague-Spring#/media/1/473793/115497) 

# data[].attributes.body
Escalation (but smaller than others): Czechoslovakia, which was a young nation in control of the Soviet Union, started to resist unfavorable policies and the local communist forces took power (1948). In 1968, the government outlined a plan for socialism (which they called “socialism with a human face”) which emphasized democracy and individual freedoms. The Soviet Union threatened a military occupation, but the government continued forward. When the Soviet military arrived, they were met by protesting civilians. However, Prague Spring didn’t last: the government was dismantled and was “normalized.”  The UN disapproved of the Soviet’s decision, but the US reaction was much smaller as the country was focused on the Vietnam War and avoiding worsening relations.

Leaders: Dubcek replaced by Gustav Husak (Czechoslovakia), Leonid Brezhnev (USSR), Lyndon B. Johnson (US)

# data[].attributes.body
The Pakistani-American alliance in 1954 was a disaster. It was made to secure the defense perimeter in the Middle East, and the alliance increased Indo-Pakistani hostility, undermined regional stability, and led India to seek closer ties with the Soviet Union. The U.S. president at the time was Dwight D. Eisenhower, and this caused the cold war to ramp up more than it helped. This had a negative effect on the cold war.

# data[].attributes.body
De-escalate: Yugoslavia was also a communist-led state during the Cold War, but it was separate from the Soviet Union starting in 1948. Its form of communism was less centralized than the Soviet Union’s—an important quality that helped de-escalate Cold War tensions, as it served as an independent “buffer” of political ideology. However, inner tensions caused Yugoslavia to weaken, and the government shifted towards a less communist, more free-market government. The US became less interested in becoming involved with Yugoslavia as it became more “democratized,” especially during the 1990s.

Leaders: Nikita Khruschev (USSR), Josip Broz Tito (the communist leader who unified Yugoslavia), George H. W. Bush (1990s)

# data[].attributes.body
The country was recovering slowly after the overthrow of Pres. Sukarno which followed an attempted Communist overthrow on Sep. 30 & Oct. 1, 1965. The attempt by communist parties to overthrow the government escalated the cold war significantly. This was because the cooperation of the Indonesians with the Soviets impacted the relationship between Indonesia and the West. It has also led to the downfall of Indonesia during that time as mass killings took place, and unemployment rates skyrocketed.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
CIA image of a map showing the range of the nuclear missiles (16th of October, 1962, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cuban_crisis_map_missile_range.jpg)

# data[].attributes.body
OCTOBER 1962:

Escalation then de-escalation: The Soviet Union, given its ties with Cuba, placed nuclear-armed missiles on the coast of Cuba. Both sides were afraid of nuclear war; in the Soviet Union’s case, placing missiles in Cuba was an attempt to increase the “nuclear strike capability,” or their ability to actually hit the United States, due to their fear of the nuclear weapons pointed at them in Turkey and Western Europe. This escalated the Cold War to one of the tensest moments, until thirteen days later when they agreed to pull missiles out of Cuba, and the US would retreat their own Turkey missiles. Khruschev was disgraced after this disaster and was removed from the Kremlin, while JFK pushed for a nuclear test ban treaty. The fall-out was an overall de-escalation, as it ended the conflict civilly and peacefully and led to future relations, such as a Moscow-Washington “hot-line” in 1963.

Leaders: Nikita Khrushchev (USSR) and John F. Kennedy

# data[].attributes.body
1953-1959
Escalation: The Cuban Revolution was an armed uprising led by Fidel Castro against Fulgencio Batista. The international media was pro-revolutionary after Batista called for military action against them in 1958, and the US withdrew their support for Batista (even though they previously backed him for his anti-communist ideas). The US was one of the first to recognize Castros’ government, but their relationship soured when Castro implemented a communist government and became tied to the USSR. The US broke off diplomatic relations in 1961. The USSR forged relations with a newly Communist state and gained an ally in a location close to the United States.

Leaders: Nikita Khrushchev (USSR) and Eisenhower

# data[].attributes.location_name
Gagarin's Start, Korolev Avenue, Baikonur, Kazakhstan

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
photo of the rocket launching into space, from a 1967 documentary called "Ten Years of the Space Age" (https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna21134276) 

# data[].attributes.body
Gagarin's Start, Korolev Avenue, Baikonur, Kazakhstan
OCTOBER 4, 1957
LEADERS: Nikita Khrushchev and Dwight Eisenhower

Launching on October 4th, 1957, the Sputnik Launch caused a wave of fear in the Americans. Both the timing and size of the Soviet satellite exceeded the US’s plans, insinuating that they were more technologically advanced and that the Americans were falling behind. Wanting to catch up, the Space Race, the competition between the Soviet Union and the United States began, augmenting the Cold War tensions. This led to technological advancements in the Soviet Union, giving it global recognition and prestige. It also inspired JFK’s New Frontier ideas, such as landing a man on the moon.