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BBC Bitesize - GCSE Biology - Blood - Revision 2

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Learn about blood, a complex liquid tissue, and how it transports oxygen, dissolved substances and heat around the body.

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The red blood cells are highly specialized, well adapted for their primary function of transporting oxygen from the lungs to all of the body tissues. Red cells are approximately 7.8 μm (1 μm = 0.000039 inch) in diameter and have the form of biconcave disks, a shape that provides a large surface-to-volume ratio. When fresh blood is examined with the microscope, red cells appear to be yellow-green disks with pale centres containing no visible internal structures. When blood is centrifuged to cause the cells to settle, the volume of packed red cells ( hematocrit value) ranges between 42 and 54 percent of total volume in men and between 37 and 47 percent in women; values are somewhat lower in children. Normal red blood cells are fairly uniform in volume, so that the hematocrit value is determined largely by the number of red cells per unit of blood. The normal red cell count ranges between four million and six million per cubic millimetre.

The red blood cell is enclosed in a thin membrane that is composed of chemically complex lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates in a highly organized structure. Extraordinary distortion of the red cell occurs in its passage through minute blood vessels, many of which have a diameter less than that of the red cell. When the deforming stress is removed, the cell springs back to its original shape. The red cell readily tolerates bending and folding, but, if appreciable stretching of the membrane occurs, the cell is damaged or destroyed. The membrane is freely permeable to water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, glucose, urea, and certain other substances, but it is impermeable to hemoglobin. Within the cell the major cation is potassium; in contrast, in plasma and extracellular fluids the major cation is sodium. A pumping mechanism, driven by enzymes within the red cell, maintains its sodium and potassium concentrations. Red cells are subject to osmotic effects. When they are suspended in very dilute (hypotonic) solutions of sodium chloride, red cells take in water, which causes them to increase in volume and to become more spheroid; in concentrated salt solutions they lose water and shrink.

When red cell membranes are damaged, hemoglobin and other dissolved contents may escape from the cells, leaving the membranous structures as "ghosts." This process, called hemolysis, is produced not only by the osmotic effects of water but also by numerous other mechanisms. These include physical damage to red cells, as when blood is heated, is forced under great pressure through a small needle, or is subjected to freezing and thawing; chemical damage to red cells by agents such as bile salts, detergents, and certain snake venoms; and damage caused by immunologic reactions that may occur when antibodies attach to red cells in the presence of complement. When such destruction proceeds at a greater than normal rate, hemolytic anemia results.

The membrane of the red cell has on its surface a group of molecules that confer blood group specificity (i.e., that differentiate blood cells into groups). Most blood group substances are composed of carbohydrate linked to protein, and it is usually the chemical structure of the carbohydrate portion that determines the specific blood type. Blood group substances are antigens capable of inducing the production of antibodies when injected into persons lacking the antigen. Detection and recognition of the blood group antigens are accomplished by the use of blood serum containing these antibodies. The large number of different red cell antigens makes it extremely unlikely that persons other than identical twins will have the same array of blood group substances.

About 95 percent of the dry weight of the red blood cell consists of hemoglobin, the substance necessary for oxygen transport. Hemoglobin is a protein; a molecule contains four polypeptide chains (a tetramer), each chain consisting of more than 140 amino acids. To each chain is attached a chemical structure known as a heme group. Heme is composed of a ringlike organic compound known as a porphyrin, to which an iron atom is attached. It is the iron atom that reversibly binds oxygen as the blood travels between the lungs and the tissues. There are four iron atoms in each molecule of hemoglobin, which, accordingly, can bind four atoms of oxygen. The complex porphyrin and protein structure provides the proper environment for the iron atom so that it binds and releases oxygen appropriately under physiological conditions. The affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is so great that at the oxygen pressure in the lungs about 95 percent of the hemoglobin is saturated with oxygen. As the oxygen tension falls, as it does in the tissues, oxygen dissociates from hemoglobin and is available to move by diffusion through the red cell membrane and the plasma to sites where it is used. The proportion of hemoglobin saturated with oxygen is not directly proportional to the oxygen pressure. As the oxygen pressure declines, hemoglobin gives up its oxygen with disproportionate rapidity, so that the major fraction of the oxygen can be released with a relatively small drop in oxygen tension. The affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is primarily determined by the structure of hemoglobin, but it is also influenced by other conditions within the red cell, in particular the pH and certain organic phosphate compounds produced during the chemical breakdown of glucose, especially 2,3-diphosphoglycerate ( see below Respiration).

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Hemoglobin has a much higher affinity for carbon monoxide than for oxygen. Carbon monoxide produces its lethal effects by binding to hemoglobin and preventing oxygen transport. The oxygen-carrying function of hemoglobin can be disturbed in other ways. The iron of hemoglobin is normally in the reduced or ferrous state, in both oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin. If the iron itself becomes oxidized to the ferric state, hemoglobin is changed to methemoglobin, a brown pigment incapable of transporting oxygen. The red cells contain enzymes capable of maintaining the iron in its normal state, but under abnormal conditions large amounts of methemoglobin may appear in the blood.

Sickle cell anemia is a serious and often fatal disease characterized by an inherited abnormality of hemoglobin. Persons who have sickle cell anemia are predominantly of African descent. The disease is caused by the mutation of a single gene that determines the structure of the hemoglobin molecule. Sickle hemoglobin differs from normal hemoglobin in that a single amino acid ( glutamic acid) in one pair of the polypeptide chains has been replaced by another ( valine). This single intramolecular change so alters the properties of the hemoglobin molecule that anemia and other effects are produced. Many other genetically determined abnormalities of hemoglobin have been identified. Some of these also produce diseases of several types. Study of the effects of altered structure of hemoglobin on its properties has greatly broadened knowledge of the structure-function relationships of the hemoglobin molecule.

sickle cell anemia; hemoglobin© Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Production of red blood cells (erythropoiesis)

Red cells are produced continuously in the marrow of certain bones. As stated above, in adults the principal sites of red cell production, called erythropoiesis, are the marrow spaces of the vertebrae, ribs, breastbone, and pelvis. Within the bone marrow the red cell is derived from a primitive precursor, or erythroblast, a nucleated cell in which there is no hemoglobin. Proliferation occurs as a result of several successive cell divisions. During maturation, hemoglobin appears in the cell, and the nucleus becomes progressively smaller. After a few days the cell loses its nucleus and is then introduced into the bloodstream in the vascular channels of the marrow. Almost 1 percent of the red cells are generated each day, and the balance between red cell production and the removal of aging red cells from the circulation is precisely maintained. When blood is lost from the circulation, the erythropoietic activity of marrow increases until the normal number of circulating cells has been restored.

In a normal adult the red cells of about half a litre (almost one pint) of blood are produced by the bone marrow every week. A number of nutrient substances are required for this process. Some nutrients are the building blocks of which the red cells are composed. For example, amino acids are needed in abundance for the construction of the proteins of the red cell, in particular of hemoglobin. Iron also is a necessary component of hemoglobin. Approximately one-quarter of a gram of iron is needed for the production of a pint of blood. Other substances, required in trace amounts, are needed to catalyze the chemical reactions by which red cells are produced. Important among these are several vitamins such as riboflavin, vitamin B₁₂, and folic acid, necessary for the maturation of the developing red cell; and vitamin B₆ (pyridoxine), required for the synthesis of hemoglobin. The secretions of several endocrine glands influence red cell production. If there is an inadequate supply of thyroid hormone, erythropoiesis is retarded and anemia appears. The male sex hormone, testosterone, stimulates red cell production; for this reason, red cell counts of men are higher than those of women.

The capacity of the bone marrow to produce red cells is enormous. When stimulated to peak activity and when provided adequately with nutrient substances, the marrow can compensate for the loss of several pints of blood per week. Hemorrhage or accelerated destruction of red cells leads to enhanced marrow activity. The marrow can increase its production of red cells up to eight times the usual rate. After that, if blood loss continues, anemia develops. The rate of erythropoiesis is sensitive to the oxygen tension of the arterial blood. When oxygen tension falls, more red cells are produced and the red cell count rises. For this reason, persons who live at high altitude have higher red cell counts than those who live at sea level. For example, there is a small but significant difference between average red cell counts of persons living in New York City, at sea level pressure, and persons living in Denver, Colo., more than 1.5 km (1 mile) above sea level, where the atmospheric pressure is lower. Natives of the Andes, living nearly 5 km (3 miles) above sea level, have extremely high red cell counts.

The rate of production of erythrocytes is controlled by the hormone erythropoietin, which is produced largely in the kidneys. When the number of circulating red cells decreases or when the oxygen transported by the blood diminishes, an unidentified sensor detects the change and the production of erythropoietin is increased. This substance is then transported through the plasma to the bone marrow, where it accelerates the production of red cells. The erythropoietin mechanism operates like a thermostat, increasing or decreasing the rate of red cell production in accordance with need. When a person who has lived at high altitude moves to a sea level environment, production of erythropoietin is suppressed, the rate of red cell production declines, and the red cell count falls until the normal sea level value is achieved. With the loss of one pint of blood, the erythropoietin mechanism is activated, red cell production is enhanced, and within a few weeks the number of circulating red cells has been restored to the normal value. The precision of control is extraordinary so that the number of new red cells produced accurately compensates for the number of cells lost or destroyed. Erythropoietin has been produced in vitro (outside the body) by the technique of genetic engineering (recombinant DNA). The purified, recombinant hormone has promise for persons with chronic renal failure, who develop anemia because of a lack of erythropoietin.

Destruction of red blood cells

Survival of the red blood cell in the circulation depends upon the continuous utilization of glucose for the production of energy. Two chemical pathways are employed, and both are essential for the normal life of the red cell. An extraordinary number of enzyme systems participate in these reactions and direct the energy evolved into appropriate uses. Red cells contain neither a nucleus nor RNA (ribonucleic acid, necessary for protein synthesis), so that cell division ( mitosis) and production of new protein are impossible. Energy is not necessary for oxygen and carbon dioxide transport, which depends principally on the properties of hemoglobin. Energy, however, is needed for another reason. Because of the tendency for extracellular sodium to leak into the red cell and for potassium to leak out, energy is required to operate a pumping mechanism in the red cell membrane to maintain the normal gradients (differences in concentrations) of these ions. Energy is also required to convert methemoglobin to oxyhemoglobin and to prevent the oxidation of other constituents of the red cell.

Red cells have an average life span of 120 days. Because red cells cannot synthesize protein, reparative processes are not possible. As red cells age, wear and tear leads to loss of some of their protein, and the activity of some of their essential enzymes decreases. Chemical reactions necessary for the survival of the cell are consequently impaired. As a result, water passes into the aging red cell, transforming its usual discoid shape into a sphere. These spherocytes are inelastic, and, as they sluggishly move through the circulation, they are engulfed by phagocytes. Phagocytic cells form a part of the lining of blood vessels, particularly in the spleen, liver, and bone marrow. These cells, called macrophages, are constituents of the reticuloendothelial system and are found in the lymph nodes, in the intestinal tract, and as free-wandering and fixed cells. As a group they have the ability to ingest not only other cells but also many other microscopic particles, including certain dyes and colloids. Within the reticuloendothelial cells, erythrocytes are rapidly destroyed. Protein, including that of the hemoglobin, is broken down, and the component amino acids are transported through the plasma to be used in the synthesis of new proteins. The iron removed from hemoglobin passes back into the plasma and is transported to the bone marrow, where it may be used in the synthesis of hemoglobin in newly forming red cells. Iron not necessary for this purpose is stored within the reticuloendothelial cells but is available for release and reuse whenever it is required. In the breakdown of red cells, there is no loss to the body of either protein or iron, virtually all of which is conserved and reused. In contrast, the porphyrin ring structure of hemoglobin, to which iron was attached, undergoes a chemical change that enables its excretion from the body. This reaction converts porphyrin, a red pigment, into bilirubin, a yellow pigment. Bilirubin released from reticuloendothelial cells after the destruction of erythrocytes is conveyed through the plasma to the liver, where it undergoes further changes that prepare it for secretion into the bile. The amount of bilirubin produced and secreted into the bile is determined by the amount of hemoglobin destroyed. When the rate of red cell destruction exceeds the capacity of the liver to handle bilirubin, the yellow pigment accumulates in the blood, causing jaundice. Jaundice can also occur if the liver is diseased (e.g., hepatitis) or if the egress of bile is blocked (e.g., by a gallstone).

macrophage structure Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

White blood cells (leukocytes), unlike red cells, are nucleated and independently motile. Highly differentiated for their specialized functions, they do not undergo cell division ( mitosis) in the bloodstream, but some retain the capability of mitosis. As a group they are involved in the body's defense mechanisms and reparative activity. The number of white cells in normal blood ranges between 4,500 and 11,000 per cubic millimetre. Fluctuations occur during the day; lower values are obtained during rest and higher values during exercise. Intense physical exertion may cause the count to exceed 20,000 per cubic millimetre. Most of the white cells are outside the circulation, and the few in the bloodstream are in transit from one site to another. As living cells, their survival depends on their continuous production of energy. The chemical pathways utilized are more complex than those of the red cells and are similar to those of other tissue cells. White cells, containing a nucleus and able to produce ribonucleic acid (RNA), can synthesize protein. They comprise three classes of cells, each unique as to structure and function, that are designated granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes.

MRSA; neutrophil National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Granulocytes, the most numerous of the white cells, are larger than red cells (approximately 12-15 μm in diameter). They have a multilobed nucleus and contain large numbers of cytoplasmic granules (i.e., granules in the cell substance outside the nucleus). Granulocytes are important mediators of the inflammatory response. There are three types of granulocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Each type of granulocyte is identified by the colour of the granules when the cells are stained with a compound dye. The granules of the neutrophil are pink, those of the eosinophil are red, and those of the basophil are blue-black. About 50 to 80 percent of the white cells are neutrophils, while the eosinophils and basophils together constitute no more than 3 percent.

The neutrophils are fairly uniform in size with a diameter between 12 and 15 μm. The nucleus consists of two to five lobes joined together by hairlike filaments. Neutrophils move with amoeboid motion. They extend long projections called pseudopodium into which their granules flow; this action is followed by contraction of filaments based in the cytoplasm, which draws the nucleus and rear of the cell forward. In this way neutrophils rapidly advance along a surface. The bone marrow of a normal adult produces about 100 billion neutrophils daily. It takes about one week to form a mature neutrophil from a precursor cell in the marrow; yet, once in the blood, the mature cells live only a few hours or perhaps a little longer after migrating to the tissues. To guard against rapid depletion of the short-lived neutrophils (for example, during infection), the bone marrow holds a large number of them in reserve to be mobilized in response to inflammation or infection. Within the body, the neutrophils migrate to areas of infection or tissue injury. The force of attraction that determines the direction in which neutrophils will move is known as chemotaxis and is attributed to substances liberated at sites of tissue damage. Of the 100 billion neutrophils circulating outside the bone marrow, half are in the tissues and half are in the blood vessels. Of those in the blood vessels, half are within the mainstream of rapidly circulating blood, and the other half move slowly along the inner walls of the blood vessels (marginal pool), ready to enter tissues on receiving a chemotactic signal from them.

Neutrophils are actively phagocytic; they engulf bacteria and other microorganisms and microscopic particles. The granules of the neutrophil are microscopic packets of potent enzymes capable of digesting many types of cellular materials. When a bacterium is engulfed by a neutrophil, it is encased in a vacuole lined by the invaginated membrane. The granules discharge their contents into the vacuole containing the organism. As this occurs, the granules of the neutrophil are depleted ( degranulation). A metabolic process within the granules produces hydrogen peroxide and a highly active form of oxygen (superoxide), which destroy the ingested bacteria. Final digestion of the invading organism is accomplished by enzymes.

Eosinophils, like other granulocytes, are produced in the bone marrow until they are released into the circulation. Although about the same size as neutrophils, the eosinophil contains larger granules, and the chromatin is generally concentrated in only two nonsegmented lobes. Eosinophils leave the circulation within hours of release from the marrow and migrate into the tissues (usually those of the skin, lung, and respiratory tract) through the lymphatic channels. Like neutrophils, eosinophils respond to chemotactic signals released at the site of cell destruction. They are actively motile and phagocytic. Eosinophils are involved in defense against parasites, and they participate in hypersensitivity and inflammatory reactions, primarily by dampening their destructive effects.

Basophils are the least numerous of the granulocytes, and their large granules almost completely obscure the underlying double-lobed nucleus. Within hours of their release from the bone marrow, basophils migrate from the circulation to the barrier tissues (e.g., the skin and mucosa), where they synthesize and store histamine, a natural modulator of the inflammatory response. When aggravated, basophils release, along with histamine and other substances, leukotrienes, which cause bronchoconstriction during anaphylaxis (a hypersensitivity reaction). Basophils incite immediate hypersensitivity reactions in association with platelets, macrophages, and neutrophils.

Monocytes are the largest cells of the blood (averaging 15-18 μm in diameter), and they make up about 7 percent of the leukocytes. The nucleus is relatively big and tends to be indented or folded rather than multilobed. The cytoplasm contains large numbers of fine granules, which often appear to be more numerous near the cell membrane. Monocytes are actively motile and phagocytic. They are capable of ingesting infectious agents as well as red cells and other large particles, but they cannot replace the function of the neutrophils in the removal and destruction of bacteria. Monocytes usually enter areas of inflamed tissue later than the granulocytes. Often they are found at sites of chronic infections.

In the bone marrow, granulocytes and monocytes arise from a common precursor under the influence of the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Monocytes leave the bone marrow and circulate in the blood. After a period of hours, the monocytes enter the tissues, where they develop into macrophages, the tissue phagocytes that constitute the reticuloendothelial system (or macrophage system). Macrophages occur in almost all tissues of the body. Those in the liver are called Kupffer cells, those in the skin Langerhans cells. Apart from their role as scavengers, macrophages play a key role in immunity by ingesting antigens and processing them so that they can be recognized as foreign substances by lymphocytes.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Lymphocytes constitute about 28-42 percent of the white cells of the blood, and they are part of the immune response to foreign substances in the body. Most lymphocytes are small, only slightly larger than erythrocytes, with a nucleus that occupies most of the cell. Some are larger and have more abundant cytoplasm that contains a few granules. Lymphocytes are sluggishly motile, and their paths of migration outside of the bloodstream are different from those of granulocytes and monocytes. Lymphocytes are found in large numbers in the lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils, and lymphoid tissue of the gastrointestinal tract. They enter the circulation through lymphatic channels that drain principally into the thoracic lymph duct, which has a connection with the venous system. Unlike other blood cells, some lymphocytes may leave and reenter the circulation, surviving for about one year or more. The principal paths of recirculating lymphocytes are through the spleen or lymph nodes. Lymphocytes freely leave the blood to enter lymphoid tissue, passing barriers that prevent the passage of other blood cells. When stimulated by antigen and certain other agents, some lymphocytes are activated and become capable of cell division (mitosis).

Manfred Kage/Peter Arnold

The lymphocytes regulate or participate in the acquired immunity to foreign cells and antigens. They are responsible for immunologic reactions to invading organisms, foreign cells such as those of a transplanted organ, and foreign proteins and other antigens not necessarily derived from living cells. The two classes of lymphocytes are not distinguished by the usual microscopic examination but rather by the type of immune response they elicit. The B lymphocytes (or B cells) are involved in what is called humoral immunity. Upon encountering a foreign substance (or antigen), the B lymphocyte differentiates into a plasma cell, which secretes immunoglobulin (antibodies). The second class of lymphocytes, the T lymphocytes (or T cells), are involved in regulating the antibody-forming function of B lymphocytes as well as in directly attacking foreign antigens. T lymphocytes participate in what is called the cell-mediated immune response. T lymphocytes also participate in the rejection of transplanted tissues and in certain types of allergic reactions.

human T cell; human T lymphocyte NIAID

All lymphocytes begin their development in the bone marrow. The B lymphocytes mature partly in the bone marrow until they are released into the circulation. Further differentiation of B lymphocytes occurs in lymphoid tissues (spleen or lymph nodes), most notably on stimulation by a foreign antigen. The precursors of the T lymphocytes migrate from the marrow to the thymus, where they differentiate under the influence of a hormonelike substance. (The thymus is a small organ lying just behind the breastbone in the upper portion of the chest. It is relatively large at birth, begins to regress after puberty, and may be represented only by a fibrous cord in the elderly. The thymus begins to exert its effects on the differentiation of lymphocytes before birth. The removal of the thymus from certain animals at birth prevents the normal development of immunologic responses.) Once they have matured, the T lymphocytes leave the thymus and circulate through the blood to the lymph nodes and the spleen. The two classes of lymphocytes originally derived their names from investigations in birds, in which it was found that differentiation of one class of lymphocyte was influenced by the bursa of Fabricius (an outpouching of the gastrointestinal tract) and thus was called the B lymphocytes, and the other was influenced by the thymus and was called the T lymphocytes.

A primary function of lymphocytes is to protect the body from foreign microbes. This essential task is carried out by both T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes, which often act in concert. The T lymphocytes can recognize and respond only to antigens that appear on cell membranes in association with other molecules called major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens. The latter are glycoproteins that present the antigen in a form that can be recognized by T lymphocytes. In effect, T lymphocytes are responsible for continuous surveillance of cell surfaces for the presence of foreign antigens. By contrast, the antibodies produced by B lymphocytes are not confined to recognizing antigens on cell membranes; they can bind to soluble antigens in the blood or in extravascular fluids. T lymphocytes typically recognize antigens of infectious organisms that must penetrate cells in order to multiply, such as viruses. During their intracellular life cycle, viruses produce antigens that appear on the cell membrane. Two classes of T lymphocytes can be involved in the response to those cell-associated viral antigens: cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which destroy the cells by a lytic mechanism, and helper T lymphocytes, which assist B cells to produce antibodies against the microbial antigens. Helper T lymphocytes exert their influence on B lymphocytes through several hormonelike peptides termed interleukins (IL). Five different T lymphocyte interleukins (IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-6) have been discovered, each with different (and sometimes overlapping) effects on B lymphocytes and other blood cells. Interleukin-1, produced by macrophages, is a peptide that stimulates T lymphocytes and that also acts on the hypothalamus in the brain to produce fever. The ability to develop an immune response (i.e., the T cell-mediated and humoral immune responses) to foreign substances is called immunologic competence (immunocompetence). Immunologic competence, which begins to develop during embryonic life, is incomplete at the time of birth but is fully established soon after birth. If an antigen is introduced into a person's body before immunologic competence has been established, an immune response will not result upon reinfection, and that person is said to be tolerant to that antigen.

Study of immunologic competence and immune tolerance has been accelerated by interest in organ transplantation. The success rates of organ transplantations have been improved by better knowledge about donor selection and improved techniques for suppressing the immune responses of the recipient. An important element in donor selection is tissue typing: the matching of the donor's histocompatibility antigens ( human leukocyte antigens) with those of the prospective recipient. The closer the match, the greater the probability that the graft will be accepted.

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Blood - Red blood cells (erythrocytes): The red blood cells are highly specialized, well adapted for their primary function of transporting oxygen from the lungs to all of the body tissues. Red cells are approximately 7.8 μm (1 μm = 0.000039 inch) in diameter and have the form of biconcave disks, a shape that provides a large surface-to-volume ratio.

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Types of Neurons (Nerve Cells)

The human body is made up of trillions of cells. Cells of the nervous system, called nerve cells or neurons, are specialized to carry "messages" through an electrochemical process. The human brain has approximately 86 billion neurons. To learn how neurons carry messages, read about the action potential.

Neurons come in many different shapes and sizes. Some of the smallest neurons have cell bodies that are only 4 microns wide. Some of the biggest neurons have cell bodies that are 100 microns wide. (Remember that 1 micron is equal to one thousandth of a millimeter!).

Neurons are similar to other cells in the body because:

1. Neurons are surrounded by a cell membrane.

2. Neurons have a nucleus that contains genes.

3. Neurons contain cytoplasm, mitochondria and other organelles.

4. Neurons carry out basic cellular processes such as protein synthesis and energy production.

However, neurons differ from other cells in the body because:

1. Neurons have specialize cell parts called dendrites andaxons. Dendrites bring electrical signals to the cell body and axons take information away from the cell body.

2. Neurons communicate with each other through an electrochemical process.

3. Neurons contain some specialized structures (for example, synapses) and chemicals (for example, neurotransmitters).

The Neuron

One way to classify neurons is by the number of extensions that extend from the neuron's cell body (soma).

Bipolar neurons have two processes extending from the cell body (examples: retinal cells, olfactory epithelium cells).

Pseudounipolar cells (example: dorsal root ganglion cells). Actually, these cells have 2 axons rather than an axon and dendrite. One axon extends centrally toward the spinal cord, the other axon extends toward the skin or muscle.

Multipolar neurons have many processes that extend from the cell body. However, each neuron has only one axon (examples: spinal motor neurons, pyramidal neurons, Purkinje cells).

Neurons can also be classified by the direction that they send information.

Sensory (or afferent) neurons: send information from sensory receptors (e.g., in skin, eyes, nose, tongue, ears)TOWARD the central nervous system.

Motor (or efferent) neurons: send informationAWAY from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

Interneurons: send information between sensory neurons and motor neurons. Most interneurons are located in the central nervous system.

Check out the Gallery of Neurons to see some pictures of real neurons or"Sidewalk Cells" to see photographs of neurons on the street.

There are several differences between axons and dendrites:

Take information away from the cell body

Smooth Surface

Generally only 1 axon per cell

No ribosomes

Can have myelin

Branch further from the cell body

Bring information to the cell body

Rough Surface (dendritic spines)

Usually many dendrites per cell

Have ribosomes

No myelin insulation

Branch near the cell body

What is inside of a neuron? A neuron has many of the same organelles such as mitochondria, cytoplasm and a nucleus, as other cells in the body.

Nucleus - contains genetic material (chromosomes) including information for cell development and synthesis of proteins necessary for cell maintenance and survival. Covered by a membrane.

Nucleolus - produces ribosomes necessary for translation of genetic information into proteins

Nissl Bodies - groups of ribosomes used for protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) - system of tubes for transport of materials within cytoplasm. Can have ribosomes (rough ER) or no ribosomes (smooth ER). With ribosomes, the ER is important for protein synthesis.

Golgi Apparatus - membrane-bound structure important in packaging peptides and proteins (including neurotransmitters) into vesicles.

Microfilaments/Neurotubules - system of transport for materials within a neuron and may be used for structural support.

Mitochondria - produce energy to fuel cellular activities.

Did you know?

Happy 121 st Birthday to the Golgi apparatus! In 1898, the famous neuroanatomist Camillo Golgi reported his discovery of a ribbon-like apparatus inside neurons of the cerebellum. This structure now bears his name as the "Golgi apparatus."

Copyright © 1996-2019, Eric H. Chudler All Rights Reserved.

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Intended for elementary and secondary school students and teachers who are interested in learning about the nervous system and brain with hands on activities, experiments and information.

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DK Find Out! | Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and more!

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Visit DK Find Out! to learn about dinosaurs, space, animals, nature & more. Fun learning activities for kids with videos, quizzes & galleries at DKFindOut.com

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A secondary school revision resource for AQA GCSE Additional Science about cells

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The Chicken or The Egg?

One of the most common farm animals are chickens. If you ever found yourself in a chicken coop, it is safe to say you would most likely stumble upon a few chickens as well as their eggs. Do you know which one came first? Was it the chicken, or the egg? Nobody knows, however, somewhere after the egg, but before the chicken, there is a sperm cell. Sperm cells are a part of the process necessary for eggs to develop into chickens in the first place.

What is a Sperm Cell?

(The sperm is the small white cell to the left.)
A sperm cell is the male sex cell. All animals (and many other types of organisms) produce what are called sex cells. Sex cells are the cells, that, when combined, produce a completely new organism. For example, your mother and every other human female carry egg cells (female sex cells) in their ovaries. Your father and every other human male carry sperm cells, or male sex cells, in their testes. When an egg cell and a sperm cell unite, the two combine to form an embryo or an unborn, developing organism. At this point, the embryo is able to develop into a fully formed offspring of its parents. When the cells combine in a chicken, a chick is the result. When the cells combined in your mother's body, you were the result.

What is the Function of Sperm?

A sperm cell consists of two parts, the head and the tail. The overall structure of the sperm makes it perfectly designed to carry out its function. The primary function of the sperm is to pass on the necessary biological information required to produce a new organism. In humans and most living things, the data that makes an organism what it is is contained in a tiny molecule called DNA. DNA is basically a recipe book used to make you, well, you. All of your physical characteristics are determined by the information contained in your DNA. The DNA, or biological information the sperm needs to pass on, is contained in its head. The tail of the sperm helps give it the momentum it needs to reach the egg cell, so it is able to create the embryo in the first place. So, just how can the male make sure that the information that makes him who he is, gets passed on to his children or offspring? Why, with sperm of course!

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sperm cell: definition & function - video & lesson transcript | study.com

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Sperm Cell: Definition & Function - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com

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One of the most common farm animals are chickens. If you ever found yourself in a chicken coop, it is safe to say you would most likely stumble upon a few chickens as well as their eggs. Do you know which one came first? Was it the chicken, or the egg?

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Eggs (ova) and sperm have half the number of chromosomes of normal body cells. They are called haploid cells rather than diploid cells. A single egg cell is called an ovum. Collectively, eggs and sperm are called gametes or sex cells. When fertilisation occurs, an egg (ovum) and a sperm fuse to form a zygote.

Eggs and sperm have several important adaptations linked to their structure.

Eggs

An egg cell (ovum) is one of the largest cells in the human body and can just be seen without using a microscope.

Each egg cell has a haploid nucleus - containing only half the number of chromosomes of a normal cell nucleus. It has a large cytoplasm which contains the nutrients and mitochondria needed for mitosis (cell division) after fertilisation. And each egg has a special cell membrane which only allows one sperm to fertilise it.

Sperm

Each sperm cell also has a haploid nucleus. It has a tail (for motility) which propels it through the cervix, uterus and fallopian tube towards the egg. And each one has many mitochondria (where respiration occurs) to release the energy needed for its journey.

Sperm cells also have special enzymes, called acrosomes, which allow them to break through the cell membrane of the egg.

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BBC - GCSE Bitesize Science - The menstrual cycle and fertilisation : Revision, Page 3

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Eggs (ova) and sperm have half the number of chromosomes of normal body cells. They are called haploid cells rather than diploid cells. A single egg cell is called an ovum. Collectively, eggs and sperm are called gametes or sex cells. When fertilisation occurs, an egg (ovum) and a sperm fuse to form a zygote.

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The structure of a leaf - Pass My Exams: Easy exam revision notes for GSCE Biology

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Comprehensive revision notes for GCSE exams for Physics, Chemistry, Biology

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BBC - KS3 Bitesize Science - Cells to systems : Revision, Page 4

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A key stage 3 revision and recap resource for science, covering cells, tissues, organs and systems.

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Water on the surface of spongy and palisade cells (inside the leaf) evaporates and then diffuses out of the leaf. This is called transpiration.

More water is drawn out of the xylem cells inside the leaf to replace what has been lost. Water molecules have a tendency to stick together - so as water leaves the xylem to enter the leaf, more water is pulled up behind it. This produces a continuous flow of water and dissolved minerals moving up the xylem tube from the roots, up the stem, and into the leaves. This is known as the transpiration stream.

Movement of water through the roots

The movement of water up the xylem means more water must be drawn in through the roots from the soil. To do this, water passes from root cell to root cell by osmosis.

As water moves into the root hair cell down the concentration gradient, the solution inside the root hair cell becomes more dilute. This means that there is now a concentration gradient between the root hair cell and adjacent root cells, so water moves from the root hair cell and into the adjacent cells by osmosis.

This pattern continues until the water reaches the xylem vessel within the root - where it enters the xylem to replace the water which has been drawn up the stem.

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BBC - GCSE Bitesize Science - Transport systems and processes in plants : Revision, Page 2

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Water on the surface of spongy and palisade cells (inside the leaf) evaporates and then diffuses out of the leaf. This is called transpiration. More water is drawn out of the xylem cells inside the leaf to replace what has been lost.