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experiment
-  goal is to determine if theres a relationship between the cause and effect variables

control
- the researcher manipulates the independent variable so any possible variables will stay the same.  The procedure must be exactly the same in both groups.

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1) High ecological validity
2) Can't be replicated

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1.  independent and dependent variables must be operationalized
2. studies outside a lab is field study

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1.  Extraneous variables: other variables that may influence the results of the study.
2. standardized: can be replicated.

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standardized- procedures that can easily be replicated
hypothesis-a prediction of how the independent variable will affect the dependent variable

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Quantitative Research Methods
1) the variable that is manipulated is known as the independent variable
2) the variable that is measured after the manipulation to determine the change or no change is the dependent variable
Evaluating Experiments
1) internal validity of a study is compromised when researchers fail to control for confounding variables
2) the "social desirability effect" is when participants act a certain way that they deem socially acceptable
Fundamentals of Research
1) research is described in terms of the aim, procedure, and results
2) the goal of the sample is to obtain a sample that is representative of the target population
Loftus & Palmer
1) the study looks at the reconstructive memory or how we build our memories
2) the Independent variable is the strength of the verb used to indicate how the cars collided
Yuille & Cutshall
1) a real experiement based on true events
2) subjects were contacted 4 months after the event happened

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Psychologists do not "prove" anything; they either support or refute a hypothesis.

Quantitative research methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical analysis of data.

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a true experiment manipulates the independent variable
if an experiment is standardized, everyone who reproduces it should get the same results

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The goal of an experiment is to determine whether a cause and effect relationship exists between two variables. Both the IV and DV must be operationalized.

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the variable that causes change is the independent variable and the dependent variable is based off that

all experiments should be highly standardized meaning they can be replicated

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1. goal of experiments is to determine whether a cause-and-effect relationship exists between 2 variables
2. a good experiment randomly allocated participants to conditions so that there's an equal chance of being assigned to experimental or control condition

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stereotypes are formed for out-groups, schemas are a mental structure of preconceived ideas'

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1. memories are cognitive processes.
2. They can be reliable or unreliable

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1. the most widely used method to study behavior is the experiment
2. experiments determine a cause and effect relationship

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-independent variable- is the variable that the researcher deliberately manipulates
-A key characteristic of an experiment is the use of controls.

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1) About memory after the event
2) Certain words can alter recalled
memory

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1)standardized - replication
2)schemas are mental structures

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"Reconstructive memory"

memory can be reconstructed around a false given fact

wording in sentence made people think glass was real.

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internal validity- whether or not the study actually tests what it claims to test
expectancy effect- when a participant acts a certain way because they want to please the researcher

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- A variable that influences the results of an experiment is called an extraneous variable.
- Expectancy effect is when a participant acts a certain way because he wants to do what the researcher asks.

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a major concern researchers have is participant bias where participants change their behavior to fit the experiment

fatigue effects is another concern where behavior changes due to the length of the study and the participants becoming tired

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1. 3 step approach - identify, link, explain
2. it is important to evaluate studies

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Researcher bias is a bias that is common where the researcher influences the outcome of the researcher. Another bias would be confirmation bias which confirms a preexisting hypothesis.

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1. extraneous variables are variables that influence the result of an experiment (other than the IV)
2. participant bias are also known as demand characteristic, and its when the participants for an interpretation of the aim and change behavior because of it

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1) demand characteristics- participants form interpretation of study and changes behavior subconsciously or consciously
2)fatigue effects - when asked to take part in conditions of same expirement, participants get tires or bored

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extraneous variable- a variable that influences the results of an experiment
researcher bias- when the beliefs or opinions of the researcher influence the experiment's outcome

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1) You have to operationalize variables
2) Compounding variables can mess up an experiment

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1. Construct validity: if the study can be generalized to a group.
2. Ecological validity: if the study can be generalized beyond the laboratory situation.

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aim-purpose of the study
results- numerical or descriptive data that is obtained and processed

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1. extraneous variables influences the result of an experiment
2. Participants may act differently because they are being observed

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1. experiments done by manipulating IV and measuring effect on DV while attempting to control other variables that could influence the outcome
2. extraneous (confounding) variables: variables that influence the results of an experiment and need to be controlled

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extraneous variable is a variable that influences the experiment, must operationalize variables

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when a study is not representative of the target population that means it lacks population validity

haphazard sampling is a biased form of sampling and should be avoided because it is not random or specifically chosen

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Data triangulation:

data is gather from several different sources- will increase reliability of data

Method Triangulation:

more than one research method is used to test same effect-- will make data or research result more credible

Researcher Triangulation:

several researchers carry out the same study to interpret data separately

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-it is possible to implant a false memory
aim: to see the role of leading questions in influencing the memories of eyewitnesses

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Screw you effect
- a participant attempts to figure out the researcher's hypotheses, and messes with the experiment to destroy the study

social desirability effect
- protecting your self-esteem during an experiment. Participants react a certain way to feel socially acceptable

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- The aim is the purpose of a study.
- procedure is the step-by-step process used by the researcher to carry out the study.

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1. Researchers need to have a plan, people who are willing to participate in the study, and a method for collecting and analyzing data.

2. sample, is very important in determining the usefulness of a piece of research.

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1) The independent variable affects the dependent variable
2) correlation  does not always equal causation

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aim to see the purpose of a study, not good target population = low validity

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research is described in term of its aim, procedure, results, and findings
researchers try to find a sample that represents a population (called a representative sample)

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1. A study is valid when the results represent what you are measuring for
2. A study is most reliable when it is easy to replicate

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- Loftus and palmer is about memory after event (Watch car crash happen then get question about crash)
- Reconstructive memory- bartlett discusses schema influences our cognitive processes, we are actually reconstructing our memories

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1. Snowball sampling would work when sample is hard to find.
2. Stratified sample makes diversity taken into account.

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A study consists of an aim, population, procedure, results, and findings. WEIRD stands for Western Educated Industrialized Rich Democratic.

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1. representative sample: sample that can be representative of a population
2. self-selective sample- sample consisting of volunteers; difficult to make generalizations

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this is about memory after an event

it proves that memory can be changed using leading questions

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aim: to study whether leading questions would affect memory of eyewitnesses at a real crime scene
-researchers contacted eyewitnesses 4 months after the event

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Researchers need to have a plan, people who are willing to participate in the study, and a method for collecting and analyzing data.

People who take part in a psychological study are called participants. Normally, psychologists define a target population - that is, a specific group of people whom they are interested in for their study

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its possible to plant a false memory, peoples memory can be manipulated post-event

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- he aim of the study was to determine whether leading questions would affect memory of eyewitnesses at a real crime scene.
- It was found that eyewitnesses were actually very reliable.

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1. Loftus and palmer is about memory after event
2. not representative of the whole population

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-participants were students

-confounding variables controlled so it can be replicated

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1) aim indicates which behaviour or cognitive process will be studied within a specific population
2)results - descriptive data that is obtained and processed

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had high ecological validity

cannot be replicated because it is based on a particular event that cannot be replicated

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Studying reconstructive memory. People tend to change details when they try to remember it.

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-naturalistic, cant be replicated because variables weren't controlled

-the quantification of the responses may be open to researcher bias

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1. Participants were students so may not be representative of the whole population
2. They changed the connotation of one word to create the leading questions

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Loftus and palmer is about memory after event

High standardization, low ecological validity

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1. There are two parts to the experiment.
2. The intensity of the verbs have effect of participants.

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demonstrated the reliability of memory, not standardized

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-expectancy effect, screw you effect, and social desirability effect are examples of demand characteristics

-null hypothesis must be proven wrong to prove hypothesis

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looks at manipulation of memory AFTER the event
people will claim they saw something they didn't based on how questions are asked (important effect for eyewitness testimonies!)

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It isn't a natural experiment. An emotional response played a key role in influence of question.

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1. standardization and manipulation of IV, but low ecological validity
2. "smashed" led to more responses to seeing broken glass even though there actually was one

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Emotional response played key role in implement of leading questions

It cannot be replicated or generalized bec variables were not controlled for

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high ecological value
not standardizable

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1. Responses were accurate
2. Emotional response played key role in implement of leading questions

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1. It is more similar to the second part of the Loftus& Palmer experiment.
2. No control variables, cannot be replicated.

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1. A real life crime scene was used
2. results showed that the leading questions had little affect

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this study can't be replicated or generalized because it was a one-off event
had more emotion than the one done in a lab

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Low ecological validity
easily standadizable

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-haphazard: neither random nor systematic

-results are numerical and descriptive data

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1. the eye witnesses were very reliable and they knew this because it matched the original polica date of the event
2. naturalistic, even though it was done in a lab, because they witnessed a real event first-hand

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1)

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Independant Variable, what the reasearches are changing on purpose
Dependant Variable changes as a result

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The more representative the more population validity
A study is reliable when it can be replicated and gives consistent results

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screw you effect: participant wants to ruin researchers hypothesis to ruin the study's credibility

participant variability: limitation of study if sample characteristics affect the dependent variable.

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When an experiment has placebo it means that both conditions have the same experiment
A Quasi experiment is when the researcher cannot assign people to conditions (they already come with their allocation based on a specific characteristic/trait)

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Quantitative research generates numerical data.

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Operationalized construct

How are you making what’s being studied measurable (percentage, number of times…).

The null hypothesis

Claims the IV won’t affect the DV; researchers try to disprove it.

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IV = variable that gets manipulated
DV = variable that is measured after manipulation of the IV

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Quantitative Research methods
1 Psychologist don't prove anything, they support or refute a hypothesis
2. BEFORE an experiment is informed a hypothesis must be made. However, an aim must be decided/created before the creation of a hypothesis.

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1) An experimental hypothesis is when you predict the relationship between an operationalized IV and DV
2) When causation is not established, there can be bidirectional ambiguity

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1. Psychologist don't "prove" anything; they either support or refute hypothesis
2. Variables must be fully operationalized in order for a study to have validity

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1. Dependent variable - the variable that produces results based on the Independent variable.
2. Independent variable - the variable that is manipulated to operationalize an experiment.

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A cause and effect relationship is formed by manipulating the IV

Demand Characteristics are also known as participant biases

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1. Participant Variability
-  is a limitation of a study when characteristics of the sample affect the dependent variable.
2. Research bias
- is when the experimenter sees that her or she is looking for.

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1. Weakness- Low ecological validity
2. Strength- IV is efficiently measured

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Evaluating Expirements
1. A variable that influences the results of an experiment is called an extraneous variable
2. Expectancy effect is when a participant acts a certain way because he wants to do what the researcher asks.

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expectancy effect - participants act in a certain way because its what the researcher wants them to do
screw you effect - participant tries to figure out the hypothesis to destroy the study's credibility

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A variable that influences the results of an experiment is called an extraneous variable.

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1. Standardized: easily replicated.
2. IV and DV must be operationalized.

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Counterbalancing proves its not the order than affects the results

Psychologist don't prove anything, they create and try to prove or refute a hypothesis

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1) When you extraneous variables are not controlled, it affects the internal validity of an experiment
2) Demand characteristics can affect the reliability of a study/experiment

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Both the independent and dependent variables must be operationalized (written in a way that shows exactly what is being measured)

There are two types of hypothesis: experimental and null

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Order effects: Changes in participants responses that result from the order in which experimental conditions are presented to them
P-hacking: when a researcher tries to find patterns in their collected data that can be presented as statistically significant without first posting a specific hypothesis

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Fact 1:
Psychologists don't prove anything, they disprove the null hypothesis.

Fact 2:
Natural experiments are a subset of quasi-experiments that have environmental IVs out of the researchers' control.

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Low ecological validity is easier to standardize