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Tectonic plates the big chunk or rock floating on the mantle, if they are pushed together, an earthquake will happen 
An Earthquake is like snapping your fingers, you are building you pressure then your thumb flies out and releases its pressure 
Earthquakes with higher magnitudes are much deadlier 
Waves can bend and reflect 
Liquefaction, when solids act like they are liquid, kind of like putting a rock on sand, sandy solid act like liquid 
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P waves stands for primary waves. There are secondary waves(most destr

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All 40 pages of my Geology notes (a lot of notes)

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All 40 pages of my Geology notes (a lot of notes)

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Tectonic plates the big chunk or rock floating on the mantle, if they are pushed together, an earthquake will happen

An Earthquake is like snapping your fingers, you are building you pressure then your thumb flies out and releases its pressure

Earthquakes with higher magnitudes are much deadlier

Waves can bend and reflect

Liquefaction, when solids act like they are liquid, kind of like putting a rock on sand, sandy solid act like liquid

Page Break

P waves stands for primary waves. There are secondary waves(most destructive seismic wave) and surface waves as well.

The surface waves might have the most magnitude

Liquefaction and traction can be very destructive

Cocos plate collides with the North American plate

Sedimentary rocks are made from layers and sediments

Earthquakes are usually caused when rock underground suddenly breaks along a fault. This sudden release of energy causes the seismic waves that make the ground shake. When two blocks of rock or two plates are rubbing against each other, they stick a little. ... When the rocks break, the earthquake occurs.

The earth's crust is floating on rock, we have a solid core of iron and nickel, but it is solid because it is in such pressure

Inner core is solid metal, iron and nickel

Outer core does not have as much pressure, but it has metals that are liquids

Mantle has melted rock, it is called magma below ground, but above ground is lava

Crust is solid rock

Below us is liquid rock, floating on top of that is plates, called tectonic plates

When plates meet it is called a fault, or fault lines

Fault lines cause earthquakes and volcanoes

We do not have to worry about tornadoes or tsunami's

Inner core is solid metal

Outer core is liquid metal

Mantle is melted rock

Crust is solid rock

The crust is actually super skinny compared to everything else

Intraplate earthquakes are extremely rare

Interplate earthquake is when the plates meet

(won't be tested on Intraplate and Interpolate)

Intraplate: intraplate earthquakes do not occur near plate boundaries, but along faults in the normally stable interior of plates.

The Richter scale is exponential, which means, every time you increase by 1 on the Richter scale, it is 10 times more powerful, so a magnitude of 9 would be 100 times more powerful than a magnitude of 7

P wave is a pressure wave, just like sound waves, sound waves are pressure waves

Subduction zone is being pushed together, this is a compression force

There is also called a convergent boundary

178 gigaton explosions

Japan tsunami was caused by a Richter 9 earthquake on the ocean in 2011

It is more likely to have an earthquake on water, statistically

Plate boundaries can cause earthquakes, if they are pulling apart (divergent boundary) is a tension force

Transform boundary is using shear force

The Earth's surface is flexible

They are divided and are called tectonic plates

Fault is a crack when the tectonic plates move

When anything gets hot, their molecules will spread apart and take up more space

Mantle is molten rock.

Plates move because of convection occurrence

We measure earthquakes by feel and how powerful is, this is called the Richter scale

The Richter scale is used to compare the size or one earthquake and the size of another

If you go up by 1, then it is 10 times more powerful, 32 times more energy

Magnitude of 2 would be 10 times as much as a magnitude of 1

There is p waves, s waves and surface waves

The 2 main waves of earthquakes, body waves and surface waves

Surface waves are on the surface, secondary waves are below that.

Types of folds

Anticline is a fold that is convex up and has its oldest beds at its core - A syncline is a fold with younger layers closer to the center of the structure. Synclines are typically a downward fold, termed a synformal syncline (i.e. a trough); but synclines that point upwards, or perched, can be found when strata have been overturned and folded (an antiformal syncline).

- Monocline Rock beds lying at two level separated by steep inclined limbs. It is form by vertical movement and generally found fault below monocline.

Chevron folds are a structural feature characterized by repeated well behaved folded beds with straight limbs and sharp hinges. Well developed, these folds develop repeated set of v-shaped beds.

Recumbent fold has an essentially horizontal axial plane. linear, fold axial plane oriented at low angle resulting in overturned strata in one limb of the fold

Isoclinal folds are similar to symmetrical folds, So isoclinal folds are both symmetrical and aligned in a parallel fashion.

Plunging fold is A fold whose axis plane is not horizontal (not Parallel to sea level). Direction of plunge - the direction in which the axis is inclined nose - indicate the direction of plunge. In anticline, plunge is directed towards nose and in syncline it is directed away from nose.

A fold whose axis plane is not horizontal (not Parallel to sea level). Direction of plunge - the direction in which the axis is inclined nose - indicate the direction of plunge. In anticline, plunge is directed towards nose and in syncline it is directed away from nose.

- Dome and Basin folds. We also have domes, which are like anticlines but instead of an arch, the fold is in a dome shape, like an inverted bowl. Similarly, there are also basins, which are like synclines but again, instead of a sinking arch, the fold is in a shape of a bowl sinking down into the ground. Dome: nonlinear, strata dip away from center in all directions, oldest strata in center
Ptygmatic folds generally represent conditions where the folded material is of a much greater viscosity than the surrounding medium.

Ptygmatic folds generally represent conditions where the folded material is of a much greater viscosity than the surrounding medium.

The Earth's crust is a thin hard crust

Temperature. In the mantle, temperatures range between 500 to 900 °C (932 to 1,652 °F) at the upper boundary with the crust to over 4,000 °C (7,230 °F) at the boundary with the core.

Above the inner core is the outer core, a shell of liquid iron. This layer is cooler but still very hot, perhaps 7,200 to 9,000 degrees Fahrenheit (4,000 to 5,000 degrees Celsius). It too is composed mostly of iron, plus substantial amounts of sulfur and nickel.

A team of scientists has measured the melting point of iron at high precision in a laboratory, and then drew from that result to calculate the temperature at the boundary of Earth's inner and outer core — now estimated at 6,000 C(about 10,800 F).

As a result, water pools in above the oceanic crust, forming the oceans. The temperature of the crust increases with depth, reaching values typically in the range from about 200 °C (392 °F) to 400 °C (752 °F) at the boundary with the underlying mantle.

Vinegar and Baking soda make carbon dioxide

Magma is very hot

The crust is a thin cool layer which we live on

Volcanoes have created a lot of life

Heat from under the Earth's crust is very hot

A geyser is a vent in Earth's surface that periodically ejects a column of hot water and steam. Even a small geyser is an amazing phenomenon; however, some geysers have eruptions that blast thousands of gallons of boiling-hot water up to a few hundred feet in the air. Old Faithful is the world's best-known geyser.

The Earth's crust is made of tectonic plates

Tectonic is the Latin word build

The plates are forming on the Earth's mantle

Continental drift, geographical evidence of continental drift.

Continental drift is the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other, thus appearing to "drift" across the ocean bed. The speculation that continents might have 'drifted' was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596, he did not provide much evidence

It was proposed by Wagner, he found biological evidence of continental drift

Geological evidence

Biological evidence

Geographical evidence

Meteoritical evidence

These are the 4 main types of evidence of continental drift

Pangea is when the plate tectonics come together

"Supercontinent" is a term used for a large landmass formed by the convergence of multiple continents. The most frequently referenced supercontinent is known as "Pangaea" (also "Pangea"), which existed approximately 225 million years ago.

Shifting tectonic plates cause earthquakes

Seismograph

Some Earthquakes are hardly noticeable

The earth has a solid core

The Earth is like an onion, it has many layers

It would take 32 hours to skydive all the way to the core

The Earth's crust like an eggs shell in scale

We can divide objects into inorganic things and organic things

Rocks are inorganic

The 5 characteristics of a mineral

1 Must be a solid

2 Must occur in nature

3 Has to have a chemical composition (what elements go into the molecular structure and make it what it is)

Salt is a mineral called Halite, Halite is made of 1 Sodium (Na) Atom, 1 chlorine atom (Ci)

NaCl is salt

Sodium Chloride is the chemical name for Halite (table salt)

Sodium and Chlorine make the chemical formula for salt

4 the chemicals must be arranged in a crystalline structure

Salt is a good example because it breaks into little cubes

Salt's atomic structure forms into cubes

5 the last thing to be a mineral, is to be inorganic

If something qualifies for all 5 of these things, it is a mineral

Quartz and Calcite are very common minerals

Ice is a mineral, it has a chemical composition it is solid, occurs in nature, has a crystalline composition and inorganic

Glass is not a mineral because it does not have a crystalline structure, it breaks into curved pieces

Minerals are the building blocks for rocks

Granite is an igneous rock

On earth, there are over 2000 varieties of minerals

1 The substance must be solid to be considered a mineral under normal conditions

2 the substance must be naturally occurring on earth

3 The substance must be inorganic, meaning that it can not be living or made from living things

4 the substance must have a fixed chemical composition, made of specific elements

5 The atoms must for a crystalline structure that is in order

Silica Tetrahedra is the most common arrangement of silicon and oxygen atoms

According to the 5 criteria, ice is a mineral, but there is a lot if debate on it

Sulfur is a mineral according to these criteria

The physical properties of a mineral: the colors, the shapes, the textures, the smells, the tastes, the appearance the hardness, the sheen, all of these properties result from Mineral's internal arrangement of atoms.

Sulfur appears yellow, because of the arrangement of the atoms

Diamond is the hardest mineral on earth

It is also fairly rare

It has a hardness of 10 on the Mohs scale of hardness

Interlocking carbon atoms in diamonds make a very strong bond, making diamonds very hard

WHAT GIVES A MINERAL THEIR PHYSICAL CHARICTERISTICS, IS WHAT IS INSIDE OF THEM.

There are 3 types of rocks, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks

Igneous rocks are the most primitive type of rock which are found deep within the Earth from hot molten rock called magma

Igneous rocks can also be found in volcanoes within the surface

Magma changes into liquid under very intense levels of heat and pressure at depth

Heating a chocolate bar and then pouring on to ice cream, then cooling it would be an example of how magma cools in real life

Things that cool quickly have a finer grain texture

Sedimentary rocks form right at the surface, as water an air create break up pre- existing rock and create sediments

Sedimentary rocks are created from sediments, as well as from biological activity, like fossils. And in chemical activity like in lakes, where water dries up and leaves behind salt or gypsum

Anything bigger than sand would be considered gravel or cobbles in size

Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre existing rocks which are altered by high heat and pressure

Usually, Metamorphic rocks are buried deep with in the earth, but can also be from volcanic or other ways that we can eat up the rocks to really intense and temperatures and then create new minerals and textures within the rock

Fossils are the stone remains of animals or plants that were once alive

Usually, only the skeletons of an animal are left after millions of years

When tree sap hardens, it is called amber

Sometimes animals are frozen and are buried with in the ice for thousands of years unchanged

Most dinosaur fossils are formed from mold and cast

The flesh of a dead animal rots away or is eaten by smaller creatures

Eventually, the bones are left

Mud and sand called sediment cover the animal over many years

Then more layers of sediment fall over the sediment

Over time, the floor of the river sinks from the weight of the sediment

The lower layers of soft mud and sand are pressed into hard rock

Now the skeleton is completely surrounded by compressed stone

The skeleton is slowly washed away from little trickles of water

This water is called ground water

The bones leave an open space in the exact shape of the animal

This open space is called a natural mold

The ground water brings tiny pieces of rock into those spaces

After millions of years, these tiny rock pieces fill the mold

The rock is pressed further and further underground

Over time the entire skeleton mold becomes solid rock

Many years later, the rock surrounding the skeleton rises to the Earth's surface

This can happen during an earthquake or as mountains rise naturally

The top layers of rock are worn away from wind and rain

Slowly, wind and rain show the fossil to the outside world

But not all fossils rise to the surface, many times they still remain under layers of rock

Rock cycle: Volcanic eruption, igneous rock, sediments, sedimentary rock, metamorphic rock, magma. Repeat

Sedimentary
Sedimentary rocks are formed from particles of sand, shells, pebbles, and other fragments of material. Together, all these particles are called sediment. Gradually, the sediment accumulates in layers and over a long period of time hardens into rock. Generally, sedimentary rock is fairly soft and may break apart or crumble easily. You can often see sand, pebbles, or stones in the rock, and it is usually the only type that contains fossils.

Examples of this rock type include conglomerate and limestone.

Metamorphic
Metamorphic rocks are formed under the surface of the earth from the metamorphosis (change) that occurs due to intense heat and pressure (squeezing). The rocks that result from these processes often have ribbonlike layers and may have shiny crystals, formed by minerals growing slowly over time, on their surface.

Examples of this rock type include gneiss and marble.

Igneous
Igneous rocks are formed when magma (molten rock deep within the earth) cools and hardens. Sometimes the magma cools inside the earth, and other times it erupts onto the surface from volcanoes (in this case, it is called lava). When lava cools very quickly, no crystals form and the rock looks shiny and glasslike. Sometimes gas bubbles are trapped in the rock during the cooling process, leaving tiny holes and spaces in the rock.

Examples of this rock type include basalt and obsidian.

You can see fossils in this rock. The fossils formed when seashells and the skeletons of marine animals were compressed into the sea floor, along with other sediment. This rock is called limestone, and is often found near oceans and lakes.

This rock has a glassy surface. It is obsidian, which is created from lava that cools so quickly that no crystals can form on its surface. It can be found near volcanic lava flows, and was often used to make arrowheads because its edges are very sharp.

This rock has gas bubbles. These bubbles form when hot lava from a volcano contains gases that escape from the rock as the lava cools. This is basalt. Usually very dark in color, basalt is the most common rock type in earth’s crust and makes up most of the ocean floor.

Sand and pebbles are visible in this rock. It is called conglomerate, which is made up of pebbles, stones, and smaller particles pressed together by the action of waves or water. The rock is often found in large expanses or beds. Finding a bed of conglomerate is a great clue that a river or beach once existed in that location.

This rock has crystals. This is marble. It is formed when limestone is pushed down into the earth and subjected to intense heat and pressure for a long period of time. Some marble is pure white, while some has colorful swirls. Marble is found in mountainsides and quarries (pits dug into the earth) and is often used in construction and sculpture.

This rock has ribbonlike layers. It is gneiss (pronounced "nice"). Gneiss forms from other rocks that have been squeezed and heated for a long time deep within the earth’s crust. Gneiss can often be seen on mountainsides, where rocks formed below the surface have been pushed up by movements in the earth’s crust.

What happens to cookie dough when you put it in the oven? The heat of the oven produces changes in the ingredients that make them interact and combine. Without melting the dough, the heat changes it into a whole new product — a cookie.

A similar process happens to rocks beneath the earth's surface. Due to movements in the crust, rocks are frequently pulled under the surface of the earth, where temperatures increase dramatically the farther they descend. Between 100 and 200 kilometers (62 and 124 miles) below the earth's surface, temperatures are hot enough to melt most rocks. However, before the melting point is reached, a rock can undergo fundamental changes while in a solid state — morphing from one type to another without melting.

An additional factor that can transform rocks is the pressure caused by tons of other rocks pressing down on it from above; heat and pressure usually work together to alter the rocks under the earth's surface. This kind of change, which results from both rising temperature and pressure, is called metamorphism, and the resulting rock is a metamorphic rock.

Continental Drift video 1

Alfred Wegener was a German Meteorologist

Wegener came up with a theory that Africa and South America were once connected (due to the shape of the continents) and somehow ripped apart

He said that I think the continents are moving

Wegener believed that there was a time when all the continents were all connected, but drifted apart to their current location

He came up with a name for that combined continent (the one with all 7 continents) Pangaea, the super continent that existed 250 million years ago.

It's a Greek term that means "Entire Earth"

There are 4 pieces of evidence that Wegener came up with.

1. The continents appeared to fit together like puzzle pieces, it is called the apparent fit of the continents

The Mesosaurus was ancient reptile who lived in only shallow fresh water

There are only 2 places in the world where we find, one is the eastern coast of South America, and the other is the Western coast of Africa.

The Mesosaurus somehow go to the other side

It could not have swam because the distance is too great and they can't survive in salt water

1. Another point of Continental drift for evidence is the Mesosaurus. They have fossils at both Africa and South America and there is no evidence of them travelling so maybe that was continental drift too. This is called fossil correlation.

There were other organisms who went through this, mainly Mesosaurus, Cynognathus, Lystrosaurus and Glossopteris

1. The mountains of North Eastern United States and the mountain ranges of Northern Europe are the same and match up perfectly.  They are made of the same type and age of rock. This might suggest that continents drifted apart. This is called Rock and mountain correlation. (identical rocks and mountain structures have been found on either side of the ocean

2. When Glaciers move, they leave evidence called Glacier Striations. If you look at the present day Tropical rainforests of South America and Africa, you will find glacier striations. Since glaciers can't be in rainforests, this suggests that the continents moved. Wegener discovered this Sedimentary rock called Bituminous coal. It is a fossil fuel. Bituminous coal is made of compacted plant remains dying from forests compressed millions of years for coal. Coal is formed from tropical plants yet it is found in non tropical areas. This evidence is called Paleoclimate data. (Coal has been found in cold areas although it breaks down from tropical warm areas, and glacier evidence has been found in warm areas)

Continental drift video option 2

There are lines representing depth under the water, and they are exactly the same shape.

That means they are the structure of the earth

Wegener thought that the continents drifted apart

Wegener did not have any statements in the field of geology so no one believed him

Mounting evidence convinced scientists that continents did move

But continents don't drift, they just float on the mantle

The theory of plate tectonics is huge to geology

Continents DO move

Anticline goes up from the bottom

Syncline is the down part

Volcano video

Volcanoes usually occur when 2 tectonic plates run into each other.

A magma plume is a stream of hot magma

Magma plumes do not flow, instead they sputter like chimney smoke

Magma plumes are always on the same spot

The plate moves, then magma plume spews lava

Pressure builds and plume goes through again

Then it moves and so on

The rocks on the part of the northern island are older than the southern in the Hawaiian islands

Pressure build in the plume and it goes out.

Volcanoes erupt because there are gases trapped in the magma deep inside the earth

When the gases get hot enough, they expand and explode

There is a lot of carbon dioxide in volcanoes

An active lava field is a field of lava

Plants get their nutrients from ash

Caldera is that blowhole in the middle when a volcano stops erupting

Under the Caldera is a chamber of magma

The magma chamber fills up and the bottom of the Caldera rises up.

When the magma chamber drains, it goes down

Some volcanoes ooze, others explode

Liquid lead flows just like magma or lava

When a magma plume finds its way to a surface through some cracks in a plate, therefore a volcano is formed

Volcanoes can also happen when one of the plates slide under anther plate, then later it forms a volcano

Volcanoes come in different shapes, depending on how they are formed

Shield volcanoes are formed by hot lava that flows down the side quickly

The lava flows a long way before it hardens

A shield volcano is kind of flat like a shield

Cinder cone volcanoes erupt explosively, so it ends up tall and flat on top

Strata cone volcanoes sometimes spews lava, other times it cinders ash

Strata cone is tall and symmetrical

Strata cone volcanoes build up under earth's crust to make it big and strong

Lava is over 1000 degrees Celsius

All the land on earth came from lava

A stone wind is wind filled with pumice, volcanic ash

It explodes from a volcano

Extinct volcanoes are volcanoes that will never erupt again. For example Mount Kenya, the magma plum has cooled into solid

A volcano that has not erupted for 200 years is called a dormant

Earthquake video

There are 1000s of earthquakes around the world every year

Tectonic plates can move in all directions

The Earth's surface is pretty flexible

The Earth's surface is floating on molten rock called

The Earth's surface is broken up into tectonic plates

As plates move, they crack and the cracks are called faults

Faults can store energy

When one plate slides on the other, when the energy is released, usually an earthquake happens

Mountains form when parts of the Earth's crust tilt or lift

Scientists measure movements of the Earth's surface using seismometers, which means measuring shaking

Seismometers are set to measure up and down

They record the signals into a seismograph

Seismometer are very accurate and delicate instruments

Lava is molten rock

Tectonic plates can also be called crustal plates

When anything is hot, It's molecules get farther and farther apart, because they are moving faster, they then take up more space for how much they weigh. Then the cool rock pushes them up and adjourning makes the plates move.

The adjourning heat from the lava makes the plates move

Magma cools into rock

A normal earthquake stores up energy and gets released as the ground of the rocks break

Faults are generally vertical and their movements are up and down

Scientists can measure earthquakes with seismometers

The epicenter is the center of an earthquake

The Richter scale is one way to compare the size of one earthquake to the size of another

Putting a wire on top of chips represents an earthquake, the higher the wire curves, the more powerful it is, and the more chips mean more energy 1 chip is like 1 more on the Richter scale

1 full number above on the Richter scale is 32 times greater

The bigger the magnitude, the bigger the earthquake

Everything you need to know about planet earth video

Earth's age is 1/3 of the universe's

Below the Earth's surface, hot rock continue to swirl about, moving the crust from below and breaking it apart. This is called plate tectonics

As plate tectonics meet, they crumble and create mountains

Or they create deep trenches

The Earth's crust is 50 kilometers

The mantle is 2900 kilometer deep

The mantle consists of the upper mantle and the lower mantle

The outer core is 2266 km deep

The inner core is 1200 m deep, it is mainly solid and consists of a iron-nickel alloy

Igneous rocks video

Minerals are the building blocks of rocks

The best way to classify rocks is on how they are formed

An Igneous rock is a rock that formed from the cooling or solidification of magma or lava

When molten rock cools down into a solid, it is an Igneous rock

Magma is in the earth underground, lava is on the Earth's surface. (erupted magma)

Igneous rocks are classified from where they are cooled or solidified

The first type of igneous rock is called intrusive, this means it formed inside the Earth from Magma. Magma will cool very slowly for intrusive rock

When it does cool, it will allow minerals to form in crystals

Since it cools so slowly, the crystals can be very large.

Granite is an intrusive Igneous rock

Any mineral larger than 1 millimeter signify that it is intrusive

There are also Extrusive Igneous rock

Extrusive rocks form on the surface and there are small crystals or no crystals found

They cool quickly from lava

They may be vesicular

This means that they might even have air bubbles inside

Basalt is an extrusive igneous rock.

The crystals are smaller than 1 millimeter so it is a sign that it is extrusive

Obsidian is extrusive, and no crystals are found

Mainly because obsidian cooled so quickly.

Extrusive rocs can have a vesicular texture with air bubbles

Intrusive rocks are also called plutonic rocks

Extrusive rocks are also called volcanic

Sedimentary rocks video

Sedimentary rocks usually form from the compaction and cementation of sediments

Compaction is squeezing together

Cementation means gluing or cementing, sticking together.

Sediments are the fragments of rock that have been broken down as a result of weathering (Wind, ice, running water, etc.)

Sediments are classified according to their size : Clay, Silt, Sand, Pebble, Cobble, Boulder (least to greatest in size)

This refers to the size

The first type of sedimentary rock is called a clastic Sedimentary rock

A clast is just a fancy word for a sediment

Clastic sedimentary rocks form from compacted sediments

These are generally classified to size

Clastic rock are inorganic and land derived which means they came from land

Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock

The sediments in conglomerate are rounded out probably due to water

Breccia is also clastic and does not rounded edges, it is rather angular and pointy

Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock

Clastic=Compacted and cemented sediments

There are also organic and crystalline sedimentary rocks

For Crystalline we have things called Evaporites and precipitates

In terms of organic, there is Biological matter

Organic and Crystalline rocks are organic and are not from broken down sediments

Crystalline: Evaporites and precipitates

Rock salt is crystalline

Rock salt is a good example

Rock salt is formed from sea water

When that water evaporates, the salt stays behind in the form of crystals

Those crystals are the rock, rock salt

It is called crystalline because it's crystals of salt that were left behind after evaporation occurred

There is also gypsum and dolostone that form in similar ways

These ways for gypsum and dolostone do not involve evaporation

A precipitate forms when a water sample is completely filled with a dissolved mineral, so much so, that the mineral falls out of being dissolved and crystallizes in the bottom of a body of water

Crystalline rocks all involve some chemical process, whether it is precipitation or evaporation

Biological rocks form from compacted organic material/matter

Coal for example forms from compacted plant remains

One variety of limestone called Coquina is formed from compacted shells

Sedimentary rocks are the only type of rock to have any fossil or evidence of past life

So any rock with a fossil in it is sedimentary

It would be sedimentary because igneous and metamorphic rocks need a lot of heat and pressure, this would destroy the fossil, so it is sedimentary

Metamorphic rocks video

Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed due to an exposure of intense heat and/ or pressure.

The 2 types of Metamorphism are called contact Metamorphism and regional metamorphism

Contact metamorphism insists of rocks coming together in contact with really intense heat generally provided by lava or magma

If there was an intrusion of magma going through layers of rock, the rock would be burned from the heat causing them to change or metamorphize

Then you are going to have some Metamorphic rock

Contact metamorphism is caused primarily by heat

Contact metamorphism is caused by contact with heat

Regional Metamorphism is caused by pressure

If there was a fault/ crack, and then the plates were coming together, So it's a convergent plate boundary. In the middle where the fault is, there is going to be lots of pressure, and that pressure can cause the rock in the middle to become metamorphized

So along that boundary will become metamorphic rock

This is more about the pressure, not the heat

Starting with shale (sedimentary rock), if you ad heat and pressure it will tur into slate, then add more, then phyllite, then add more then schist and add even more you get gneiss

Gneiss has bands of minerals which are caused by the intense pressure

If you add even more heat and pressure to gneiss, it will most likely melt into magma/lava and form an igneous rock again

Gneiss is the extent of metamorphism that we see

Regional metamorphism is primarily caused by pressure

Rock cycle web site

The rock cycle is the earth's process of changing one type of rock into another rock

Heat, pressure weathering and erosion are physical and chemical changes

The rock cycle turns existing material into new material

Heat erosion and pressure help change rocks into other rocks

You would mostly likely find pumice near a volcano

The cooling of melted rock or magma or lava creates igneous rock

Metamorphic rocks are created from intense heat and pressure

Layered limestone is Sedimentary

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The X-Design, it worked well against several internal and external forces in the bridge and skyscraper challenge.

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Video #1 The History of life on Earth

We break up eons into eras, periods and epochs

Cyanobacteria learned how to make it's own food from photosynthesis

The more Cyanobacteria there was, the more oxygen there became

Cyanobacteria changed the atmosphere, also made way for living things to take a new specific direction

Eukaryotes made it's debut about 2.1 billion years ago

Eukaryotes include all plants and animals

Eukaryotes probably evolved from endosymbiosis, where one prokaryote parasitized another prokaryote or maybe just ate it and forgot to digest it

The result was good for the parasite/ undigested prey and for the host

A niche is a combo of biotic and abiotic resources that they could use to survive

Video #2 Texas mosquito mystery

A population is a group of individuals in one species who interact regularly

In order to understand why populations are different from place to place and from time to time, you need to know thing about the population, like the density, in this case, how many mosquitoes there are in the Dallas area that might come in contact with each other.

A populations density changes due to a number of factors all of which are pretty intuitive.

It increases when new individuals are born or immigrate, or moving in

It can decrease when individuals die, emigrate or move out

As an ecologist you will also have to know the geographic of the individuals within the population, this is called dispersion

For example, are the mosquitoes clumped together?

Are they evenly spaced?

Fecundity is how many offspring an individual can have in their life time make a huge difference in population size

For example, why do mosquito populations seem to grow so quickly?

Mosquitoes can have 2000 offspring's in their 2 week life span.

While a rhino can have 5 in around 40 years

To understand how fast or slow a population grows, you have to focus on limiting factors (what's keeping growth in check)

Mosquitoes are ectothermic

To figure out the limiting factors of an organism, you need to narrow it down to the food, temperature, mates, and space

Population ecologists group limiting factors into these 2 categories: Density dependent and density independent

They do it this way because we need to know whether a population's growth rate is being controlled by how many individuals are in it or by something else.

These effects matter because they affect the carrying capacity of an organism's habitat

The carrying capacity is the number of individuals that a habitat can sustain with the resources it has available.

Density dependent limitations are factors that inhabit the growth of the environmental stress caused by a population size

For example there might not be enough food water and space to sustain everyone

Density independent factors have nothing to do with how many individuals there are or how dense the population is

When density dependent limitations start to limit the population's growth, that means that the habitat's carrying capacity has been reached.

A lot of times the density independent limitations are described in terms of a catastrophe

Exponential growth means that the population grows at a proportionate rate compared to the size of the population

Exponential growth = Population: Size of population

Logistic growth: the population is limited to the carrying capacity of the habitat

Video #3 Human population growth

In ecology, we size up who chooses quantity over quality by something called R vs K selection Theory

This selection theory says that some organisms will reproduce in a way that aims for huge exponential growth.

While others are just content to hit the number of individuals that their habitat can support, this is the carrying capacity. They stay around that level

Species that reproduce in a way that leads to fast growth are called R selected species

It is called R because R is the maximum growth rate of a population.

R selected animals make a lot of babies in their lifetime, if one of their babies has a defect, they won't really have to care since they make a lot of babies anyways

K-selected species are animals who make very few babies in their lifetime and invest in them very heavily

It is called K because K means carrying capacity and since K selected species usually end up living at population densities closer to their carrying capacity than their R selected ones

Usually small organisms reproduce on the R side

Usually larger ones produce on the K side

Most species are somewhere in the middle

The reason why human growth rate has been rising so much was because we eliminated limiting factors

As our population grows our carrying capacity grows as well

The maximum carrying capacity is an estimate from 10 to 15 billion

Ecological footprint is an estimate of how much land and how many resources each person requires to live

That footprint varies on where you live and what your habits are

We ae outcompeting other species for our basic needs

A lot of our actions are based on a little thing called culture

Human culture has brought some huge changes in the past 50 years

The population increase rate has been decreasing since 1962

A reason why we have a lower increase in population rate is because of the way we live our lives

A positive feedback loop is when the population grows, but the workforce grows and the place, as a result more of us are supported, for example, in the early days kids would work in farms to help out, despite being an extra mouth to feed it did not affect anything too much

This is not happening in modern lifestyle because of Increasingly urban lifestyle

Cost, Not bringing back money and Birth control are all giving a negative feedback loop

Video #4 Feel the Love

Biology is just reproduction and survival, these things are harder because of competition

Naturally, competition is a vital part of how different species when their habitats overlap

These interactions between species are what define ecological communities

So it makes sense that community ecology studies these interactions anywhere they take place

Community ecology can be from a tide pool to a whole ocean or rotting log to an entire forest

Since there is competition, it does not always mean it is violent

If nasty weed gets rid of all the veggies in the garden due to competition, then it is called Competitive exclusion

Competitive exclusion is one the most fundamental properties in ecology

When 2 species are competing for the same resources, one of the species will be sucessful and eliminate the other, this is called the Competitive exclusion principle

This was identified by Russian ecologist G.F Gause in 1934

The reasons why tons of species are not extinct from competition

1 not all resources all limiting

2 Most species are adaptable enough to find a way to compete with other species, they do this by finding an ecological niche, the sum of all resources both biotic and abiotic that a species uses in its environment

A niche is like an organism's job in the community that provides a certain lifestyle

Finding a good niche not only provides a steady income of food and other stuff, but it also allows the species to avoid competitive exclusion.

This helps create a more stable ecological community

A fundamental niche is when an organism could have had a different lifestyle if they had not competed at all.

Instead of going through competitive exclusion, many species end up with a different job as well as life style, this is called a realized niche

Resource partitioning is when similar species settle into niches that let them coexist

If organisms can behave in ways that minimize competition while increasing their odds for survival, then it is called character displacement

Mutualism is when both species benefit

Commensalism is when one species benefits and the other is not affected

Parasitism is when one species benefits and the other is harmed

If a bigger species dies without the smaller sized species, the bigger species dies, this is called obligate mutualism

Video #5 Predators

Co evolution is the process by which the interactions between 2 species that affect the evolutionary development of both.

Predation is where one organism kills another organism for energy

Herbivory is where an organism eats plants to gain energy

Parasitism is when the host gets it's energy from another organism, the host usually harm it or even kill it in the process

Predators have hunting and feeding adaptations

Species have all sorts of ways to avoid getting killed, these can be broken up by what kinds of predatory behavior these adaptations are designed to avoid: Detection, capture and handling

Prey try to avoid detection, capture and handling in order to be alive

Some prey adapt to camouflage to avoid detection

Avoiding capture is pretty simple, for example running

To avoid handling, a rose uses thorns for example, or tree sap to trap insects

Other plants may use chemical weapons

Many plants have evolved aposematic or warning coloration, meaning that the plant makes a color that warns the predator that eating them would be a serious mistake

A discovery has shown that the more unpalatable (not pleasant to taste) prey that use the same color patterns the more likely predators are to avoid all prey with that appearance overall, this defense technique is today called Mullerian mimicry

Some organisms might look dangerous but are tasty to some organisms, this technique is called the Batesian mimicry.

Henry Walter Bates discovered Batesian mimicry

Video #6 Change is good

What happened after the Permian Triassic 'disturbance' is an example of ecological succession

Ecological succession is the make up of a community changes over time, starting the day after a disturbance

Succession is all about change

Primary succession is when organisms populate an area for the first time

There is an advantage to primary succession, no competition

Pioneer species are species that don't mind settling down in inhospitable places. Such as prokaryotes or protists

Lycophytes are simpler vascular plants like the now extinct scale tress and club mosses

The outcome of primary succession landscape is to build or rebuild soils

Primary succession takes a very long time

Once the soils are ready slightly larger plants can move in

Secondary Succession is usually the first response to a small disturbance  like a flood or a small fire

Succession never stops

A climax community is by which would have a predictable assemblage of species that would remain stable until the next big disturbance

Stochasticity (randomness) which prevents us from exactly knowing what a community would look like after 100 years after a disturbance

Stability never happens in ecology because there are disturbances always going on

The only way biodiversity could be high is if there are a ton of little niches for all species to fit into

The intermediate disturbance hypothesis hypothesizes that intermediate disturbances (not too big or small) are ideal

A whole forest whipped out by lava would be primary succession because the organisms have to go to asteroid stage 1, this has changed the game.

While a falling tree (secondary succession) is not enough to change the game

More niches means more biodiversity, more biodiversity means a healthier and more stable ecosystem

Video #7 Links in the chain

An ecosystem is just a jumble of organisms and weather patterns as well as geology and other stuff

Population ecology looks at interactions between individuals of one species

Community ecology which looks at bunches of of living things interacting with each other

Ecosystem ecology looks at how energy and materials come into an ecosystem

Ecosystem ecology is mainly about eating e.g who is eating who

Without plants, there are no animals

An ecosystem can be measured by things like it's biomass, the total weight of the living things in the ecosystem, and the productivity how much stuff is produced and how quickly stuff grows back and how good the ecosystem is in terms of retaining stuff

That is a food pyramid

Autotrophs like plants are able to gather up the suns energy through photosynthesis

Autotrophs use photosynthesis

Plants are primary producers

Herbivores are the primary consumer

Whoever eats the herbivore is the secondary consumer

Whatever eats the secondary consumer is the tertiary consumer, if it's the top of the food chain then it can be referred to as the apex predator

Detritivores decompose all the dead animal and plant matter as well as animal poop

Earthworms, fiddler crabs, and dung beetles and fungi are detritivores

We usually talk about food webs more than food chains

Know about calorie stuff in food pyramids

Mercury can also be passed on (look at paper notes to know more)

As you move up the pyramid, each trophic level consumes ten times more mercury than the previous one

This is called bioaccumulation

Organisms only hold onto 10% of the energy they digest, so each trophic level will have to eat 10 times more biomass to sustain itself

Video #8 The hydrologic and Carbon cycles

The Earth is filled with cycles

All matter gets passed around in continuous biogeochemical cycles, these are pathways for molecules like water or elements like carbon and nitrogen and phosphorous to move through all of the Earth's various ecological and geological compartments

The hydrologic cycle describes how water moves on, above and below the surface of the Earth driven by the energy of the sun and wind

The water cycle has different forms, solid, liquid and gas

Since it is a cycle there is no beginning and no end, it is infinite

Precipitation is rain hail snow, sleet, graupel that kind of stuff

Precipitation happens when the water that's being held in the atmosphere condenses , or turns from a gas to a liquid and then occasionally freezes into a solid right up in the air

The opposite of condensation is evaporation, Condensation is the conversion of a liquid into a gas, and when a substance converts straight from a solid to a gas, that's sublimation

When it is from a gas to a solid that is deposition

Condensation is responsible for the formation of clouds which happens when air containing water vapor rises and cools or is compressed to the point where it can no longer be a gas.

At this point the vapor forms droplets

This is the same thing as a glass of iced tea on a humid day

A cloud is just a big pile of condensed water droplets or a gigantic floating reservoir

Most of the evaporation on earth takes place on the ocean

When wind moves  clouds, and as the water keeps on condensing, clouds get heavier and heavier until gravity takes over and pulls the condensed droplets to the ground in the form of rain, snow, hail, sleet or graupel

Gravity either pulls the water across the surface of the lowest point in a process called runoff.

Or gravity pulls it underground

Water can be trapped for a little while in places like lakes but most of the water that falls as precipitation gets pulled lower and lower as runoff through the creeks and streams and rivers until it reaches the oceans

In cold places water freezes around as ice, but when it melts, most of it runs off to the ocean

Oceans are the reason why we have the water cycle in the first place

Ocean water is salty because as water runs to the ocean it erodes minerals like salt and soil and carries them to the ocean

When water evaporates into the air, the salt gets left behind and does not evaporate with the water

Plants and animals are also involved in the water cycle

Both plants and animals that break down carbohydrates to produce energy produces water as a waste product

Most organisms are made of mostly  water

Evapotranspiration: The process by which water is transferred from the land to the atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and other surfaces and by transpiration from plants.

This process turns liquid into gas

Carbon is vital because;

A) All living things require carbon for their structure and to fuel their bodies

B) It's a big component in a bunch of abiotic things as well as biotic

Carbon is in the atmosphere which helps regulate the temperature

Plants absorb lots of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere because they need it to photosynthesize, then they release carbon back out again

Carbon dissolves very easily in water

If dead plants form rocks like coal, we call these carbon rich geological deposits fossil fuels

Geosphere is the earth's rocks

Since Carbon gets into the atmosphere, this is global climate change

The carbon cycle works like this

Video #9 Nitrogen and Phosphorous cycles

Animals need oxygen, hydrogen Nitrogen

These elements basically cover up the water and carbon cycle

We are also about 3% Nitrogen, and 1% Phosphorous

We need nitrogen in our bodies to make amino acids which create proteins

DNA and RNA also require Phosphorus

The air we breathe is mostly Nitrogen and the rocks are packed with Phosphorus

Plants contain Nitrogen and Phosphorous

Nitrogen is all around us

Nitrogen makes up 78% of the atmosphere

Plants need nitrogen fixed, so they use Nitrogen fixation

Certain plants need certain nitrogen fixing bacteria

Nitrogen cycle works like this

Lightning can also break the bonds of nitrogen as well as bacteria

Synthetic fertilizers can also separate nitrogen

Denitrifying bacteria has a job to metabolize nitrogen oxides and turn them back into nitrogen gas

Bacteria was able to open the triple bonds of nitrogen gas

Plants wrestle nitrogen into their bodies so we don't need to care about it

Phosphorous has nothing to do with the air

The lithosphere (Earth's crust) has rocks containing phosphorus (inorganic phosphates)

This is the phosphorous cycle

A phosphorous atom can be stuck in the cycle for almost 100,000 years

1 When ever the phosphorous rich rock are re exposed some of the phosphates are dissolved in the water

2 These dissolved phosphates are immediately available to and assimilated by plants, which are then eaten by animals

3 When a leaf drops, or something poops or dies, the decomposers break it down and release the phosphates back into the soil or water

4 Decomposed phosphate is immediately assimilated back into plants and this cycle is infinite

From the plants to the decomposers to the soil and back to the plant

Video #10 5 Human impacts on the environment

Many organisms provide us with very important ecosystem services

1 Healthy ecosystems provide support services, these services include recycling all the compounds we need for life (carbon cycle for example)

2 Ecosystems also perform provisioning services, giving us the raw materials we need to live

3 Ecosystems also perform regulating services, controlling everything so nothing goes insane

4 Ecosystems are awesome, they give us cultural services

If we had to do all the things that ecosystems provide for us, it would cost us 46 trillion dollars annually

Ecosystems can only do this for us if they have their biodiversity intact

The main reason why biodiversity is so vital is because it makes ecosystems more resilient to that never ending change (succession)

If you take one species away from a high biodiversity system, it's less likely to collapse than a low biodiversity system

High biodiversity means there is lots of organisms as well

Low biodiversity means there are very few organisms there

Affecting one ecosystem by taking tress out will affect the neighboring ecosystem as well

The cascade affect is when one ecosystem is affected then another is affected an so on

Deforestation can lead to desertification, or the spread of dry, unproductive landscapes

Desertification is driven along by additional factors like overgrazing cattle and over irrigation

Another we impact biodiversity is by introducing non- native species (invasive species)

These invasive species out compete to the point where it rocks the whole ecosystem

Overharvesting certain organisms is another way affect ecosystems

For example we are overfishing the oceans to meet common fish demands like tuna

Video #11 Pollution

Trash in the environment is pollution

Natural compounds in the wrong concentrations can do just as much damage as a harmful chemical

We are screwing up the carbon cycle

We have also been ruining the nitrogen and phosphorous cycles

Phosphates and Nitrates are basically the main ingredients in fertilizers

Mercury is super pollutant and very toxic

Mercury is in coal seam, but when coal is burned the mercury gets into the air

Then mercury gets into the water which really affects food chains, especially marine food chains

Final Video, Video #12 Conservation and Restoration ecology

Conservation ecology involves measuring the biodiversity of an ecosystem and determining how to protect it

Restoration ecology is the science of restoring broken ecosystems

The thing that holds every ecosystem together is biodiversity

In addition to the diversity of species, ecologists look at genetic diversity within a species as a whole between populations

Genetic diversity is important because it makes evolution possible by allowing a species to adapt to new situations like disease and climate change

Another level of biodiversity has to do with ecosystem diversity, or the variety of different ecosystems within an area

Figuring this all out is vital to fix an ecosystem

One way that ecologists help an ecosystem from going and under is by small population conservation, this approach focuses on identifying species and populations which are very small, and tries to boost their numbers and genetic diversity

Low population and low biodiversity is very bad for a species

When a tiny little population suffers from inbreeding or genetic drift, that is a shift and overall a genetic make up that leads to even less diversity, this causes lower reproduction rates and higher mortality rates, higher mortality rates still make the population small. This is known as extinction vortex

The next step is to figure out how small a population is too small.

Ecologists do this by calculating the minimum viable population

The minimum viable population is the smallest size at which a population can survive and sustain itself

Another way of preserving biodiversity focuses on populations whose numbers are in decline no matter how large the original population was, this is called declining population conservation, it involves of answering a series of related questions that get at the root of what's causing this organism's numbers to go down.

First you have to determine if the population is actually going down or not

Then you have to figure out how big the population historically was and what its requirements were.

And finally, what's causing the decline and how to address the issue

You can't make an ecosystem exactly how it used to be, but you can get rid of the problem

What's happening in Milltown is structural restoration, the removal of whatever human impact was causing the problem

Bioremediation recruits organisms temporarily to help remove toxins, like bacteria that eat wastes or plants that leach out metal from tainted soils

Biological Augmentation involves adding organisms to the ecosystem to restore the materials that are gone rather than removing the harmful stuff.

Rather than all of this, it is just easier to protect ecosystems rather than fixing them

DONE!!!!!!!

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https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5b1874e96f92ae0019a1b0da

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My Geology website (Has a bibliography, google form and lots of content, in fact 16 pages of content!) This website has a quiz to test yourself. It took me 26 hours to make and type. (epic project)

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My Geology website (Has a bibliography, google form and lots of content, in fact 16 pages of content!) This website has a quiz to test yourself. It took me 26 hours to make and type. (epic project)

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https://apurbadeb2003.wixsite.com/geologysite

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dzFwr04a72M
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uk1G_f5Bp_E

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Structures major project with 120 slides of content.

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Structures major project with 120 slides of content.

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https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1Wzy0pl0UTWA241lkgxRhtM3R0_pZIdRdmYEn_oGun1o/edit#slide=id.g393584fcab_1_68

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https://apurbadeb2003.wixsite.com/structures-site

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https://smailpembinatrails-my.sharepoint.com/:p:/r/personal/modeb_smail_pembinatrails_ca/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc=%7B987A970C-8CC6-460D-AD5B-6FF29B0049C1%7D&file=Rocks%20and%20Minerals.pptx&action=edit&mobileredirect=true

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https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1wwXhGO8La0Xj9p39l-dxynLsc_xO4GKlbiuUSyZIZcI/edit?usp=sharing (I actually did the experiment)

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* Weight is the load force

* The mass of an object is how much matter is in it.

* When the metric system was first designed, scientists compared mass by using a small cylinder of metal, they called this cylinder the primary standard of mass, it weighed 1 kilogram.

* Smaller masses are usually expressed in grams

* A balance is a popular instrument for measuring mass.

* Matter stays the same no matter where it is located

* Left off at page 299 of the science textbook

I-beams, T- beams and L- beams are good for support

Triangles are the strongest shapes

Corrugated paper is strong by itself in one direction

Structural efficiency is the live load divided by it's own load.

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The design of buildings and what's around them is called architecture

* Architects have to decide and determine many things like what the building is going to be used for, or how is the building going to look

* Architects start with an idea, a sketch so they can look at the building without going through the trouble of actually building it.

* Walls are often used to support the weight of the roof

* The shape of the building also supports the load

* Materials affect the strength of the building, cost and appearance

* All buildings need a strong foundation and base

* If a structure has a wider foundation, then it will be stronger

* Architects plan every detail of a building

* Architects use designs, computers and sketches to plan buildings

* Architects often build a model to find out how the building will look in 3D

* It is much easier to make a model than build a real building to find out what needs to be

Size and shape of a building determines lots of things like; how much land is available, where is the land, how many people would come and go, how much would it cost etc.

* Form follows function

* Every shape of a structure is a decision made by architects

* Plans are like the instructions for how to build that building

* The infrastructure of a building is the structure underneath

* The plans tell us where things go

* Transformers, air filters and water pumps are all in the infrastructure

* Without the infrastructure, the building would not work

* The infrastructure is in the plans

* Stone was used a long time ago, stone is strong and holds up to weather well.

* Stone is heavy, Stone is not perfectly straight, so if it was piled up, then they start to flex on one side, and the other side gets pulled apart, so it would fall and fail

* Steels frameworks are much stronger than stone for how much they weigh

* Steel I-beams are strong and light

* Elevation is the structure itself, the outside lines of the object Elevations are 2D

* Looking at an object straight on yet looking at the inside of it if section

* The plan view is looking at the structure from the top, but you can still see the inside

* When parallel beams are connected with a triangle, it is called a truss

* Some of the largest roofs in the world are held up by triangular trusses

* Arches can hold up roofs too, Arches don't need any columns holding them up

* The weight of everything on an arch gets carried along the curve, The weight of everything on the arch gets carried by the outside walls

* A Dome works just like an arch, A dome is a circle of arches hooked together in the middle

* Domes can support a lot of weight and leave lots of space

* A dome is one of the strongest architectural shapes because it is supported by triangles which is the strongest shape

* Architecture is also about the area around them, like steps and paving stones

* Architects have to know how far apart buildings are, how high they are, which way the trees are, which way the wind blows etc.

* Architecture is both science and art

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Plastic has been used for synthetic fabrics a long time ago

Plastic is a man made material, recycling is not good enough, reducing and reusing is much more vital.

P.L.A plastic is one of the 2 types that are used in 3D printers, P.L.A is made from corn. It can decompose.

Starlight is fire proof and offers protection against radiation

Nylon is a polymer, carbon fiber is one of the most popular composites

Carbon fiber was then used in cars for lighter weight

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Great Wall of China is located in Mutianyu. The Great Wall of China is an amazing man made structure that stretches for nearly 9000 kilometers (5500 miles).

The Guangzhou West tower in Guangzhou is one of the tallest buildings in the world! It measures an amazing 440 meters in height (1444 feet) and features 103 floors.

The international Commerce center in Hong Kong is one of the tallest buildings in the world, it stands at 483 meters in height (1584 feet). It features 118 floors inside.

The Jin Mao tower is one of the tallest buildings in the world and has 88 floors! It opened in 1998 and is located in Shanghai, China.

Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The twin buildings were once the tallest in the world but still remain among the tallest. They reach an incredible 452 meters (1483 feet) in height and feature 88 floors

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The Rome Colosseum was built over 2000 years ago, it could seat 5000 people and was built during the roman empire

The Donghai bridge is one of the longest bridges in the world and is located in China, It opened in 2008

The Eiffel Tower is located in Paris and is 324 meters tall

Pyramid of Khafre

The Pyramid of Khafre is one of the amazing Ancient Egyptian Pyramids of Giza. It is the second largest of the group and holds the tomb of a pharaoh named Khafre.

·

The Golden Gate bridge is a famous bridge in San Francisco that was completed in 1937

The Pentagon Arlington County, Virginia, USA. The Pentagon is the headquarters of the US Department of

Defense, around 25,000 people work there and it is the world's largest office building by floor area.

Clifton Suspension bridge

Clifton Suspension bridge stretches over the River Avon in Bristol, England. It was designed by a famous civil engineer named Isambard Kingdom Brunel.

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· The mass of an object is the measure of the amount of matter in it

· All objects are made in tiny particles

· Scientists decided to measure mass by comparing objects to a particular small cylinder of metal

-Other notes

· If I want to make a frame if I take string wrap around triangle it is rigid

· ·Types of loads

· Wind load

· · Snow load

· · Thermal load

· · Exothermic reaction: when concrete settles it gets hot, from drying because it puts out so much heat. Concrete needs reinforcing.

· -Browse Structures classcraft website

· The Burj Khalifa is the tallest building in the world, it is 828 meters tall and includes 160 floors

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· Almost all structures are over-budget

· It is very rare for a real-life structure to under budget.

Understanding forces and motion

· 1st law of motion: Inertia: An object at rest tends to stay at rest

· Force creates motion

· 2nd law of motion: When a force acts upon an object, that object's velocity will change at an increasing rate, this is called acceleration

· Acceleration can be used for a faster speed or for slowing things down

· When an object accelerates, that simply means that object is going faster and faster until the force is removed

· 3rd law of motion: All forces exist in pairs

· If you push on something, that thing also pushes back.

· Force moves objects

· Constant force creates acceleration

· Forces exist pairs, and forces push back when forces apply.

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· A composite material is formed by the combination of 2 or more materials

· This new material has emerging properties that the original materials did not have on their own

· Composite materials usually consist of a reinforcing fiber (this provides the majority of the strength and stiffness)

· A matrix is a material that holds the fibers together (like glue)

· A good example of a composite material is carbon fiber composite

· Carbon fiber has reinforcing made from carbon which is strong and stiff. Carbon fiber is light and strong

· An epoxy is a plastic rein that holds fibers together.

· Epoxy's are often used in F1 cars and aircrafts

· Epoxy is 3x stronger and stiffer than aluminum yet 40% lighter

· A ductile material will deform, stretch or bend before gradually failing

· One of the main compromises of a composite material is that they are not ductile and fail immediately, not in a graduate way.

· If you flex a soft drink, it will deform into a new shape.

· Several plastics and some metals are very ductile so they can increase in length by 30% before they completely fail.

· Composite material video #2

· Composite materials are substances that contain 2 or more materials that combine to produce new substances with different physical properties from the original substances

· Ancient human beings used clay, wood stone glass or metal as building materials

· They have limitations, they corrode easily, they are heavy, bulky or difficult to shape

· Scientists and engineers combine several metals, ceramics and polymers

· Concrete is weak on it's own and brittle

· Concrete will break if a heavy load is placed on it, although it is strong in compression, it's waterproof, easy to maintain and relatively cheap.

· Reinforced concrete contains steel rods in the concrete pillars which makes them stronger than

normal concrete and are able to support larger loads than normal concrete.

· Optical Fiber is a fine transparent glass tube that is made of molten glass

· In telecommunications, light has replaced electrons as the transmitter of the signals. This light transmits signals through optical fiber

· Optical fiber is also used in medical fields as laser to do medical operation

· Photochromic glass is very sensitive to light

· It darkens the presence of bright light and lightens when the amount of sunlight decreases

1 Photochromic glass protects our eyes from harmful ultraviolet rays while looking at the sun

2 Then it controls the amount of light that passes through automatically

3 Photochromic glass helps our eyes to cope when our eyes are exposed to different light conditions

4 Reduce reflection of light

· Fiber glass is obtained by adding polyester resin to molten glass.

· Fiber glass cannot be compressed easily, so it is strong under compression

· Fiber glass is also more tensile than normal/original materials

· Fiber glass is light, tolerates corrosion, it is waterproof, not very flammable, not brittle (not fragile) and stronger than steel!

· Glass is brittle but fiber glass is not

· Brittleness in glass is usually due to surface defects or scratches formed during fast cooling in manufacturing process

· Fiber glass is a composite material containing glass as the reinforced phase and plastic. Fiber glass is not brittle because it has a flexible plastic matrix

· Superconductors are electrical conductors that have almost zero electrical resistance

· Super Conductors minimize the loss of electrical energy through heat.

· Wonder Ville Game

· Wood is breakable under torsion, Fibers of wood split along grain lines and weaknesses due to forces

· Rubber is weak in tension because the flaws in rubber create an area of weaknesses, which eventually split under tension

· Bending is the change of shape or form in a material caused by stress and force

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Tension is stretching

Arch bridges are almost always stronger than beam bridges, in someone's experiment it was almost 2 times stronger

The Arch bridge the weight is distributed evenly

Bridges help us connect land with land

Canals are artificial water ways

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The Tacoma narrow bridge, the engineers who designed it would wear iron rings made from the iron used from the bridge

Engineers test bridges in wind tunnels before building

Harmonic motion is when the wind would not act on a structure steadily

A cable stayed bridge is similar to a suspension bridge Bow arch ridge

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Dynamite was invented by Alfred Nobel, he made tons of money which he used to make the Nobel prize

Bridges are used to carry traffic people etc.

Cantilevers are long beams

The big pillars of a bridge are strong under compression and the strings must be strong under tension

Six Bridge Types

· Beam.

· Truss.

· Arch.

· Cantilever.

· Suspension.

· Cable Stayed.

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Concrete on it's is brittle, but if iron rebars were put in then it's composite, but concrete is already a composite

A material with the strength of 2 with another material with the strength of 2 might be more than 4 only if the materials work well together, but if it's the same material it's not going to be 2 times stronger, it might be 3 instead.

Corrugated paper is what we think is cardboard like a cardboard box but a cardboard box is just corrugated paper.

Corrugated paper is a laminate

Laminate is a composite in layers

Clt is Cross laminated timber

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Welding can be represented by hot glue

Coating structures with hot glue is a material

Interior walls are usually built in rectangles

Cardboard and corrugated paper are different

Corrugated paper is like an amazon delivery box

Cardboard is like a poster

Corrugated has a structure in it since it has corrugations

Adding corrugations makes more strength in one direction, this makes strong against torsion

Laminates are layers of different materials, also a type of composite material

Composite materials are 2 or more materials put together

If composites are put in layers, it's called a laminate

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Paper Mache is a composite material

Rebar is the name of the metal put inside concrete, like steel reinforcing or iron

Settling loads is when the load compresses unevenly

When the ground beneath a structure jerks back and forth during an earthquake, the structure is experiencing an earthquake, or seismic load. Earthquake loads push and pull horizontally on a structure. ... When the soil beneath a structure settles unevenly, it is called settlement load.

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Thermal load is temperature

Concrete has an exo thermic chemical reaction

Concrete has an exo thermic reaction when it's heated

Reinforcing makes materials very strong

Iron reinforcing is very malleable and it bends instead of breaking

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There is a ratio of force to strength of the structure, they must have an equal ratio.

Concrete breaks when its under pressure

Concrete often shatters from the thermal load on it

Dead load is just the weight itself

The Live load is what weight is on the structure

Snow on our roofs is a live load

Wind load is when wind blows against the structure

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Glass making requires lots of teamwork

Glass making is an art

Steel was first used as a building material in the 1850s

Rubber is a natural resource with a buoyant nature, it comes from trees in south America and Asia, Rubber gets stronger when heated with sulfur

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2 of the most common materials are paper and concrete

Papyrus plants used to be used to make paper in ancient Egypt

The Chinese also made paper, but people in china make paper the traditional way, this technique takes lots of time

The U.S money is made with 75% cotton

Concrete is virtually everywhere

Concrete was first used in Egypt, as well as the Romans

Hydraulic lime hardens under water

Cement is found in most modern day concrete

Steel makes the reinforced concrete very strong

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A brick is very strong under compression

Bedsheets are strong under tension, but weak under compression

If someone was being wrapped around a bed sheet very tightly, the person would be going through compression and the bed sheet would be under tension

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If I want to make a frame if I take string wrap around triangle it is rigid

External forces are something that happen on the outside

Internal forces are the forces that happen inside

External forces are something that are acting on an object

Internal forces:

-Tension

-Compression

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System of bolts mostly rigid not very good but technically rigid if hole exactly same size if put screws farther more rigid intention rigid intention maybe limited motion range screw and bolt on their own is mobile if mobile go together rigid more pieces it will not build good

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Brace/strut is when the shape can't move inwards

Gusett is when it goes on top of the joints braces, or corners

There are string like fasteners that are mobile joints
Ties are whenInterlocking shapes are rigid

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Bracing and soldering/bracing are different

Soldering is adding a 3rd party metal to stick them together

Welding is just joining them together

Leverage makes a shape not as sturdy

The exertion of force by means of a lever or an object used in the manner of a lever

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Triangles are rigid shapes, they don't move easily, they are rigid shape, they are locked in point

Circles are sort of a rigid shape

Mobile joints in a square joint is not a good idea

Gluing can join joints, but it would larger surface area, as well as tape, but more rigid than bolts and screws

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The strength of something is the square of it's length

Construction companies usually go over budget

Build a bridge

A mobile joint is something that spins around it's point

Rigid point does not spin, it stays in place

Screws and bolts are a type of mobile joints on there on, but can become rigid

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One flaw can ruin a shell structure

One weak point can make the shell structures catastrophically fail

Shell Structures can be made from flexible material

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Shell Structures is just one shape

An example is an igloo, and an egg shell

A bowl is a shell structure, jugs, plastic bottles, a cassette tape

Shell structures can be weakened by any manufacturing flaws

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Triangles are rigid shapes

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Frame structures have joints, it's only strong at it's weakest joints

But frame structures can be weak if not built in rigid shapes (triangle)

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SQ3R done on Structures textbook chapter

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SQ3R done on Structures textbook chapter

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Frame structure is not just hallow inside, but also outside

Interior walls of a building is usually a frame structure

We are natural frame structure, our bones

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All our interior walls are frame structures

Frame structures are usually made of studs, wood, metal concrete etc.

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A mass structure are the heaviest, lighter than solid structures though

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Mass structures have piles and a hallow inside of it

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The value of an object is sometimes how much space is in it

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Solid structures would be expensive since it requires a lot of material

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Solid structures are very heavy

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Solid structures are strong since it can't go through compression, and it's not flexible

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The other way is where they get their strength from

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One way to classify structures is whether they are natural or man made

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https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1Ff70mRBlwhevni_uwVM-TSCQxLG_oRMtmG1cZeXnlRs/edit#slide=id.g35eceedfc6_1_316

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https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1qDi56REhXtABSsC_58Mhq3NCHmZeQYsd-03P41I_3jQ/edit#slide=id.g3625aa21be_0_225

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https://create.kahoot.it/details/final-test-of-structures/dc8b8e1b-150f-448b-8144-23ebf8a18491

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https://create.kahoot.it/details/loads-and-forces/2ea80ce2-35b6-4d39-b517-1d1951045795

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https://create.kahoot.it/details/types-of-structures/a85a53c8-883d-4782-8451-008d756770cb

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https://create.kahoot.it/details/duplicate-of-how-well-do-you-know-your-structures/2da97d4b-d08b-4820-b23a-4de4432fdd7c

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https://create.kahoot.it/create#/edit/6d4aa2a1-f34f-437c-9db6-85c40d7ffd36/overview

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https://imgflip.com/i/26pziv

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https://imgflip.com/i/26pz98

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https://imgflip.com/i/26pywo?merp=1521497716.9271

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My Epic Project is in progress...... (The link takes up a lot of space)

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My Epic Project is in progress...... (The link takes up a lot of space)

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https://editor.wix.com/html/editor/web/renderer/edit/8a3ab770-f28b-4e9d-bbe0-43679da6da06?metaSiteId=b4f59325-30d6-46ad-b5bc-fb8e110348a8&editorSessionId=56C3D06F-2366-4D2D-9803-3497FFEB680D&referralInfo=my-account

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https://imgflip.com/i/26nu8d

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https://imgflip.com/i/26nu1m

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https://quizizz.com/admin/private

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https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5aaf05ace860270019743cb5

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https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5aaef6e1b07ca1001b6450e4

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https://imgflip.com/i/26nc1n

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https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5aaea169b07ca1001b640392

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https://imgflip.com/i/26m7dx

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https://imgflip.com/i/26m6sz

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https://imgflip.com/i/26ly0k

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My powtoon rant about why fibreglass is better than steel

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My powtoon rant about why fibreglass is better than steel

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https://www.powtoon.com/html5-studio/#/edit/ehEXRDSWdB3

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My short brick Mation about a sky scraper failing

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My short brick Mation about a sky scraper failing

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My powtoon about the types of structures! (This is a short video, not slides)

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My powtoon about the types of structures! (This is a short video, not slides)

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https://www.powtoon.com/html5-studio/#/edit/ckUomHSLmWx

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I made a structures story that I shared with you on onedrive

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I made a structures story that I shared with you on onedrive

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https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5aa9c759b091c8001c1396a8

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My science fair meme, I have posted this on Edmodo as well

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My science fair meme, I have posted this on Edmodo as well

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https://imgflip.com/i/254h2i

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https://quizlet.com/274729196/types-of-loads-flash-cards/

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My bridge has support from beneath and has 3 pillars

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My bridge that has 3 central pillars and 4 arches, it can support small loads

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My bridge that has 3 central pillars and 4 arches, it can support small loads

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My 50 slide prezi about Heating and Cooling curves and The changes of state

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My 50 slide prezi about Heating and Cooling curves and The changes of state

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https://prezi.com/p/bhz2gqxlkhuy/

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A 46 slide prezi about types of structures, forces and loads

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A 46 slide prezi about types of structures, forces and loads

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https://prezi.com/p/z7ullelfnqt-/

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https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5a876b04d7c2a3002084b336?from=quizEditor