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Incidental and without awareness.
Indicators (Williams, 2009)

Influences behavior: Response and sensitivity to competition model.
Automacity: Fluent Language processing. Metalinguistic

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Made by explanation through an instructor or a text book. Language explained into words

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Clahsen, H., & Felser, C. (2018). SOME NOTES ON THE SHALLOW STRUCTURE HYPOTHESIS. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(3), 693-706. doi:10.1017/S0272263117000250

Mitchell, R., Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2019). Second Language Learning Theories: Fourth Edition (4th ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315617046. Chapters 4 and 5.

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The role of WM in preventing learners from being distracted. It increases with the age.

WM capacity can be trained controlling the allocation of attention. but not the storage components.

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WM is the bottle neck which sifts representations of information and feeds long-term memory

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Responsible for attentional capacity and it's accessible to conscious awareness

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Encodes, separates and rehearses phonological and visual-spatial information.

Phonological memory
Visuo-spatial sketchpad

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Mechanisms involved in temporary storage, manipulation and maintenance of task-relevant information during cognitive operations including comprehension, production and general learning.

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Poor performance is due to a single capacity limitation.

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Humans have different attentional resources: percieving vs responding: vebal coding vs spatial coding. Poor performance is due to interfeerence between those resources.

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Noticing: voluntary of involuntary focusing on stimulus of occurrence. It is the necessary and sufficient condition for the conversion of input to understand and learn.

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Autonomous, automatic or production:

Automatization through practice to reduce error rate,  attention required and interference of other tasks. Many skills can be involved simultaneously beginning from the simplest to the most complex.

Power law: A decrease in improvement during automatization stage. It doesn't get transferred from comprehension to production, or between different skills.

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Associative, procedural or practice

Performance of the skill through repetition which quickly reduces burden to working memory by chinking information.
At this stage knowledge is prone to restructuring.

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Cognitive, declarative or presentation: New explicit knowledge represented in abstract descriptions and concrete exemplars (Temporarily active in working memory).

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Refers to descriptions of language which can be put into words. This is measured by learner's ability to correct, describe and explain errors. R. Ellis argues metalinguistic knowledge involves both implicit (guess and intuition) and explicit knowledge (memory and rule) . It may vary between individuals, interrelating working memory.

Roles

First notice or register a new language element.
Parse input into parts of speech , particularly for complex rules.
Narrow learner's hypothesis space
Formulate correct output.
Call on existing knowledge if necessary to reanalyze the input.

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Lexical items are stored in the declarative memory for both L1 and L2 (which is not prone to age effects).
Implicit vocabulary learning is also possible
Human life stages influence the way they process grammar.

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Non-native language processing relies primarily on semantic, and not syntactic, information, and second language (L2) processing is therefore necessarily less sensitive to syntactic constraints than native language (L1) processing.

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Implicit Knowledge

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Explicit or conscious knowledge

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Success in the development of acquisition as computational routines compete with other cognitive functions.

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The glue that holds a sentence together to create a meaningful proposition.

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An increased burden is caused by having to hold on to information before its co-dependency with other elements of the sentence can be properly computed.

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Key properties of a language's syntax reflect a neurophysiologically motivated drive for efficiency in the interest of minimizing the burden of working memory.

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Structures only become learnable when the previous steps on this acquisitional path have been acquired.

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The beginning and end of stimuli are easier to remember and therefore to manipulate. To move elements from inside the sentence to the outside, then from outside to inside.

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Feature Unification: Exchange grammatical information across elements of a sentence: Identification of grammatical information. Temporary storage. Utilization.

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Procedural skills required for processing the formal properties of second languages.

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Grammatical rules and other formal aspects of language emerge from language use and experience, rather than beign innate, or learned as abstract structures.

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Includes aspects such as:

Frequency: Input frequency
Salience: Words which are easy to remember or associate. Some structures are easier or more difficult to acquire depending on learner's L1.
Redundancy: Level of relevance to convey meaning in context.

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Competition Model: Discovery of a particular form-function relationship in the language system. Spotting mistakes in a structure. In some researches it's been demonstrated that L1 sometimes influences L2 cue strength.

MacWhinney, 2008 says learning accounts on social interaction and input. Thus, the student will be able to detect accurately the cues and also avoid over-generalization when it comes to express different meanings.

Humans have innate abilities to pick-out clues and calculate statistical probabilities without awareness. Thus, learning can be viewed as an statistical process.

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Construction-based: Learning and recycling constructions. Lexical items associated with a particular discourse, semantic or pragmatic function. Such as "once upon a time", or collocations with the verb "to give".

Rational: Language representations in the mind influenced by frequency and recency of occurrence that are "tuned" to predict the linguistic constructions relevant in a discourse.

Exemplar-driven: Abstraction of regularities from patterns in certain constructions.

Emergent: Determination of structures from language usage.

Dialectic: Social interaction which helps mitigate L2 learning problems.

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Overshadowing and attention blocking: When a word in a sentence conveys a meaning but a main morphological part of the sentence is neglected. The meaning is conveyed but only partially. Overshadowing can lead to attention blocking. This can happen especially with verbs and adverbs.

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Connectionist models simulate how links between information are strengthened or weakened through repeated activation or non-activation. Once there's new information coming in, the system makes an output prediction. Depending on the correct or incorrect predictions the system weights itself and these will become more accurate through input frequency.

Although there are plenty of criticism on this theory especially because comparing human brain with a computer system might present inaccuracies or divergencies on information processing.

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Meaning maps (abstract and concrete) which become schematized overtime in user's minds through frequency or prototypicality

According to a research made by Ellis and Ferreira-Junior (2009), they found certain expression preferred by learners especially of high-frequency verbs such as go, put, and give provided the learners with a prototypical exemplar for each particular construction and acted as an entry point to learning it. This theory though didn't help Asian languages speakers with certain constructions

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Meaning-connections to be made during processing increasingly complex language.
Established prototypical constructions. Tallying of occurrences input. Sentences which are easy to understand become redundant.