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Cartilaginous fish (scientific name Chondrichthyes) have a skeleton made from cartilage instead of bone. Cartilage is tough and flexible and provides enough structural support to allow these fish to grow to very large sizes. Cartilaginous fish include sharks, rays, skates and chimaeras. There are approximately 600 different species of rays and skates and about 500 shark species.

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Are vertebrates (which means they have a backbone or spine).
Are endothermic. Also known as “warm-blooded,” endothermic animals regulate their own body temperate which allows them to live in almost every climate on Earth.
Have hair on their bodies.
Produce milk to feed their babies. This allows them to spend more time with their young and teach them important skills they need to survive on their own.

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Elasmobranchi (sharks, skates, and rays)
Holocephali (chimaeras or ratfishes)
Batoids (Rays, Skates, Guitarfishes, and Sawfishes)

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Feathers are the defining characteristic of Aves, found on every living species of bird and no other class of animal. Feathers are made of keratin, the same substance that forms hair and nails in other animals and are highly modified scales. Feathers are critical not only for flight but also for warmth and protection against the elements -- and in many species, for males to attract mates.
All birds have wings, although not all birds fly. Nor are wings confined to Aves; bats are flying mammals and most insects have wings. Birds' bodies are beautifully designed for flight, with strong chest muscles and just enough curve to their wings to provide lift. Differences in wing shape provide different advantages to the various bird species. The narrow, sharp-tipped wings of the falcon provide speed; albatrosses soar high on wings much longer than they are wide. Most songbirds have elliptical, evenly shaped wings that facilitate quick, small movements in the tight spaces of their tree homes. Swimming birds, such as penguins and puffins, have flipper-shaped wings that propel them rapidly and gracefully through water.
All birds have beaks, or bills, made of a bony core surrounded by a thin layer of keratin. Birds do not have true teeth, but many species have tomia -- sharp ridges along the edges of their beaks. Birds do not chew food but grind or rip it into pieces small enough to swallow. The shape of a bird's beak indicates the bird's general diet. Meat-eaters like hawks and owls have sharp, hooked beaks for ripping and tearing. Strong, cone-shaped beaks help seed eaters break through shells. Ducks and geese have broad, flat beaks for straining food out of the water.
All birds lay eggs, some very colorful or covered with spots. Eggs are not unique to birds, of course, as fish, reptiles, amphibians and insects also lay eggs. A bird egg has a hard shell made mostly of calcium and a layer of hardened mucus. Inside the egg, the developing embryo receives nutrition from the yolk and the albumin, the egg white.
Most birds have lightweight skeletons with hollow bones. This keeps them light enough for flight. Many fused bones, including the collarbones or wishbones, make birds’ skeletons rigid in comparison to mammals'. This helps brace the birds' wings during flight. Their sternums, or breastbones, are large, providing sturdy attachment points for powerful wing muscles. Flightless penguins have heavy bones filled with marrow, helping them to survive in their freezing home range. Ostriches have heavy, solid bones in their legs, helping the birds run and defend themselves with powerful kicks.

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Strisores — nightjars, frogmouths, and other nocturnal birds, along with diurnal swifts and hummingbirds.

Columbaves — turacos, bustards, cuckoos, pigeons, sandgrouse, and mesites.

Gruiformes — cranes, rails, crakes, Sungrebe, flufftails, and others.

Aequorlitornithes — shorebirds, flamingos, grebes, gulls, tropicbirds, penguins, and other waterbirds.

Inopinaves — all land birds, including hawks, owls, toucans, falcons, parrots, and songbirds.

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Pinnipedia (seals, sea lions, and walrus)
Carnivora (sea otter and polar bear)
Sirenia (manatees and dugongs) Cetacea (whales, dolphins, and porpoises).
Rodentia (mice and rats)

Chiroptera (bats)

Carnivora (dogs, cats, bears, and other carnivores)

Cetariodactyla (deer, sheep, buffalo)

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About 90% of the world's fish species are know as boney fish.
Both bony fish and cartilaginous fish breathe through gills, but bony fish also have a hard, bony plate covering their gills. This feature is called an operculum. Bony fish may also have distinct rays, or spines, in their fins. And unlike cartilaginous fish, bony fish have swim bladders to regulate their buoyancy. (Cartilaginous fish, on the other hand, must swim constantly to maintain their buoyancy.)

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Ray-finned fishes, or Actinopterygii

Lobe-finned fishes, or Sarcopterygii, which includes the coelacanths and lungfishes.

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Eight species of bony fish make up a small group called lobe-finned fish, including the lungfish, a fish with the ability to breathe air, that can even drown if it is kept in water too long. Another 27,000 species make up the ray-finned fish. Remember from above that there are a total of slightly less than 58,000 species of all vertebrates. It is clear that bony, ray-finned fish are the most common vertebrates. The lungfish is one of only eight species of lobe-finned bony fish. First, these fish have the ability to regenerate bone from cartilage inside their body. Additionally, ray-finned fish are the only fish that can see in color. Finally, all members of this group have swim bladders, which they are able to add oxygen to or remove oxygen from. This allows the fish to control its density.

Lobe finned fishes are mostly extinct but thoes still alive include lungfishes and coelacanths.

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Listed above in the Characteristics section. Basically the different shapes and sizes of their beak, eggs, skeleton, feathers, and wings identify the different groups.

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To begin with, mammal species are in the Class Mammalia, within the Subphylum Vertebrata, under the Phylum Chordata, in the Kingdom Animalia. Now that you have that straight, let's look at some specific traits of mammals.
One main characteristic that mammals have is a feature that usually stands on end in frightening situations. Can you guess what it is? Yes, it's hair or fur, whichever the case may be. This trait is useful in maintaining the constant body temperature that is important to all endothermic animals.
mammal species are in the Class Mammalia, within the Subphylum Vertebrata, under the Phylum Chordata, in the Kingdom Animalia.Mammals (class Mammalia ) are a clade of endothermic amniotes. They include the largest animals on the planet comprising of the rorqual whales, elephants (intelligent of all animals) and some primates and some cetaceans. Mammals are warm blooded animals and have a closed circularity system with a sophisticated four-chambered heart. The features that distinguish them from other amniotes are the reptiles and birds which have hair and three middle ear bones. In females, there are mammary glands, and a neocortex (a region of the brain). The mammalian brain regulates the body temperature and the circulatory system, including the four-chambered heart. They have a basic body type of the four-legged land-born animal. Some also with two legs adapted to sea, air and trees.

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All reptiles are tetrapods, which simply means that they have either four limbs (like turtles and crocodiles) or are descended from four-limbed animals (like snakes). More broadly, reptiles are vertebrate animals, meaning they have backbones, housing spinal cords, that run down the lengths of their bodies.
Reptiles are amniote animals, which means that the eggs laid by females contain an elastic sac within which the embryo develops. Most reptiles are oviparous, laying hard-shelled eggs, but a few squamate lizards are viviparous, giving birth to live young that develop inside the female's' bodies.
The scales of reptiles, which develop from the epidermis (the outermost layer of skin), are small, hard plates made of the protein keratin. Scutes, such as the shells of turtles and the armor of crocodiles, are similar in appearance and function to scales but are bony structures that form in a deeper layer of the skin, the dermis. Scales and scutes provide reptiles with physical protection, and also prevent water loss; in many species, the shapes and colors of these structures play a role in territorial disputes and courtship displays.
Because they are cold-blooded, or ectothermic, reptiles must bask in the sun to increase their internal body temperatures, which in turn allows for a higher level of activity.
One of the most important characteristics of animals is how efficiently they gather and utilize oxygen, the molecular fuel that powers metabolic processes. All reptiles, including snakes, turtles, crocodiles and lizards, are equipped with air-breathing lungs, though different kinds of reptiles employ different means of respiration.

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Crocodilia — crocodiles, gharials, caimans and alligators: 23 species.
Sphenodontia — tuataras from New Zealand: 2 species.
Squamata — lizards, snakes and amphisbaenids ("worm-lizards"): about 7,900 species.
Testudines — turtles and tortoises: approximately 300 species.

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Crocodilians:
are formidable predators with powerful jaws, a muscular tail, large protective scales, streamlined body, and eyes and nostrils that are positioned on top of their head.
elongated, structurally reinforced skull
wide gape
powerful jaw muscles
teeth set in sockets
complete secondary palate
oviparous
adults provide extensive parental care to young

Squamates:
with approximately 7,400 living species.
most diverse group of reptiles
exceptional skull mobility

Tuatara:
are a group of reptiles that are lizard-like in appearance but they differ from the squamates in that their skull is not jointed.
slow growth and low reproductive rates.
reach sexual maturity at 10 to 20 years of age.
diapsid skull with two temporal openings.
prominent parietal eye on top of head.

Turtles:
They have a protective shell that encloses their body and provides protection and camouflage. Turtles inhabit terrestrial, freshwater, and marine habitats and are found both in tropical and temperate regions.
keratinised plates in place of teeth.
body enclosed in a shell that consists of carapace and plastron.
keen sense of smell, good colour vision, poor hearing.
bury eggs in ground.

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characteristics of cartilaginous fish include:
Paired fins
Paired nostrils.
Scales.
Two-chambered hearts.
Skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. Cartilage is supportive tissue that does not have as much calcium as bones, which makes bones rigid. Cartilage is softer and more flexible than bone.
Since they do not have bone marrow (as they have no bones), red blood cells are produced in the spleen, in special tissue around the reproductive organs, and in an organ called Leydig’s organ, only found in cartilaginous fishes. The tough skin of this group of fish is covered with placoid scales, which are hard scales formed from modified teeth. The scales are covered with a hard enamel. The hard covering and the way the scales are arranged, gives the fish skin rough, sandpaper-like feel. The function of these scales is for protection against predators.

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A head and pectoral girdles (arches supporting the forelimbs) that are covered with bones derived from the skin.
A lung or swim bladder, which helps the body create a balance between sinking and floating by either filling up with or emitting gases such as oxygen. Controlling the volume of this organ helps fish control their depth.
Jointed, segmented rods supporting the fins. A cover over the gill called the operculum, which helps them breathe without having to swim.
The ability to see in color, unlike most other fish.

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Snakes have some clear differences from other reptiles. They have no limbs, no moveable eyelids, and no ear openings. Most nonvenomous snakes have teeth that include 2 rows on top and 1 row on the bottom. The teeth are curved backwards to help keep struggling prey from escaping. Venomous snakes have grooved or hollow fangs that they use to inject venom into their prey. The bones in the lower jaw of snakes are long and flexible, which helps enable the snake to swallow large prey.
Most lizards have dry skin made up of scales. The scales of lizards vary from the smoother scales of skinks to rough scales or even spikes. In many species, the tail is fragile and can break easily. It can regenerate; however, the new growth may look different.
Turtles lack teeth but have strong biting jaws. Snakes usually molt and can live on land and water.
Turtles are easily distinguished by their hard protective shells that protect their upper and lower bodies. The upper covering is known as the carapace, while the bottom portion is called the plastron.

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Also listed above in the Characteristics section in depth, but basically:
Feathers
Beaks
Wings
Laying Eggs
Skeleton

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Listed in details under differenced of how groups are different, however, have high saline urine. They attain a placenta, which is tissue developed to give nutrients to the embryo.
Marine mammals have a streamlined body and their limbs have been modified into flippers.

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Sharks have varied reproduction, so some have vivipary, others have ovipary, and others have ovovivipary (where an internalized egg hatches in the female before being born.

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Bony fish have oviparous reproduction, of external fertilization. An example of a fish with this is the California Grunion.
The majority of bony fish reproduce via external fertilization of their eggs. During spawning season for the fish, the females and the males release hundreds and sometimes thousands of eggs and sperm into the water. The eggs are fertilized in the water.

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Most reptiles reproduce sexually and have internal fertilization. Males have one or two penises that pass sperm from their cloaca to the cloaca of a female. Fertilization occurs within the cloaca, and fertilized eggs leave the female's body through the opening in the cloaca. Reproduce, they lay shelled amniotic eggs. Sea turtles also show temperature dependent sex determination. Sea snakes are also ovoviviparous and give birth to live young, but males have two copulatory eggs.

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Birds reproduce by internal fertilization, during which the egg is fertilized inside the female. Like reptiles, birds have cloaca, or a single exit and entrance for sperm, eggs, and waste. The male brings his sperm to the female cloaca. The sperm fertilizes the egg.

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Sharks: There are approximately 350 species of sharks. They are characterized by a heterocercal tail (the upper half being longer than the lower half), five to seven gill slits for respiration, and a rounded body tapered at both ends.

First of all rays have gill slits on the underneath side of their bodies, while sharks tend to have gill slits on the sides of their heads. Rays breathe by sucking in water through their spiracles and exhale it over their gills. Sharks on the other hand breath in two ways depending on the species. They either ram breath which means they swim through the water passing it over their gills or they pull in water through their mouths and over their gills. So sharks tend to be more active swimmers in order to breath, while rays can sit still for long periods.

Though some sharks have long, flatter bodies, the bodies of rays are really flattened. They have disc-like, circular shaped bodies with very large connected pectoral fins. Rays also have long skinny tails at the ends of their bodies and tend to be much smaller than most sharks. Depending on the species, rays range in size from 10 in (25 cm) to 7 ft (2 m). They also have no anal fins but they always have spiracles on the top of their heads. Sharks on the other hand, even with flatter bodies tend to be more elongated and slender. They also have much smaller pectoral fins that are very distinct from their body. Some species of sharks have anal fins and others do not have spiracles. Sharks also have caudal fins on their tails which tend to be long and bulkier. So there are some obvious differences in appearance.

In spite of its name, the great white shark isn’t entirely white. In fact, only its underside is white, while its top is bluish gray. This coloration is a form of camouflage called countershading. From below, the great white shark is hard to see because its white skin is against the light and in the same way, from above, its darker skin blends in with the water
it is shaped like a torpedo. Just as a torpedo cuts through the water, a great white can go up to 35 miles per hour. This speed allows it to charge toward its prey in ambush and also allows it to migrate in search of food, ideal water temperature and mates.
A good nose, of course. Of all the senses a great white shark possesses, its sense of smell is the most acute, allowing it to smell a single drop of blood 3 miles away. Its smelling organ, called the olfactory bulb, is the largest among all sharks.
Most sharks are cold-blooded. What this means is that they cannot regulate their own temperature — instead, they take on the temperature of their immediate environment. If they are in warm waters, they will feel warm. If they are in cold waters, they will feel cold.

The great white shark, however, is partially warm-blooded. That means it can regulate its own temperature to a certain extent. This is because it has the rete mirabile, a network of veins and arteries that conserve body heat. By mixing the cold blood from the arteries with the warm blood from the veins, the rete mirabile keep certain parts of the shark’s body warmer than the surrounding water.
Each nostril of a Great White consists of a flap of skin that controls water movement into a cup-like structure. The cup-like structure contains a roughly spherical scent-detecting organ called an "olfactory bulb". Each olfactory bulb is composed of a series of closely-packed plates of tissue that are extremely sensitive to dissolved chemicals. The Great White has the largest olfactory bulbs of any shark species measured to date, enabling it to locate bleeding prey, decomposing whale carcasses, and seal or sea lion colonies by their distinctive odors.
Like other sharks, the Great White has specialized sensory organs that detect extremely minute electrical fields. These organs, called "ampullae of Lorenzini", consist of clusters of miniature testtube-shaped structures with a sensory hair cell at the base and filled with an electrically conductive jelly. Externally, the open ends of these ampullae appear as clusters of tiny pores peppered over the head. These pores are most richly distributed on the undersurface of the snout and recent work has shown that each cluster has a peak directional sensitivity. The Great White uses these electroreceptors to locate hidden prey, such as the tiny electrical signal of its prey's muscles in the otherwise confusing bloody froth of a predatory attack.

Batoids: The 470 species of this diverse group of fishes have in common a flattened body with expanded pectoral fins fused to the head (the "wings" in rays). Batoids are distributed throughout the world's oceans and in some tropical freshwater environments.

The major difference between rays and skates is how they reproduce. Fertilization is internal for both rays and skates. Rays are live bearing (viviparous) while skates are egg laying (oviparous), releasing their eggs in hard rectangular cases sometimes called "mermaid´s purses". The dark-brown to black cases sometimes wash up on beaches. There is no parental care after birth; however, some Chondrichthyes do guard their eggs.

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Monotremes, only five species of which exist, all from Australia and New Guinea, are mammals that lay eggs. They have one opening for excretion and reproductioncalled the cloaca. They hold the eggs internally for several weeks, providing nutrients, and then lay them and cover them like birds.
. Mammals can be marsupial, where the embryo is born at an immature stage and develops in the pouch. Mammals can be placental, where substances are passed from the mother to the fetus so that it can stay longer in the womb.

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Cephalization is the evolution of sense organs to the front of the organism. Use 2 different classes as examples and describe how those classes have utilised sense organs at the front.
Cartilaginous fish and boney fish have lateral line systems which heighten their senses using the detection of vibrations in the water.

Sharks have highly developed senses. Describe 2 types of senses that sharks have and how they are evolved to help find or detect organisms.
-This is a system of fluid filled canals that run along the side of a shark. Tiny hair-like structures stick out of this canal. The shark can detect water movements created by turbulence, currents, or vibrations by displacing this hair-like structure. This line system detects low-frequency vibrations and helps mainly with distance perception.
-In addition to the lateral line, sharks have a sensory organ called the Organ of Lorenzini; this organ is used to detect electrical currents when sharks are close to an object (the movement of muscles – even those used in respiration – emit a small electrical charge) – this allows sharks to detect living prey even it is hidden from their view if they can get within a few feet of the organism

Fish have many types of fins. Describe 3 functions of fins and or other structures that help fish to move or stabilise themselves within the water column.
- Ray Finned Fish

Have spines that protrude into the fin for support.

- Lobe Finned Fish

Have fins that are supported by skeletal extensions.

- Lung Fish

Have the ability to gulp air into lung sacs connected to the digestive system but mainly use gills for gas exchange.

There are many ways organisms deal with the oceanic temperature. Describe 2 different ways that different organisms deal with this.
-The sea otter has extremely dense fur, which traps air against the body for insulation because they lack blubber.
-Pinnipeds have thick layers of fat, or blubber for insulation, food reserves, and buoyancy

There are 3 types of reproductive strategies that chordates show. Describe the 3 types and examples of organisms that use them.
Ovipary refers to the development of an embryo within an egg outside the mother’s body. This occurs in most amphibians and reptiles and in all birds.
Ovovivipary refers to the development of an embryo inside an egg within the mother’s body until it hatches. The mother provides no nourishment to the developing embryo inside the egg. This occurs in some species of fish and reptiles.
Vivipary refers to the development and nourishment of an embryo within the mother’s body. Birth may be followed by a period of parental care of the offspring. This reproductive strategy occurs in almost all mammals.

Describe the diversity of organisms within mammals. Be sure to name the group and describe how to classify them compared to other groups within that class.
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Pinnipeds-Members of the order are nearly exclusively marine
-Pinnipeds (“fin-footed”) evolved from a terrestrial carnivore

-They are predators, feeding mainly on fish and squid

-Streamlined bodies for swimming

-Thick layer of fat, or blubber for insulation, food reserves, and buoyancy
(seals, sea lions, fur seals, walrus)

Carnivora-- Sea otters and polar bears are marine mammals belonging to order Carnivora
-The sea otter is the smallest marine mammal, which lacks a layer of blubber
-Polar bears are semi-aquatic mammals that spend a good deal of their life drifting on sea ice in the Arctic

-They feed primarily on seals, which they stalk at breathing holes

-World’s largest land carnivore

-Thick blubber; translucent fur, black skin!
-Sirenians, also known as sea cows, have a pair of front flippers, but no rear limbs

-Swim with up-and-down strokes of their paddle- (manatee) or V-
(dugong) shaped tails

Cetaceans-Whales, dolphins and porpoises are cetaceans (Class Mammalia, Order Cetacea)

•Of all the marine mammals, cetaceans (and sirenians) have made the most complete transition to aquatic life

–Spend their entire lives in the water

–The bodies of cetaceans are streamlined and look remarkably fish-like; an example of convergent evolution
•Cetaceans have a pair of front flippers, but the rear pair of limbs has virtually disappeared

–Remain in adults as small, useless bones
--Most cetaceans have a dorsal fin, like fishes

--Their muscular tail ends in a pair of fin-like, horizontal flukes
–Blubber provides cetaceans with insulation
–Cetacean nostrils are on top of the head, forming a single, or double opening called the blowhole

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Classifying Fish

On the outside, all fish pretty much look the same: they have streamlined bodies, scales, fins on their backs and sides, and a tail that moves side to side to propel them. But, if we look under the skin, we find some pretty important differences. Based on these differences, fish can be generally divided into two broad categories or classes based on their skeletal composition: chondrichthyes, or cartilaginous fish, including sharks, skates, and rays; and osteichthyes, or bony fish, including goldfish, piranha, sockeye salmon, and trout.

Bony fish have skeletons that are made up of hard, brittle, highly calcified bones - just like your own bones - whereas cartilaginous fish have skeletons that are made up of cartilage that is thin and flexible, just like the material that gives your nose its shape. In this lesson, we'll take a look at bony fish traits and anatomy and also see some examples, many of which you will likely recognize, of these diverse animals.

Characteristics & Physiology of Bony Fish

Bony fish not only have a hard, calcified skeleton, but a solid cranium protecting their brains as well. These animals depend upon their hinged jaw for feeding, a characteristic that distinguishes them from jawless fish, such as lampreys and hagfish. Bony fish also have unique ear plates called otoliths that help their sense of equilibrium and, when fossilized, provide scientists with lots of information about extinct bony fish species.

Bony fish are able to control their buoyancy using swim bladders, which are organs that take in dissolved gases from the water and then inflate or deflate accordingly. Speaking of dissolved gases, bony fish breathe by moving water across their gills using an operculum, which is a trapdoor-like structure that pumps water across the gills so that the fish can breathe without necessarily moving forward in the water.

Most bony fish have three pairs of gill arches, which are the bony structures that support the gills. They are made up of thin and bony gill filaments that increase the surface area for gas exchange, and in many cases, gill rakers that help fish strain tiny particles out of the water for feeding purposes.

The bodies of bony fish are covered with smooth scales that form an overlapping pattern and a thin layer of mucous that helps them move smoothly through the water. Bony fish are extremely well adapted to their environments, whether they live in freshwater or saltwater: they have paired fins for steering, dorsal fins for stability, and caudal fins for propulsion. And, like the vast majority of fish, they are ectothermic, or cold-blooded, meaning that they cannot generate their own body heat.

When it comes to reproduction, bony fish have evolved a few different ways of having offspring. The three known mechanisms are: oviparous (where eggs are laid), ovoviviparous (where eggs are incubated inside the mother), and viviparous (where live young are born from the mother and not housed in an egg). Even in the case of viviparous fish, they are still distinct from mammals because the babies don't nurse from the mother once they are born.

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anatomy & types - video & lesson transcript | study.com

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Bony Fish: Characteristics, Anatomy & Types - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com

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On the outside, all fish pretty much look the same: they have streamlined bodies, scales, fins on their backs and sides, and a tail that moves side to side to propel them. But, if we look under the skin, we find some pretty important differences.

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All About Birds | Science Grade 3 | Periwinkle

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Cephalization, the differentiation of the anterior (front) end of an organism into a definite head. Considered an evolutionary advance, cephalization is accompanied by a concentration of nervous tissue (cephalic ganglion or brain) and feeding mechanisms in the head region that serves to integrate the activities of the nervous system. Some groups of organisms show full cephalization, but because their bodies are not divided into distinct trunks and heads, they cannot be said to possess a distinct anatomical head.

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