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While these studies did demonstrate correlations found within these factors, limitations were still present. When using self-reports, it can be argued that the results will not be as valid, however, researchers completed protocols following the self-reports, such as behavioral observations or focus groups, that contributed to the validation of their findings. It is clear that further research needs to be conducted in order to validate the correlations between one’s culture, food, and personality traits he or she may portray, and how they ultimately have an impact on the lives of each individual.

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The results from this study demonstrate that both the USA and the Chinese participants believed that sharing could have a positive influence on the mutual trust and intimacy between the sharer and recipient, despite whether non-food material, food, emotion, or information are being shared (Huang et al., 2021). Significantly, the results demonstrate empirical evidence for individual’s beliefs in regards to the positive influence of sharing foods on interpersonal relationships, which may possibly explain why food sharing while eating together is so common in daily life even though individuals may not have a social obligation to do so. The study also revealed that both the USA and the Chinese participants anticipated sharing food to have a more positive influence on mutual trust and intimacy than sharing non-food material, despite whether they were the sharers or the recipients of sharing (Huang et al., 2021). According to Huang et al., (2021), these results are in keeping with the literature that food sharing is frequently considered as a symbol of coordination and cooperation. Cross-cultural differences were also observed in this study. While the USA participants anticipated food sharing to have a more positive influence on mutual trust and intimacy than sharing information, Chinese participants did not demonstrate this trend (Huang et al., 2021). Overall, findings from this study propose certain cross-cultural variations in the individuals’ beliefs in regards to the influence of food sharing on interpersonal relationships.

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Study of Sharing Food Customs and Interpersonal Relationships among USA and Chinese Participants

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Study of Sharing Food Customs and Interpersonal Relationships among USA and Chinese Participants

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This study explores individual’s beliefs regarding the influence of sharing food, emotion, and information on interpersonal relationships when they were described as the recipient or the sharer. In the study, researchers tested two samples of participants, including individuals from the United States of America (USA) and those from mainland China (Huang et al., 2021). Participants included A total of 220 young adults from the USA, ranging from 18 to 30 years old, and 220 Chinese young adults, ranging from 18 to 26 years, were recruited to take part in this study. Chinese participants were enlisted from the participant pools of universities in three cities of mainland China, and they either received compensation for their participation or volunteered to take part in this study (Huang et al., 2021). Researchers had each participant complete a survey online using the Qualtrics database, with an English version of the survey being used for the USA participants and a Chinese version being used for the Chinese participants. The survey questions were verified by an English-Chinese bilingual research assistant to ensure that the English and Chinese versions are equivalent to one another. In order to explore the possible effect of sharing on interpersonal relationships, researchers created descriptions of sharing scenarios in which the participants shared non-food material, food, emotion, or information, with a roommate in a dormitory room or with a neighboring classmate in a classroom (Huang et al., 2021). The individuals in each country group were randomly selected into two groups of equal sizes, with half of the individuals responding to the dormitory room scenarios and the other half responding to the classroom scenarios.  Some of the scenarios included: (1) “in a classroom/dormitory room, you and a neighboring classmate/roommate shared your snack; ” (2) “in a classroom/dormitory room, you and a neighboring classmate/roommate shared your stationery; ” (3) “in a classroom/dormitory room, you shared with a neighboring classmate/roommate a piece of news you already know; ” and (4) “in a classroom/dormitory room, you shared your mood with a neighboring classmate/roommate.” (Huang et al., 2021). Once each participant read the brief description of each sharing scenario, each individual was asked to estimate the change of the mutual trust and intimacy between herself or himself and the sharing partner after such an event of sharing. To be specific, the participants were asked to rate the change on a 7-point scale, with 1 = becoming less trustful/intimate, 4 = no change at all, and 7 = becoming more trustful/intimate (Huang et al., 2021).

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Researchers found that individuals’ own cultural food customs were integral to their identities. Particularly, social interactions around food, both social eating and cultural events, were fundamental in the development of individuals’ ethnic and cultural identities (M. van Dam et al., 2020). While individual cultural food rituals are still preserved, cross-cultural food customs are also existent in the daily lives of Singaporeans. Participants become familiarized with traditional beliefs with reference to the healing natures of food, best methods for cooking, and integrate variety into their cuisine through the sharing of food customs traditionally associated with specific ethnic and racial groups in the country (M. van Dam et al., 2020). It seems that some women, in a multicultural society like Singapore, do not feel driven to maintain their cultural food traditions for fear of losing their racial and ethnic identities. Rather, cultural food traditions are undertaken in an effort to participate in certain cultural events, such as Chinese New Year or Ramadan (M. van Dam et al., 2020). According to M. van Dam et al., (2020), this may be because Singapore carries itself as a multicultural country that pays tribute to its diversity, and this is particularly visible in the recognition of Singapore as a food haven for cuisine from all over the world. Food customs in Singapore consequently aid in “the creation of a hybrid, superordinate identity - that of the Singaporean food identity” (M. van Dam et al., 2020). Considering that food is often at the core of intercultural contact, particularly in a country such as Singapore which proudly acknowledges its food diversity, the integration of various food traditions also leads to the formation and preservation of a strong national identity. Food serves as a communicative action that promotes the Singaporean identity and as a result, sharing food customs becomes a crucial part of one's daily life and identity (M. van Dam et al., 2020).

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Study of Food Customs and Identity among Singaporean Women

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Study of Food Customs and Identity among Singaporean Women

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This study entailed 18 focus groups with 130 participants, specifically, women ranging from 30 to 55 years old in Singapore (M. van Dam et al., 2020). Prior to focus group discussions, participants were asked to fill out a short questionnaire that evaluated education level, height, weight, and date of birth (M. van Dam et al., 2020). Researchers used a semi-structured interview protocol during the focus group discussions in an attempt to capture a broad range of experiences and views surrounding eating customs among Singaporean women. The interviews were led by three female professional group moderators, hired by the company, and had relevant involvement with moderating focus groups (M. van Dam et al., 2020). Focus group discussions were mainly conducted in English, however, moderators did switch to different Asian languages when and as requested by the participants. The discussions were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim, with English translations presented along with speech in the varied Asian languages. The Asian languages used were Mandarin, Tamil, and Malay, in addition to some Chinese dialects (M. van Dam et al., 2020). The transcripts derived from the focus groups were analysed both deductively and inductively using thematic analysis. According to M. van Dam et al., (2020), this analysis approach offers considerable contributions to the study of health as it provides flexibility in research models and allows for a deeper understanding of health through a well rounded interpretation of individuals’ conversations.

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According to Shack (1969), the following common personality characteristics of the Gurage seem to be correlated to the nutritional system:

Selfishness

The Gurage of Ethiopia carefully calculate the level of reciprocity that can be anticipated from any output of energy.

Emotional Detachment

The emotional gap between offspring and parents is conveyed through their relationships, as they are mainly verbalized with regard to mutual obligations.

Feelings of Worthlessness

The Gurage of Ethiopia demand continuous verbal assurance that their staple food, their mode of life, their land, and their material culture overall are just as good as those of any other Ethiopian people.

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Child-Feeding Practices within the Gurage Culture

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Child-Feeding Practices within the Gurage Culture

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While Gurage children eat with adults during daily mealtimes, they are always fed last with whatever the adults leave behind. There is also unbalanced treatment present in regards to the way that the children are fed. It is customary that brothers are fed before their sisters and are not required, nor expected, to share their food with their sisters (Shack, 1969). However, there is an obvious change in eating habits when a boy reaches the age of 18, the ideal age for marriage. A boy, in compliance with cultural norms, survives on a minimal diet, while as a food producer, a man is able to determine within economic and social limits how much crop he will grow, when he would eat, and how much food he will consume (Shack, 1969). Along with the children being underfed, the Gurage cultural norms of feeding can lead to the progression of anxiety over nutrition, which is exhibited in behaviors and attitudes toward food. According to Shack (1969), there is evidence of a close relation between the status ranking of Gurage women within the wider society and the family, and child-feeding customs generally. This association takes on special meaning for Gurage boys, who seem to develop more anxiety over food than girls do. This may be related to the males dependency upon women for the preparation of their meals, as it would be revolting to a Gurage man to prepare his own food under any circumstance (Shack, 1969).

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Study of Personality Traits and Eating Patterns within Estonian Culture

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Study of Personality Traits and Eating Patterns within Estonian Culture

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This study explores the correlation between one’s dietary habits and his or her personality traits in Estonian culture. Along with providing blood samples and completing a medical questionnaire, the researchers asked participants to complete a self-report, a version of a comprehensive personality test, and have a knowledgeable informant also complete the same questionnaire. In order to measure personality, the study uses the Five Factor Model, which consists of Openness, Extraversion, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness and Agreeableness (Andres et al., 2012). The sample included 1,691 participants, of whom 715 were men and 976 were women, ranging from 18 to 89 years old. Of these participants, 178 individuals had lower secondary education, 425 had secondary education, and 668 had a higher education and/or a degree (Andres et al., 2012). Participants’ dietary patterns were measured by having the individuals rate the amount of consumption of 13 food items such as porridge, potatoes, bread, rice, fish, dairy products, fruits, vegetables, cereals, and meat, during the previous week. Researchers used the term "health aware" diet which consists of fruits, vegetables, fish, and cereal products, while the term "traditional" diet consists of bread, potatoes, and meat products. A 4-point scale was used for ratings from 0 (never), 1 (1-2 days), 2 (3-5 days) to 3 (6-7 days) (Andres et al., 2012).

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According to Andres et al. (2012), Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Openness, and Neuroticism are stable predictors of health outcomes. The study found that individuals higher in Conscientiousness, Openness, and Extraversion and lower in Neuroticism were more probable to endorse a “health aware” diet. However, individuals lower in Openness were more probable to endorse a “traditional” diet (Andres et al., 2012). These relations were recognized when controlling for educational level, gender, and age, as these factors also contributed to one’s dietary patterns. While older, less educated individuals and men are more likely to endorse a “traditional” diet, older, more educated individuals and women are more likely to endorse a “health aware” diet (Andres et al., 2012). According to Andres et al., (2012), there is increasing evidence in regards to individuals’ levels of intellectual and cultural curiosity and openness to his or her dietary preferences, with more open individuals being willing to endorse a newer, and often healthier, dietary pattern and less open individuals more often continuing to adhere to traditional or convenient dietary habits.

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Mõttus, R., Realo, A., Allik, J., Deary, I. J., Esko, T., Metspalu,  A. (2012). Personality traits and eating habits in a large sample of Estonians. Health Psychology, 31(6), 806–814. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027041

Reddy, G., & van Dam, R. M. (2020). Food, culture, and identity in Multicultural Societies: Insights from Singapore. Appetite, 149, 104633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2020.104633

Shack, D. N. (1969). Nutritional processes and personality development among the gurage of Ethiopia. Ethnology, 8(3), 292.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3772758

Wang, C., Huang, J., & Wan, X. (2021). A cross-cultural study of beliefs about the influence of food sharing on interpersonal relationships and food choices. Appetite, 161, 105129.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2021.105129

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Various researchers have studied the hypothesized correlations between one's culture, food, and personality characteristics that he or she may exhibit. My project reviews studies that explore these correlations and the ways in which cross-cultural psychology can deepen one’s understanding of these associations through the study of Estonians, the Gurage people of Ethiopia, Singapore, and China.

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Sharing food is a practice that nearly all humans have in common, and carries out a vital role in the sequence of the progression of human society. In various cultures, having a meal together with other individuals is customary and highly favored whereas eating alone is frequently stigmatized and perceived as a sign of loneliness (Huang, Wan, & Wang, 2021). Eating together, without sharing foods, can signify the social interactions between individuals. In comparison to sharing non-food material, distributing food may impose a more substantial impact on interpersonal relationships, most likely because foods frequently encode feelings of health, love, nurturance, and happiness (Huang et al., 2021). Additionally, eating is a process of welcoming outside substances into an individual’s body, both sharing foods and receiving another individual’s sharing of foods lead to the risk of contamination, for example, the risk of exposing oneself to possibly harmful germs from other people. Consequently, accepting someone else's sharing of foods may essentially require a deeper level of trust and closeness than accepting other types of sharing (Huang et al., 2021).

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Through interviews and focus groups, researchers were able to explore the various ways in which one’s perspective of food is shaped by his or her culture and how it has relevance to other aspects of their life, such as preservation of identity. The Social Identity Approach identifies the various ways that social identity processes are fundamental to an accurate understanding of well-being and health (M. van Dam & Reddy, 2020). Identities allow an individual to understand and figure out who he or she is and can assist in maintaining one’s well-being, especially if the identity is important and meaningful to the individual. The Social Identity Theory proposes that individuals are, partially, motivated to identify themselves as group members based on the need for positive self-esteem (M. van Dam et al., 2020). Food and food practices therefore become a communication tool for individuals, and the preservation of types of eating patterns are consequently part of that group’s social identity (M. van Dam et al., 2020).

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Through a long period of observation, researchers attempted to gain a broader understanding of the ways in which food, in the Gurage culture, comes to have a greater meaning than that in the nutritional scope and by implying that certain exhibitions of Gurage personality are associated with their nutritional system (Shack, 1969). The Gurage people, inhabited in Southwest Ethiopia, are extremely reliant on ensete edulis, their staple food crop. Known as the “false banana plant”, ensete edulis is their primary source of food and is produced in large quantities by each Gurage homestead (Shack, 1969).

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Traditional Estonian cuisine, in the early 20th century, was based on a limited amount of food such as pork, rye bread, potatoes, dairy products, and fish. While the eating habits of contemporary Estonians are more influenced by varied socio-cultural developments, the food is often based on their traditional cuisine (Andres, Anu, Ian J, Jüri, René, & Tõnu, 2012).