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Malaria comes from an Italian word meaning "bad air". This is because the disease was thought to come form poisonous mists and vapors. However it was soon discovered that it came from a microscopic mosquito. This disease had a massive effect on the world with 300 to 500 million cases worldwide. Out of those cases three million caused deaths. There are many symptoms that come with this disease including intense fever, chills, headache, and muscle pains. Not only are these present when you have the disease, but also they can show up years later. Malaria was most commonly seen in low lying costal areas, where it is perfect habitat for mosquitos. The search for a cure began, with the high demand. The cure founded was in the Andes Mountains. This molecule came from a  tree bark 3,000 to 9,000 feet above sea level. The tea brewed from this bark was said to cure fevers from the local people. The selling of this tea exploded in value, earning many people tons of money who could harvest it. It became so popular that all diseases were being treated with this bark. It comes from the Cinchona genus. It later became very hard to come by as 25,000 trees were being cut down per year. The tree was also becoming endangered. The search for synthetic materials to recreate this molecule began. I find this molecule one of the most important in the book, because it ended up saving the lives of possible 25 percent of the worlds population. Without this the world would be a completely different place.

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Refrigeration contributes to our everyday lives, and many people are not aware of the process it contains. Unlike the popular belief, refrigeration is not cooling items using ice. That process is when the solid ice absorbs heat and melts into a liquid. Refrigeration is where liquid absorbs heat and changes into a gas. When this occurs the gas needs to be compressed to turn back into liquid, this uses the energy that comes from your homes power.This process recycles the molecule so that your fridge is constantly cold. This leads to the prefix of refrigerator, because it is reusing. The most important part of a refrigerator is the refrigerant. This is the compound that undergoes the evaporation-compression cycle. These compounds are also called freons. There were many molecules used as the refrigerant. The first one used was ether. Then soon to follow in the early years of the refirgerator were ammonia, methyl chloride, and sulfur dioxide. Sulfur dioxide was used to freeze the first artificial skating rink. The refrigeration process was soon put onto boats. This made the trading of meats easier, worldwide, and inexpensive. This allowed for farmers to become more successful since they would be able to reach foreign markets. I find this to be important, because it has such an important role in the preservation of our foods today.

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Salt is necessary for everyday life. Without it we would die. However, we are also told to not have too much or it will kill us. In early time periods salt was very rare. This made it very expensive. It is now much cheaper, because of mass production and it is not used as presently as it used to be. There are three main ways to produce salt. The first is by evaporating sea water. This is how most salt is produced. The second way is boiling down salt solutions from brine springs. This salt concentration is very high. It can almost be ten times more strong than sea  water. The last way is mining rock salt. There are mines dedicated to just mining rock salt. Sea water is the least pure of these methods because it contains MgCl2 and CaCl2. Brine, because it is a better quality is much more expensive than sea salt. Salt towns have obviously been done making money making salt, but they still collect tourist money. Many people like to visit the salt mine. The trading of salt started with the Romans. It created the salt road across Europe, which was not only used for salt but also gold. It was also traded via the seas. I believe it is very important, because it is still used today and opened up trade in Europe.

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Olive oil is a delicious oil used today to replace butter and dip bread. However in early time periods, it was used for a lot more. Olive oil was founded in Italy and Greece about 5,000 to 7,000 years ago. It was used in lambs, for light in houses during the night. It was also used to bathe. The extremely wealthy could only use it for things like bathing, because it was very expensive. It was used by athletes, because it was said to keep muscles supple. It was also used daily by women so that their skin and hair would look better. It could also be used by doctors for ailments. Olive oil was so important to people of this time that it was used in religion, mythology, and poetry. It had many symbols, like wisdom and victory. It was even used in the Olympic Games as a prize. The winner soul get an olive reed and some olive oil. It was most well known for meaning strength. The trunk of the tree was known to be the staff of Hercules and the olive tree wood was said to be used for the cross of Jesus. It needs a special climate of short cold winter, a long summer with no spring frost, and little rain. I believe it is very important, because everyone loves olive oil

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Caffeine is consumed everyday by about eighty-three percent of adults everyday. It is the third alkaloid in the opium wars, along with morphine and nicotine. Caffeine is linked with both theophylline and theobromine. Theophylline is tea and theobromine is cocoa. Caffeine is found naturally in coffee beans and tea leaves. It is addictive because it works in the central nervous stimulant. It does not give energy, it just blocks the tired signal in our bodies. It can also be used for preventing asthma, migraines, raise blood pressure, and as a diuretic. Caffeine like nicotine has been linked to many cancers and horrible diseases, however none of them have been proven. Caffeine is possibly fatal. The amount of caffeine needed to be fatal is about ten grams for an adult. That would equal about 55- 125 cups of coffee in a day. It was first credited to the Rhazes by an Arabic scientist. I find caffeine a very important molecule because it is used by so many Americans. The economic boost it gives is worth it all together. Also, without coffee I do not know how I would be doing this homework right now. For that reason it is important enough for me.

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Digitalis is a molecule that had a huge affect on witchcraft in the 17th century. It was said to be used for mostof  the said magic potions they used. It is an extract from the common foxglove Digitalis Purpurea. Its main purpose was the affect is had on the human heart. It was useful for reducing heart rate, regualrize the rhythm and strengthen the heart beat. It is a part of the cardiac glycosides. It is one of the most highly prescribed drugs in the U.S. It was first known in 1795 by physicists William Withering. He found the extract of foxglove for congestive heart failure. However, it was dangerous is the dose was too high. Since it was a poisonous molecule it had to be monitored. It was even used for rat poison later in its development. Molecules that had these effects on the heart were not only found in plants. They were also found in poisons and toxic compounds. An example of this is the molecule was found in one of the most prominent poisonous toad species. This could have also lead to the link between toads and witches. Alkaloids were the most common molecule in drugs. It is similar to digitalis, because it is also poisonous. It is a main component in hemlock, which killed the great Socrates when he was put to death. The nightshade family of molecules is the group of molecules that were known as what witches used, especially to fly. I find this molecule not as important, because it was used as an excuse to kill innocent people. Yes, the molecule had a large affect on the world, but not in a way where it changes the future. It is only history.

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Norethindrome is the molecule that is used in the current birth control. It was the first oral conceptive, known as "The Pill". The concept of abortion has been argued over for years. Depending on your point of view "The Pill" either helped or hurt the sexual revolution of the 1960's, women's liberation, the rise of feminism, women in the workplace, and the breakdown of family. This was supposed to help high infant mortality in poor areas. Whether it was successful in the depends on personal opinion. However in the 1930's it was starting to become accepted by some to have the right to abort pregnancy. The first oral contraception made the mother very sick, because the goal was to poison the baby. This often required the mother eating mercury. Other myths or methods were used but did not work. Norethindrome falls in the category of steroids. A steroid molecule has four fused rings. The first three have six carbon atoms. The fourth has five carbon atoms. Cholesterol is the most common steroid. It is always in our bodies and can be found in all animals. The first isolated male hormone was androsterone from urine. The first sex hormone is from pregnant women in 1929. Testosterone found in males is an anabolic steroid, which promotes muscle growth. Artificial steroids to replace testosterone are Dianabol and stanzolol. I think this is not as important to put in the book, because it is not necessary for life.

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Antibiotics are a major factor in people's lives today. Many people depend on antibiotics everyday. There was a big problem of dying from sickness, especially in the old and young. In the UK the average life expectancy before antibiotics was 45. This was also true in the U.S. with only a life expectancy of 46-48. Antibiotics were used to treat wounds, sickness, and pain. This lead to the start of aspirin. The founding of separation and purification processes allowed for large scale reactions. Due to these large scale reactions, it created cheaper product and it could be used worldwide. Felix Hoffman from the Bayer Company was the founder of the process needed to extract important ingredients to create aspirin. He investigated properties of compounds related to salicylic acid. He was able to extract this from the bark of the willow genus tree. Salicylic is able to reduce pain and can be used as an anti-inflammatory. Hoffman decided to spend his research time on this, because his father had arthritis and he wanted to find a way to ease his pain. It also can be used to help prevent strokes. The first versions of aspirin started as a powder that would be mixed in liquid. Now it comes in pills and millions of pounds are produced annually. I believe this is a very important molecule, because it saves lives everyday.

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Dyes are still what makes the world colorful today. Dyes were founded in China around the time of 3000 B.C. It comes from a multitude of roots, leaves, bark, and berries. The dye color blue is the most famous and most valuable. It comes from the plant Indigofera tinctoria and grew to 6 feet tall. Dyes in China were also known as "woad" and in France "pastel". In some countries Indigo was seen as so valuable only royals could wear it. Indigo is so rare because it had two bromine atoms. In 1865 Germans found ways to make synthetic indigo. Today 14,000 tons of synthetic indigo as made. Other colors were: madder plants-red, Aluminum ion- rose red, magnesium- violet, chromium- brown violet and calcium- red purple. Dyes played a big role in military uniforms. Example of these are the U.S. Indigo uniforms or the British red coat uniform, which used cochineal red. Cochineal red was taken from 70,000 Beatles per one pound of dye. This finding of dyes led to the chemical enterprise of antibiotics, explosives, perfumes, paints, inks, pesticides, and plastics. I find this being not as important as some of the other creations. Even though it opened up trade routes and led to all the item listed above, it was not a necessary item. Dyes were started out of luxury. Therefore even though it effected history it is not as important.

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The founding of rubber has a major impact on how we live our lives today. It is used in car tires, wether resistant clothing and shoes, balls, latex, and much more. It was founded in Mesopotamia around 1200 B.C. It was found in rubber balls that were being used to play with. It was also founded in Indian tribes when Christopher Columbus found the new world. It comes from the Caotchoue tree, or the tree that weeps. It was extracted from the sap released by the tree. Holding over a smoky fire allowed it to be molded into any shape. This also made changed it from sap into actually rubber that would not lose its shape. When it was founded by a French scientist and shipped back, because it was not held over a fire it became a useless raw sap. Rubber is responsible for the creation of latex. Latex is the suspension of natural rubber particles in water. Latex can still be harvested today from specific rubber trees. The tree responsible for producing the most rubber is the Hevea Brasiliensis Tree. Rubber is a polymer of the molecule isoprene. It is the simplest natural polymer with only five carbon atoms. In 1835 isoprene was found to be able to be distilled form rubber. This led to the creation of gutta -percha. This was used for water resistance and in the medical and dental field. This created a new golf ball that could be hit farther than a wood or feather ball called "gutty". Rubber was also found to be able to erase marks from a pencil. The creation of rubber clothes was experimented with, however it had issues, because it would be melted in the summer and hard as a rock in the winter. Goodyear became a popular name in experimenting with rubber. He worked with rubber, until he found that sulfur would stop it from melting or hardening up. Goodyear was the founder of the vulcanization process that was used to create rubber clothes during that time. Rubber is so important because of the lasting effect it has on today's society. The friction rubber creates is key to many things like cars and planes. That is why I think isoprene is a very important molecule.

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Carbolic acid or in its most pure form, phenol, played a major role in saving lives in the medical world. In the nineteenth century, infections from surgery was a huge issue. It was so common that 40 percent of patients in a hospital died of infection. In an army hospital 70 percent of people died of infection. Many people at this time believed poison gas from drains caused this infection. This epidemic inspired surgeon and teacher Joseph Lister to find a solution. Lister knew at this point boiling kills germs, but it is unrealistic to boil people. Lister found that carbolic acid was used to treat city drains. He decided to try this to prevent infections from surgery. His first case was young boy with a compound fracture. Lister soaked lint in carbolic acid, and put a metal sheet over top to prevent evaporation. After the surgery a scab formed and the boy did not get an infection. Instead of treating an infection this method stopped it in the first place. Carbolic acid came from coal tar, which was a waste product of gaslight illumination. In London during this time coal gas became widely used, which created more coal tar. Coal tar was a viscous, black, acrid-smelling liquid. Carbolic acid was a distilled mixture of coal tar between 170 degrees Celsius and 230 degrees Celsius. Carbolic acid was also black, smelly, and burned the skin. Lister eventually was able to extract the main constituent in Carbolic acid, which is phenol. Phenol in its purest form was white chrystals. Lister used phenol, linseed oil, and whitening below tinfoil to use as an artificial scab. Phenol and water were used to clean tools and treat the incision. It eventually was being sprayed in the air, causing a negative effect on the surgeons, because phenol is toxic. Carbolic acid was so important to the medical field because it decreased infections majorly in the nineteenth century. That is why I believe it is so influential on history.

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Silk is a common fabric used in many of our clothes today. It began in China in the first century. Silk came from the silkworm, which naturally produces silk to create cocoons. To get 200 grams of silk it takes about 1,000 silk worms, which eat about 36kg of ripe mulberry leaves. The silkworm makes this cocoon so that it may change itself into a chrysalis. Early production required workers to take the cocoons and put them in boiling water. Then extract the silk. Each cocoon can produce anywhere from 400 yards to 3,000 yards of silk. Silk was so valuable during the early stages of production that it could be used as currency. Silk started the silk trade routes, which were pivotal in the early years of mass production of many different materials. This mass trade assisted the spark of the movement in Western Europe. Silk production spread through people fleeing religious persecution in different countries throughout Europe. The United States did not start producing silk until the nineteenth century when they found a way to industrialize silk. Once this occurred the U.S. became one of the biggest producers of silk in the world. Silk is a protein that can be made of of 22 different amino acids. Silk comes from the amino group NH2. 85 percent of silk comes from the amino acids Alanine and Serine because they are very small amino, which give silk its soft feel. Just like cellulose, silk is a polymer. The pleated sheet structure of the amino acids allow silk to be very stretchy. The desire for artificial silk started to arise, and was found to be very expensive because of the irregularities in the aminos unlike in cotton. However collodio, which is used in photography was found to have many of the same properties as silk, when forced through small holes. This artificial silk was produced by Chardonet, however it ended up being very flammable. This led to the founding of viscose being a better product to create artificial silk. The process used to create artificial silk with viscose is still used today with rayon. This eventually led to nylon, which is used today as a substitute for silk. I find silk to be a very important compound solely on the fact that it created trade routes to jumpstart the growth of industrializing materials.

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The creation of gunpowder brought many new oppurtunitites to the world. Gunpowder was the first explosive mixture created. It was founded in ancient China, Arabia, and India. It is a mix of nitrate salt, sulfur, and carbon. Nitrate salt is KNO3 and carbon was a wood charcoal. Gunpowder was originally used as fireworks for entertainment. It moved into being used to explode things and guns. The explosive mixture in gunpowder is the reaction between nitrogen and oxygen. This does not mean all compounds containing nitrogen and oxygen and nitrogen are explosive. For example if a compound contains nitrogen and oxygen, but they are not bonded together, the compound is not explosive. The one problem with gunpowder was the black smoke released when the reaction occurred. This was because the carbon or charcoal lets off black smoke. Eight gases form during this reaction. They are three carbon dioxides, three carbon monoxides and two nitrogens. This propels objects like cannons and bullets because the heat expanding gases propel the object. Gunpowder became very popular in the mining industry for creating a bigger mining area quicker. It could also be mixed with water and alcohol to make it compressed. It was said that the urine of wine drinkers created potent gunpowder, because of alcohol. This lead to the advancement of explosive compounds in the nineteenth century. Some of these are nitroglycerin, ammonium nitrate, and PETN. Gunpowder is so influential in the advancement of explosives in the early stages of a rapidly growing United States.

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Cellulose is a very important part of everyday life for not just humans but many living creatures. This is exemplified through how many insects get their food. Termites, carpenter ants, and wood eating ants have microorganisms  that allow them to get cellulose for a source of food. Like these insects, humans cannot digest cellulose. However it is important to the human body because it helps in the movement of digestive acts. There is also amylose. Amylose and cellulose are exactly the same except their solubility. Amylose is starch, which is in water. Cellulose is not soluble in water and the amylose linkages are "a" and the cellulose linkages are "b". Cellulose is a polymer of glucose. Poly means many and meros means parts. Cellulose is used for many things. The most common is cotton. Ninety percent of cotton is cellulose. Also, cellulose, nitric acid and water are mixed together to form a flammable and explosive white powder. It is also used in photography and movie making. This was found when the scientist Schönbein was cleaning up a spilled experiment in his house with these materials. He cleaned up the mess with a cotton aprion. Then the apron was hanging to dry and caught on fire and exploded. This was the founding of NO2. Later on the controlling of the nitration process allowed for different nitrocelluloses to form. When cellulose is dissolved in carbon disulfide it create xanthate. Xanthate forms the textiles rayon and cellophane. Cellulose had a major effect on the history of the United States. It started the industrial revolution and the American Civil War over slavery. This easily makes cellulose one of the most influential polymers in history.

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Glucose is the carbohydrate in sugar. Sugar is one of the most popular ingredients used in food. Sugar has grown is popularity over time. This is proven through the per capital annual consumption. In 1700 the per capital annual consumption was four pounds and in 1900-1964 it was one hundred pounds. Sugar is extracted from sugar cane or sugar beets in tropical areas. Sugar fueled the slave trade in America. At the time of the sixteenth century there were two thirds of the slaves in America working on sugar plantations. Sugar can be used for many things from sweetening to medicine. In the eighteenth century sugar was used for the preservation of fruit. This influenced the creation of jellies, jams, and Marialades. In the medical field, sugar, was used to disguise taste, bind medicine, and as medicine itself. It also sweetened bitter drinks like coffee and tea. It was also used for treats like syrup covered nuts, seeds, marzipan, cakes, and candies. Glucose being the main part of sugar is important for the human body. Glucose is used as a fuel source for the human body. Without glucose the human body begins to shut down. When the average glucose level falls below fifty percent, brain functioning becomes altered. When this continues to fall at or below twenty five percent, there is high risk for a comma. These things make glucose and sugar important to society.

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Absorbing acid or vitamin C was very influential to sailors during the fifthteenth century. During the fifthteenth century, larger ships were being created with sails, to be able to travel across oceans for months at a time. This brought up the issue of scurvy. Scurvy was a lack of vitamin C where muscle tissue and gums would soften, creating bruises and teeth falling out. The scientist Albert Szent-Györgyi knew that to cure scurvy he should find how to extract the purest form of vitamin C. Extracting pure vitamin C from plants would be extremely difficult because of the sugar, however he was able to extract it from animals. Absorbing acid is so important to the human body because the human body cannot produce the enzymes needed to convert glucose into ascorbic acid. Ascorbic acid is found in connective tissue in the human body, which binds and supports other tissue throughout the body. Other than being able to save sailors lives form scurvy, vitamin C can also be used as a food preserver. Since vitamin C is a good antioxidant and antimicrobial it was also used to preserve the food on ships. I find vitamin. C to be most important because of its effect on geography. An example of this is Magellan's crew, who was suffering from scurvy. If they had known how to stay healthy, they would not have had to stop in the Philippines. This was have lead to the discovery of the Philippines much later. An other great example of this is the English possible would have been later to the South Pacific due to scurvy. This would have left England with a smaller empire, where they would not be as prominent throughout the world.

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Pepper was the most popular spice during the nineteenth century. Pepper originated in India, because it needs an equatorial region to grow. It is able to produce product two years after being planted and can keep producing for forty years. Arab traders first introduce pepper into Europe, where is started as a medicinal product. It then progressed into preserving and mostly making food taste better. Pepper and other spices aided world economy by boosting trade. Trade saw a significant increase from Asia and East Africa to the Mediterranean. Venice was the trade hub during this time and they had control of all of the spices. They invented in the Crusaders which also boosted their world appeal. The Venice monopoly forced countries to find their own spices. This caused Christopher Columbus to find the Americas while he was trying to get to India b going west. During Columbus' adventure he found the chili pepper. The molecule in pepper that makes it so good on food is piperine. I agree with the author that it is very important, because it causes multiple growth opportunities throughout the world during the nineteenth century. The most important to me being exploration. This is a major key to the expansion of any country. The other is the focus on new trade routes. The new routes would be preparing for the worldwide trade that would soon become necessary for everyone to be able to live. Another reason it is so important is that pepper is still being used the same way today. For those reasons I believe that pepper is very important to the history of the United States.

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Coal tar is an important resource during the late nineteenth century. Coal tar was used by German chemical companies to produce a multitude of products. One of these products was an antibiotic, by extracting pyradine. Early on it was also used as an antiseptic, by extracting phenol. It also can be used in making plastic. After those are extracted from the coal tar what is left is the pitch. The pitch is used in the aluminum industry to help produce electrodes. Coal tar is related to isoeugenol because they are both aromatic, meaning they have smells associated with them. I agree with authors view, because it is important, due to the fact it helps produce so many different products that were crucial to a growing city during the late nineteenth century.