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Of the four philosophers studied, it seems that the eldest, Confucius, is at odds with American education more than the rest. .

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"Confucius's method of instruction was informal and largely conversational" (Gutek, p. 22). Confucius was not a supporter of direct instruction. This is one area which, philosophically, America is attempting to align with him in. In reality, however, it would be difficult to find a classroom where learning is conversational.

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While it is easy to point out the lack of morality in the American political landscape, it is difficult for educators and parents to claim responsibility. Confucius believed that moral/ethical education is the primary purpose of schooling (Gutek, p. 15-16). There are very few schools in America, however, which have classes dedicated to ethics or basic character development.

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"Confucius designed a curriculum that emphasized literature, poetry, music, the study of rites and ceremonies, and the practice of civility" (Gutek, p. 23). While the study of literature is considered a core subject in the American system of education, the other subjects are either electives or not even offered.

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While Dr. Gutek did not provide much detail about Socrates, there was enough to allow a prudent reader to notice that, again, American ideals live up to his style of teaching but do not follow them in reality. "The teacher's task, Socrates said, was to ask stimulating and challenging questions that caused the student to think critically, deeply, and reflectively" (Gutek, p. 35). Socrates was another philosopher who was not fond of direct instruction. If you walk into any normal, American classroom, however, you will find an abundance of direct instruction. We are trending in a more Socratic direction, however.

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Plato's search for truth is not in direct conflict with the current educational system of America, but our system is definitely not what he was idealistically imagining.

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The purpose of education in this country (and many others), at its foundational core, is to produce high functioning citizens who can make appropriate political and social decisions based on at least a little bit of formal schooling. That is an admittedly ambiguous goal. But this classical idea comes from Plato’s idealistic view declared in his Republic (Gutek, p. 41). He believed that there should be a relationship between political institutions, the responsibilities of citizens, and the educational system, which should “prepare one to fulfill the requirements of citizenship” (p.41). There are few people, if pressed, who would disagree with this general purpose of education. Its specific implementation is where much of divergence occurs.

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Plato was hyper-focused on discovering "truth." To him, this search was of paramount importance in education (Gutek, p. 38). He believed that there is an image associated with everything and that it is our job to penetrate that image and uncover the truth behind it (ibid). I have consistently heard in classrooms that it is not truth which is important, but what we can prove. On the surface, we say that our practice of writing argumentative essays and debating is for the purpose of determining ultimate truth, teachers rarely seem more interested in truth than they are in the validity of their pupil's argument. In theory, we are Plato's disciples. But in reality, we are sophists (p. 38).

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One of the motivating factors which spurred Plato's ideas was this modern idea of the "conflict theory." Class struggle has always been an issue, and Plato was one of the first to attempt to promote equality through education (Gutek, p. 38). During his time, the sophists controlled education and all of the important societal processes, but Plato fought against the idea that they were correct simply because they had money and influence (ibid). In today's educational system, we hear almost on a daily basis how socioeconomic status should not decide anything about a person's importance or educational potential. In this way, we adhere quite closely to Plato's beliefs.

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One of the chief proponents of liberal education, Aristotle is credited as the primary foundational figure of Western education.

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As opposed to vocational and technical education, Aristotle was one of the first to push for learning simply for the sake of self-improvement (Gutek, p. 59). He is one of the primary reasons that we study subjects such as philosophy, mathematics, and literature. These topics do not necessarily apply directly to a job, but they help to maximize the "rational potential" that is inherent to all of us, according to Socrates (p. 58). In this manner, our current educational philosophy does not fit with his, it relies on it!

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In the United States, schooling is mandatory until the age of 18. Aristotle challenged the Greek paradigm of voluntary/private schooling by proposing that schooling should be compulsory and "supervised by state authorities" (Gutek, p. 58). Again, these ideals are perfectly embodied in the U.S. Not only is education mandatory, but it is absolutely controlled by state authorities, to the point where teachers are required to pass a series of tests to become licensed by the state.

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Aristotle is even responsible for the logical manner in which we divide our schools. He divided it into three stages: "primary schooling [7-14 years old], secondary schooling [14-21 years old], and higher education [21 years old and on]" (Gutek, p. 58). Although the age ranges differ slightly from our Western system, the general age range, assumed maturity, and purpose for each stage of learning in America is consistent with the Aristotelian model.

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Gutek, G. (2005). Educational Biography and the Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Education. In Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Education (pp. 3-10). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.