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Introduction to Linguistics: Phonetics and Phonology

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Introduction to Linguistics: Phonetics and Phonology

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This article presents Phonetics in a basic way for students who are starting their linguistic studies. Rusdi Noor Rosa talks about basic phonetic concepts, vocal tracts, phonology, phonemes and also brings some exercises and reading instructions about the subject. It is a good read to be introduced to phonetics and phonology, especially as it has drawings of the vocal tracts, making it easy to visualize and understand the vocal cords, throat, larynx movements, etc.

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The phonetic alphabet is a simple way to write sounds and is present in dictionaries to help us to know how to pronounce an especific word that we are looking for. Anna uses this video to introduce the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) and its basic sounds.

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Learn Phonetics - International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

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The image is intended to facilitate the student's visualization of the International Phonetic Alphabet including vowels, consonants and diphthongs.

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Here is a basic game to test your phonetic knowledge about vowels after reading Rusdi Noor Rosa's article and watching the video about the International Phonetic Alphabet.

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"Diphthong" literally means "having two sounds" in Greek.  It come into play whenever a vowel makes a new and different sound, usually because it is working together with another vowel. This videos shows all the 8 diphthongs, including their phonetic transcription and pronunciation.

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DIPHTHONGS Learn how pronounce them properly in English 😱

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Diphthongs | Traditional Long Vowels | Quizz

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Diphthongs | Traditional Long Vowels | Quizz

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This website explains what diphthongs are and introduces traditional long vowels. It also contains a quiz at the end of the reading to put into practice what was learned from the video on diphthongs and the reading on the website.

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What is a diphthong?

A diphthong is a single-syllable vowel sound in which the beginning of the sound is different from the end sound-that is, the sound glides from one vowel sound to another. For this reason, diphthongs are often referred to as gliding vowels. A "pure" vowel sound that doesn't glide is known as a monophthong. It's also possible (though less common) to have a single syllable that glides between three vowel sounds; this is known as a triphthong, which we'll look at in another section.

There are eight vowel sounds in American English that are generally agreed upon as being diphthongs. We already encountered four of these when we looked at "traditional" long vowels (vowel sounds that are pronounced the same way as the names of the letters), but there are also a few others that occur. Let's start by reviewing the diphthongs that make up the traditional long vowels, and then we'll move on to the rest.

Traditional long vowels

With the exception of long E (/i/), all of the traditional long vowel sounds are diphthongs. These most predictably occur when the vowel letter is followed by a single consonant and a silent "e":

(*Note that the traditional transcription for long U is /juː/. The triangular colon [ ː ] represents the elongation of the vowel sound. However, in most American dictionaries, this colon is omitted because the elongation of /ju/ is implied. This guide follows the convention of omitting the triangular colon so that the IPA pronunciations match what would be found in an American dictionary.)

The silent "e" rule is not the only instance when these long-vowel diphthongs occur. For more information on when a vowel creates the traditional long sound, go to the section overview on Vowels.

Other diphthongs

In addition to the four diphthongs listed above, there are two other diphthongs that regularly occur in American English pronunciation. There are also two others that are sometimes articulated (but aren't always included in IPA transcriptions).

Below, we'll look at each diphthong individually, listing common vowel digraphs that form the sound, along with example words and their full IPA pronunciations.

This diphthong is pronounced "au-ee"-it begins with the /ɔ/ sound (as in daw n or doo r) and glides to the /ɪ/ sound (as in pi t). It generally only occurs with the vowel combinations " OY" and " OI."

/aʊ/

Finally, some words that are spelled with " OW " can be pronounced either way, which alters the meaning of the word altogether. Let's look at some common examples:

"R-Colored" Diphthongs

There are two other diphthongs that sometimes occur in American English: /ɪə/ and /ɛə/. These can be found in certain instances where a vowel sound is followed by an "r." However, it is very common in General American pronunciations to omit the schwa sound before the "r" in /ɪər/ and /ɛər/, and the standard transcription in (most) American dictionaries is often simply /ɪr/ or /ɛr/, respectively. While the IPA transcriptions used in this guide generally favor the trends of American dictionaries (and do not include the schwas as a result), we'll have a quick look below at when they might occur.

/ɪə/

When this diphthong is articulated, it is pronounced "ih-uh," quickly gliding from the short I sound /ɪ/ (as in ti p) to an unstressed schwa (/ə/). It usually occurs with the digraphs " EE," " EA," and " IE " when they are followed by an "R."

(*Note that "-ier" is often used to create the comparative form of adjectives that end in "y," as in happier, fussier, busier, etc. In this case, "-ier" is pronounced "ee-er," and its IPA notation is /iər/. This is not a diphthong, however, because it is stressed as two separate syllables.)

/ɛə/

When this diphthong is articulated, it is pronounced "eh-uh," quickly gliding from the short " E" sound /ɛ/ (as in se t) to an unstressed schwa (/ə/). (In some dialects, the " E" sound sometimes raises up slightly to sound more like "ei"; for this reason, some dictionaries transcribe the diphthong as /eə/ instead.)

This diphthong usually occurs with the letter combinations " ARE" and " AIR," but be careful: it also sometimes occurs with " EAR," which is often pronounced /ɪər/. All of the root " EAR " words that have the /ɛər/ pronunciation are listed below.

*The most notable exception to this rule is the short word are, which is pronounced "ahr" (/ɑr/).

It's also important to note that verbs ending in ARE keep this pronunciation even when they are made into a gerund or present participle, in which case the final "e" is replaced with "-ing." For example:

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A diphthong is a single-syllable vowel sound in which the beginning of the sound is different from the end sound-that is, the sound glides from one vowel sound to another. For this reason, diphthongs are often referred to as gliding vowels. A "pure" vowel sound that doesn't glide is known as a monophthong.

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Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy wrote this article to introduce English Morphology. McCarthy explains it in a simple way so people who don't have much knowledge about morphology can understand. He explains the various ways in which words are related to one another, and shows how the history of the English language has affected word structure. Topics include: words, sentences and dictionaries; a word and its parts (roots and affixes); a word and its forms (inflection); a word and its relatives (derivation); compound words; word structure; productivity; and the historical sources of English word formation. Requiring no prior linguistic training, this textbook is suitable for undergraduate students of English - literature or language - and provides a sound basis for further linguistic study.

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This file is a short and plainspoken explanation of morphology covering: words, types of morphemes, inflectional and derivational English, compouding, classification, etc. It also contains simple exercises to put the acquired knowledge into practice.

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Morphology is the study of words and their parts. Morphemes, like prefixes, suffixes and base words, are defined as the smallest meaningful units of meaning. This video class explains morphology in a simple way with the theme: What is a word?

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Morphology Quizz to practice all you have learned!

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Short and clear definition of syntax.

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This website introduces the Syntax topic in a very direct way, which is easier for begginers. It talks about open class words, closed class words, subcategorization, structure rules and passive sentences.

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Syntax refers to word order and depends on lexical categories (parts of speech.) You probably learned that there are eight main parts of speech in grammar school. Linguistics takes a different approach to these categories and separates words into morphological and syntactic groups. Linguistics analyzes words according to their affixes and the words that follow or precede them. Hopefully, the following definitions of the parts of speech will make more sense and be more useful than the old definitions of grammar school books.
Open Class Words Closed Class Words
Subcategorization defines the restrictions on which syntactic categories (parts of speech) can or cannot occur within a lexical item. These additional specifications of words are included in our mental lexicon. Verbs are the most common categories that are subcategorized. Verbs can either be transitive or intransitive. Transitive verbs take a direct object, while intransitive verbs take an indirect object (usually they need a preposition before the noun).

Transitive verb: to eat

I ate a pear. (direct object)

Intransitive: to sit

I was sitting on the chair. (indirect object)

Individual nouns can also be subcategorized. For example, the noun idea can be followed by a Prepositional Phrase or that and a sentence. But the noun compassion can only be followed by a Prepositional Phrase and not a sentence. (Ungrammatical sentences are marked with asterisks.)

the idea of world peace

his compassion for the poor

the idea that world peace is necessary

*his compassion that the poor are hungry

Phrase structure rules describe how phrases are formed and in what order. These rules define the following for English:

The parentheses indicate the categories are optional. Verbs don't always have to be followed by prepositional phrases and nouns don't always have to be preceded by adjectives in English. (These rules only apply to English - other languages have different phrase structure rules!)

Passive Sentences
In order to change an active sentence into a passive one, the object of the active must become the subject of the passive. The verb in the passive sentence becomes a form of "be" plus the participle form of the main verb. The subject of the active becomes the object of the passive preceded by the word "by."

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Syntax refers to word order and depends on lexical categories (parts of speech.) You probably learned that there are eight main parts of speech in grammar school. Linguistics takes a different approach to these categories and separates words into morphological and syntactic groups.

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An Introduction to Syntactic Analysis and Theory

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An Introduction to Syntactic Analysis and Theory

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This article goes deeper into the subject. It has explanations of morphology, syntactic analysis, clauses, example sentences, and some theories. It is not an accessible file to everyone, it is more suitable for those who already have basic knowledge on the subject.

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What is Syntax in Linguistics? - Definition and Overview

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What is Syntax in Linguistics? - Definition and Overview

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This video talks about English and sentence structure. It explains a little about the harder Syntax subjects, but it faces more the basic part.

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Syntactic Analysis exercises to practice everything you have learned.

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The Portuguese Language - A Brief Introduction

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The Portuguese Language - A Brief Introduction

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This video brings the importance of the Portuguese language and is also an introduction to its history. Most of people do not consider Portuguese as a significant language, but it is the second most spoken romance language right after Spanish, and it is the only official language spoken in 8 countries.

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The Portuguese Language and What Makes it Intriguing

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This video shows us the difference between the romance languages. It is a very cool and simple way to understand how each of the languages sound to a non-Portuguese speaker.

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This file is from a Cambridge book called "Portuguese - A Linguistic Introduction" by Milton M. Azevedo. The author gives us a thorough analysis about the history of the Portuguese language. He brings topics such as:

- The Growth of Portuguese
- The Formation and Expansion of Portuguese
- Portuguese Pidgins and Creoles
- The Spread of Portuguese
- Immigrant Communities
- Portuguese in Brazil
- Varieties of Portuguese

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This article presents the influence of African, Amerindian and Portuguese people in shaping and spreading the Portuguese language in Brazil.