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Climate Effects on Early North American Culture

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Climate Effects on Early North American Culture

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The gradual changes in the climate of North America greatly affected the way groups developed technology and culture.

The Paleoindian period was marked by significantly more Tundra plants, though summers remained dry and forest fires were not uncommon.

During the Archaic period, fewere Tundra plant species were discovered, most notably more oak trees and less pine trees. In the later stage of the Arhaic period, summers were characterized by less fires, more rain, and an increasing variety of non-tundra foliage including hemlock, beech, and hickory trees.

Human Culture Evolution:
These changes in climate were important factors in food abundance, and the transitions between climates altered many ecosystems, resulting in uncertainty as to when seasonal resources would be available. This ultimately caused a variety of resource gathering methods, technology, and population size.

Source:
Weise, Elizabeth. "Climate Shifts Changed Paleo-Indian Cultures." USA Today. December 7, 2010. Accessed August 6, 2016. http://content.usatoday.com/communities/sciencefair/post/2010/12/climate-shifts-changed-paleo-indian-cultures/1#.V6eQyugrJhE

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11000 - 7000 BC
The methods used by late Paleoindian groups to obtain food as well as the types of food they consistently used began to expand as the environment around them changed.  During the bison population boom on the plains, humans used these animals as their primary food source, but as the abundance of these animals began to dwindle they turned to the forests, which offered a wider variety of plants and game, including rabbits, deer, and seed-bearing plants. Furthermore, in order to harvest more of these plant-based food sources, the use of ground-stone tools as well as other tools such as baskets and cordage made from plant fiber began to appear more frequently.

Human Culture Evolution:
This increased variety in their diets by eating from all levels of the food chain indicates the increased resourcefulness of hunter-gatherers in using tools, as well as the start of some of these groups settling down rather than being on the move.

Source:
"Origins of Food-Producing Economies in the Americas" The Human Past, edited by Chris Scarre, 307-312. 3rd ed. London: Thames and Hudson.

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7000 BC - 400 AD
The Archaic period is the time frame in which the peoples of North America began to incorporate agricultural practices, including irrigation and the first use of crops for food production.

Most notably are the remains of a Late Archaic community in southern Arizona, where archaeologists came across irrigation canals which were found to be dated as early as 1700 BC. These canals were most likely used to water the first farming crops that began to spread from central Mexico, which included maize and squash.

Human Culture Evolution:
These technological advances in both tools and food gathering methods marks the beginning of agricultural production rather than strictly relying on hunting and foraging.

Source:
"Origins of Food-Producing Economies in the Americas" The Human Past, edited by Chris Scarre, 316-317. 3rd ed. London: Thames and Hudson.

Image Source:
http://tucson.com/news/blogs/scientific-bent/the-early-gastronomes-of-tucson/article_a590ea11-2768-53d2-ad77-df54a5ce6516.html

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The first sign of domesticated animals began to appear during the Archaic Era, most notably the turkey and the dog. The earliest use of turkeys was found to be around 800 BC, primarily for ceremonial purposes, where the bones would be used as ceremonial whistles and the feathers used to make prayers sticks and masks, among other things. By 1000 AD, they were also an important source of food.  On the other hand, the oldest remains of dogs were found to be dated as early as 8000 BC, though the most well-known canine populations were found to be dated between 5000 and 1200 BC. Dogs were seen as great companions, and often times aided in hunting large animals.

Human Culture Evolution:
The domestication of animals shows the gradual shift in perspective from humans seeing animals solely as a source of food, to the domestication of some species and using them for a variety of different reasons besides food.

Source:
"Origins of Food-Producing Economies in the Americas" The Human Past, edited by Chris Scarre, 320-326. 3rd ed. London: Thames and Hudson.

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800 BC - 400 AD

The early and middle Woodland Period was a period of time in which the first signs of new social relationships were being formed. These mounds were an important part of ceremonial events, in which the deceased would be buried along with beautifully crafted artifacts.

Food production also became much more common in settlements. Not only did the diversity of crops grow, but the heavy reliance on these cultivated plants allowed for large surpluses that eliminated the need to constantly be foraging for food.

Human Culture Evolution:
The transition from humans simply burying their dead to holding these intricate ceremonies show the increasing social complexity with which these populations took on. Furthermore, increased food availability allowed humans to settle down rather than be forced to be on the move to find food.

Source:
"Complex Societies of North America" The Human Past, edited by Chris Scarre, 681-684. 3rd ed. London: Thames and Hudson.

Image Source:
http://ohsweb.ohiohistory.org/gallery2/main.php?g2_itemId=598

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The Adena Mounds are the best known burial mound building structures during the Woodland Period. As shown in the graphic above, these mounds sometimes reached up to 19 meters high, and were used to bury several of the deceased. At first, the bodies were simply buried with special ornaments, but as the burial process grew more complex, bodies were somtimes painted with bright colors and accompanied by both food and ornaments.

Human Culture Evolution:
The transition from humans simply burying their dead to holding intricate burial ceremonies show the increasing social complexity with which these populations took on.

Source:
"An Introduction to North America's Native People: Adena." Native Peoples of North America. Accessed August 07, 2016. http://www.cabrillo.edu/~crsmith/adena.html.

Image Source:
http://touringohio.com/history/adena-culture.html

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700 - 1450 AD
These two time periods were a time of a transition from scattered settlements and houses into more condensed living areas. Small clusters of houses were arranged around plazas or mounds, and several of these would be closely spaced. Some villages had peak populations of 1000-2000 people. These large populations allowed for increasingly complex irrigation systems, which helped to feed the people living in the villages.

Human Culture Evolution:
The development of these large permanent villages marked the end of hunter-gatherer societies and the emergence of the first complex societies reliant on agriculture.

Source:
"Complex Societies of North America" The Human Past, edited by Chris Scarre, 692-694. 3rd ed. London: Thames and Hudson.

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Several excavations of Preclassic period sites have revealed large oval fields that have been dug downwards. These fields were generally used to play the Mesoamerican ball game, which involved striking a rubber ball through a stone ring. In most cases these games were for leisure, but some games were big events in which a chief or king of the village hosted emissaries from other villages.
Aside from being used for games, these fields were also known to have been places with great cosmological significance, and appear to have been associated with human sacrifice.

Human Culture Evolution:
The Hokoham ball courts served as an area for community events and entertainment, something which serves as an indicator of social growth. People living in the Paleoindian times would never have had the time nor means to be able to "play games" as they would be too busy hunting and foraging for food, but the people of the villages of the Preclassic period did because of the cooperation of their society allowing for more free time.

Sources:
"Mesoamerican Civilization" The Human Past, edited by Chris Scarre, 599. 3rd ed. London: Thames and Hudson.

"Complex Societies of North America" The Human Past, edited by Chris Scarre, 693. 3rd ed. London: Thames and Hudson.

Image Source:
http://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/phoenix/2014/12/20/phoenixs-mountains-religious-sites-valley-tribes/20712065/

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900 - 1140 AD
This time frame, known as the Bonito Phase, was marked by the unique culture and complex social organization of the Chacoans. In particular, the advanced architectural techniques used to build the great houses they constructed during this time period. These great houses were large stone buildings that contained hundreds of rooms and reached up to four stories in height.

By 1050 AD Chaco had become a crucial economic and social powerhouse of the San Juan Basin. The center of this great settlement was connected by roads to other great houses interspersed throughout the region.

Human Culture Evolution:
The great houses by themselves exemplify the immense cooperation that humans had developed by that time. At least 200,000 wooden beams were used to construct these, and these beams were brought to Chaco as far as 100 kilometers away. Furthermore, to build these required a huge labor cost and an intricate building method that may imply the beginnings of putting in labor beyond simply trying to survive.

Sources:
United States. National Park Service. "The Center of Chacoan Culture." National Parks Service. Accessed August 07, 2016. https://www.nps.gov/chcu/learn/historyculture/index.htm.

"Complex Societies of North America" The Human Past, edited by Chris Scarre, 697-698. 3rd ed. London: Thames and Hudson.

Image Source:
http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/gallery/numex007.htm#.V6eFS-grJhF

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The arrival of groups from several different countries in Europe completely changed the lives of the Native-Americans for both the better and worse.

Explorers from France and Russia were mainly interested in trading with Native Americans, particularly their furs. On the other hand, the English and American Explorers wanted the land for themselves, meaning they would have to fight the Native-Americans for it.

The Arrival of European explorers also brought many diseases that the Native-Americans had not developed an immunity for. Aside from the casualties of war and forced relocations, diseases such as small-pox and measles decimated Native-American populations.

Human Culture Evolution:
This clash of two very different worlds signify the beginning of Native North American cultures interacting with the outside world. In some cases, such as with the French and Russians, interactions were more or less benign, and trade was the highlight of these interactions. However, the Natives also had to deal with disease and war that was brought on by the Eruopeans.

Source:
"Complex Societies of North America" The Human Past, edited by Chris Scarre, 711-712. 3rd ed. London: Thames and Hudson.